CHAPTER 5

ROAD LAWS AND ACTS

• Identify the purpose of drafting of the environmental
quality act 1974.
• Explain the environmental quality act 1974 from the
aspect of air pollution resulting from motorized vehicles.
• Explain the environmental quality act 1974 from the
aspect of sound pollution resulting from motorized
vehicles.
 video

Is traffic congestion
damaging the
environment?
 – The purpose of drafting the Environmental Quality
Act 1974
• Tujuan akta ini ialah untuk;
• mencegah,
• menghapus,
• mengawal pencemaran serta
• membaiki alam sekeliling dan
• hal-hal yang berkaitan dengannya.
 Environmental impact of transport

• The environmental impact of transport is

significant because it is a major user of energy,
and burns most of the world's petroleum.
• This creates air pollution, including nitrous oxides
and particulates, and is a significant contributor
to global warming through emission of carbon
dioxide, for which transport is the fastest-growing
emission sector.
• By subsector, road transport is the largest
contributor to global warming
• Environmental regulations in developed countries have
reduced the individual vehicles emission; however, this
has been offset by an increase in the number of
vehicles, and more use of each vehicle.
• Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of
road vehicles considerably have been studied.
• Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes,
causing environmentalists to call for a transition from
air and road to rail and human-powered transport, and
increase transport electrification and energy efficiency.
• Other environmental impacts of transport
systems include traffic congestion and
automobile-oriented urban sprawl, which can
consume natural habitat and agricultural
lands.
• By reducing transportation emissions globally,
it is predicted that there will be significant
positive effects on Earth's air quality, acid rain,
smog and climate change.
• The health impact of transport emissions is
also of concern.
• A recent survey of the studies on the effect of
traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has
linked exposure to emissions to adverse
effects on gestational duration and possibly
also intrauterine growth.
 Cars
• Unleaded gasoline has 8.91 kg and diesel has 10.15 kg of
CO2 per gallon.
• CO2 emissions originating from ethanol are disregarded by
international agreements however so gasoline containing
10% ethanol would only be considered to produce 8.02 kg
of CO2 per gallon.
• The average fuel economy for cars sold in the US 2005 was
about 25.2 MPG giving around .35 kg of CO2 per mile.
• The Department of Transportation's MOBILE 6.2 model,
used by regional governments to model air quality, uses a
fleet average (all cars, old and new) of 20.3 mpg giving
around .44 kg of CO2 per mile.
 Buses
• On average, inner city commuting buses emit
.3 kg of CO2 per passenger mile (.18 kg/km per
passenger), and long distance (>20 mi, >32 km)
bus trips emit .08 kg of CO2 per passenger mile
(.05 kg/km per passenger).
• Road and transportation conditions vary, so some
carbon calculations add 10% to the total distance
of the trip to account for potential traffic jams,
detours, and pit-stops that may arise.
 Rail
• On average, commuter rail and subway trains emit
.16 kg of CO2 per passenger mile (.26 kg/km per
passenger), and long distance (>20 mi, >32 km) trains
emit .19 kg of CO2 per passenger mile (.3 kg/km per
passenger).
• Some carbon calculations add 10% to the total trip
distance to account for detours, stop-overs, and other
issues that may arise.
• Electric trains contributes relatively less to the
pollution as pollution happens in the power plants
which are lot more efficient than diesel driven engines.
 Shipping

• The fleet emission average for delivery vans,

trucks and big rigs is 10.17 kg CO2 per gallon
of diesel consumed. Delivery vans and trucks
average about 7.8 mpg (or 1.3 kg of CO2 per
mile) while big rigs average about 5.3 mpg (or
1.92 kg of CO2 per mile).
 – The Environmental Quality Act 1974 from the aspect of air pollution
resulting from motorized vehicles
• Peraturan-peraturan yang berkaitan dengan jalan adalah seperti berikut:-
• Peraturan-peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Kawalan Kepekatan Plumbum
dalam Gasolin Motor) 1985.
• Sekatan mengimport atau mengilang gasolin motor dengan kandungan
plumbum melebihi 0.4gram/liter.
• Sekatan memiliki gasolin motor mengandungi plumbum melebihi
0.4gram/liter selepas 1 Januari 1986.
• Sekatan mengimport, mengilang, memiliki gasolin motor dengan kandungan
• Tidak dibenarkan mengguna atau menyebabkan kereta mengeluarkan asap
dengan ketumpatan melebihi 50 Unit Asap Hartridge atau setanding
dengannya.
• Carta Asap Ringelmann boleh digunakan di samping carta
Hartridge/Ringelmann untuk memeriksa ketumpatan pelepasan asap.
• Had asap – maksimum ketumpatan asap kekaburan yang boleh diterima bagi
apa-apa jua isipadu yang dilepaskan kenderaan oleh sesuatu kereta motor
pada bila-bila masa di tempat punca atau hampir dengan punca tempat
pelepasan asap.
 The Environmental Quality Act 1974 from the aspect of sound pollution
resulting from motorize vehicles

• Paras bunyi maksimum yang dikeluarkan oleh

kenderaan motor dua atau tiga roda yang
dipasang dan dikilang selepas 1 Januari 1990,
ialah paras bagi standard B :
• Kurang dari 90cc 92 dB(A)
• 90cc dan lebih 95 dB(A)
• Paras maksimum yang boleh dikeluarkan oleh
kenderaan melebihi 3 roda ialah seperti di
dalam standard C (Sila rujuk Akta)
 – The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Report
requirement on transport vehicles
• Perintah ini mula berkuatkuasa pada 1 April 1988.
• Penilaian kesan alam sekeliling (Enviromental Impact
Assesment-EIA) ialah kajian untuk mengenalpasti,
meramal, menilai dan menyampaikan maklumat
berkenaan kesan ke atas alam sekeliling bagi projek
cadangan dan untuk memperincikan langkah-langkah
pengawalan (mitigating measures) sebelum sesuatu
projek dibenarkan dan dilaksanakan.
• EIA ialah alat perancangan untuk mengelak masalah-
masalah alam sekeliling dan sesuatu tindakan.
• Untuk mengelak kesilapan-kesilapan yang mahal
disebabkan kerosakan alam sekeliling semasa
pembinaan atau disebabkan perubahan-perubahan
yang perlu diambil supaya projek itu boleh diterima.
• Aktiviti-aktiviti yang perlu dilakukan EIA yang berkaitan
dengan pengangkutan dan pembinaan jalan ialah:-
• Lapangan Terbang
– Pembinaan lapangan terbang (landasan 2,500m atau lebih).
– Landasan di kawasan taman negeri/negara.
• Infrastruktur
– Pembinaan expressway.
– Pembinaan national highways.
• Kuari
– Dalam lingkungan 8km dari kawasan perumahan,
perdagangan atau perindustrian.
• Jalan Keretapi
– Pembinaan laluan baru.
– Pembinaan laluan cabang.
• Pengangkutan – Mass Rapid Transport System
 The Issue of Transport and the Environment
• Transportation is a dominant source of emission of most
pollutants and their multiple impacts on the environment.
• These impacts fall within three categories:
• Direct impacts. The immediate consequence of transport
activities on the environment where the cause and effect
relationship is generally clear and well understood.
• Indirect impacts. The secondary (or tertiary) effects of
transport activities on environmental systems. They are
often of higher consequence than direct impacts, but the
involved relationships are often misunderstood and difficult
to establish.
• Cumulative impacts. The additive, multiplicative or
synergetic consequences of transport activities. They take
into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect
impacts on an ecosystem, which are often unpredicted.
The Environmental System
The Environmental Impacts of Transportation

Atmosphere

•Large scale diffusion of pollutants.

•High growth on a short term basis of the concentration of
pollutants because of local conditions (e.g. smog).
•Photochemical reactions caused by ultraviolet rays, notably over
ozone, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
•Climatic changes (unproven).
•Acid rain.
•Synergetic and cumulative effects when pollutants are combined
(e.g. smog and greenhouse gases).
The Environmental Impacts of Transportation
Hydrosphere
•Diffusion of pollutants in a dissolved or colloidal state.
•Acidification and loss of neutralizing potential of ground and
underground water.
•Drops of pH following snow melting (aquatic organism are
particularly vulnerable).
•Growth in the solubility of several metals because of acidification.
•Additions of organic compounds, aluminum, manganese, calcium,
magnesium and potassium by runoffs.
•Contamination of ground and underground water by nitrates.
•Modifications of hydrological systems by the construction and
maintenance of infrastructure.
The Environmental Impacts of Transportation

Lithosphere
•Acid depositions.
•Liberation of toxic metallic ions (aluminum, cadmium, etc.) through
acidification.
•Loss of nutrients, notably calcium and magnesium.
•Inhibition of the mineralization of nitrogen.
•Modifications in the compositions and the depth of decomposition gradient.
•Inhibition of decomposition.
•Loss of the soil flora and fauna.
•Fixation by plants of heavy metals (e.g. lead) and contamination.
•Removal and consumption of land.
•Extraction of raw materials like mineral products and energy.
The Environmental Impacts of Transportation
Ecosphere
•AQUATIC ECOSPHERE
• Alteration of ecosystems in unforeseeable ways.
• Disappearance of vulnerable species and proliferation of tolerant ones.
• Reduction of bacterial treatment of organic matter by nitrification.
• Reduction of available nutrients to aquatic species.
• Reproductive impediments.
•LAND ECOSPHERE
• Damages over the vegetation modifying: hydric cycles, the level of underground water
resources, soil erosion, air purification capacity of the ecosphere, food sources (agriculture)
and entertainment and tourism potential.
• Reduction of the vital space.
• Reduction of the genetic potential of species.
• Reduction of the food supply and alteration of the food chain.
• Consumption of resources.
•HUMAN ECOSPHERE
• Odors.
• Noise.
• Cardiovascular and respiratory problems.
• Susceptibility to infection.
• Drops in life expectancy.
• Injuries, incapacity, hospitalization, death.
• Damage to structures: loss of useful life. (amortization) loss of property values, corrosion of
metal structures (bronze, steel, etc.) destruction of historical and cultural monuments.
Environmental Costs Hierarchy
Cost Type Implications
Material, labor, other expenses, and revenues that
Internal are commonly allocated to a product or process. Can
easily be quantified (internalized).
Expenses incurred by and benefits to the firm that are
Compliance not related to products or processes. Mostly concern
compliance to regulations.
Potential liability or benefit that depends on the
Contingent
occurrence of a future event. Assessed as a risk.
Image / Costs/benefits related to the subjective perceptions
relationship of a firms stakeholders.
Costs/benefits of a companys impacts upon the
External environment and society that do not directly accrue
to the business. Difficult to quantify (externalized).
Estimated Automobile Costs, 2005
Source: Litman, T. (2006) "Transportation Market
Distortions", Berkeley Planning Journal, Volume 19,
p.23.
The costs of using the automobile can be
divided in three categories:
Internal variable costs. These costs vary
according to the amount of travel. They
include vehicle operation, fuel and travel
time.
Internal fixed costs. Mainly related to
the vehicle ownership and parking
fees. Also include depreciation,
insurance, finance charge, license fee,
etc.
External costs. Not assumed by
individual users but by the collectivity.
They mainly involve road provision
costs.
The cost of owning and operating a car
was estimated to be around 40 cents
per passenger-km in 1996. Of these 40
cents, 25 cents are related to internal
variable costs, while 15 cents to
internal fixed costs. External costs
were about 20 cents per passenger-km
(32% of total costs).
Environmental Dimensions of Transportation

Source: EPA.
Transportation Activities Affecting the Environment
Transportation and the Carbon Cycle
Transportation Systems and the Environment
Spatial and Durational Environmental Effects
Environmental Externalities of Transportation
Contribution of
Field Types of Pollutants Possible Measures
Transportation
Ozone, Smog, Loss of useful life
Structures and
Particulates, Acid Replacement and
infrastructure
rain restoration costs
Carbon monoxide,
Sulfur Dioxide, Vehicle emissions;
Nitrogen Oxides, CO2 (30%), CO (70-
Men-hours-wage
Labor productivity HC/VOC, 90%), SO2 (5%), NOx
losses
Particulates, Ozone, (45-50%), HC/VOC
Smog, Lead, Odors, (40-50%),
Noise Particulates (25%),
Carbon monoxide, O3 (indirect), Smog
Sulfur dioxide, (indirect), Acid rain
Nitrogen oxides, (10-30%), CFCs Output/surface
Agricultural HC/VOC, (20%), Lead (30%) decrease
productivity Particulates, Ozone, Biomass restoration
Acid rain, CFCs time losses
(indirect),
Greenhouse effect
Environmental Externalities of Transportation
Contribution of
Field Types of Pollutants Possible Measures
Transportation
Fishing and
Output/volume
commercial
Air pollution decrease
extraction
fallouts, Marine Lost revenues from
vessels discharges recreational fishing
Vehicle emissions,
and spills, De-icing
Recreational During transport,
of infrastructure,
facilities Infrastructure Drop of attendance
Runoffs,
(dredging: 80%) Loss in rent values
Construction and
maintenance of
Water purification
infrastructure Treatment costs
Inspection costs
Environmental Externalities of Transportation
Types of Contribution of Possible
Field
Pollutants Transportation Measures
Marine vessels
discharges and During
spills, Accidental transport; Road
and intentional (84.1%), Rail Cleanup costs
Accidents / Spills
releases (12.5%), Air Relocation costs
(Hazmat) (3.2%) and
Maritime (0.1%)

Vehicle
Loss of rent
emissions; Road
Property values Noise value per
(70%), Rail (10%)
decibel
and Air (20%)
Environmental Externalities of Transportation
Contribution of
Field Types of Pollutants Possible Measures
Transportation
Carbon monoxide, Health services
Sulphur Dioxide, costs
Nitrogen Oxides, Vehicle emissions, Loss of life
Public Health
HC/VOC, During transport expectancy
Particulates, Ozone,
Smog, Lead, Noise
Biological diversity
and sustainability
Loss of water
regeneration /
Vehicle emissions, purification by
Damage to the
All the above During transport, wetland
ecosystem
Infrastructure Contamination of
local environments
Loss of living areas
due to high noise
levels
Estimated Air Pollutants Emitted by Highway Transportation in the
United States, 1970-2008

carbon monoxide, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)
 Externalities of Air Pollution
Type Field Possible Measures
Loss of useful life (amortization)
Structures and
infrastructure
Replacement and restoration costs

Labor productivity Men-hours-wage losses

Economic Costs
Output/surface decrease
Agricultural
productivity Biomass (e.g. timber) restoration
time losses

Medical services costs

Social Costs Public health
Loss of life expectancy
Environmental
Damage to ecosystems Biological diversity and sustainability
Costs
Externalities of Water Pollution
Type Field Possible Measures

Fishing and Output/volume decrease

commercial extraction Lost revenues from recreational fishing

Attendance decrease
Economic Costs Recreational facilities
Loss in rent values
Treatment costs
Water purification
Inspection costs
Accidents/Spills Cleanup costs
Health services costs
Social Costs Public Health
Loss of life expectancy
Losses in biological diversity and
sustainability
Environmental Damage to
Costs ecosystems Loss of water regeneration /
purification by wetland
Noise Levels from Different Sources
 Externalities of Noise Pollution
Type Field Possible Measure

Loss in rent value

Economic Costs Property values
per decibel

Health services
Social Costs Public health
costs

Loss of living
Environmental Damage to
areas due to high
Costs ecosystems
noise levels
Major Oil Spills Since 1967
Ship Name Year Location Spill Size (Tons)
Off Tobago, West
Atlantic Empress 1979 287,000
Indies
700 nautical miles
ABT Summer 1991 260,000
off Angola
Off Saldanha Bay,
Castillo de Bellver 1983 252,000
South Africa
Amoco Cadiz 1978 Off Brittany, France 223,000
Haven 1991 Genoa, Italy 144,000
700 nautical miles
Odyssey 1988 off Nova Scotia, 132,000
Canada
Torrey Canyon 1967 Scilly Isles, UK 119,000
Sea Star 1972 Gulf of Oman 115,000
Navarino Bay,
Irenes Serenade 1980 100,000
Greece
Major Oil Spills Since 1967
Spill Size
Ship Name Year Location
(Tons)
Urquiola 1976 La Coruna, Spain 100,000
300 nautical miles off
Hawaiian Patriot 1977 95,000
Honolulu
Independenta 1979 Bosphorus, Turkey 95,000
Jakob Maersk 1975 Oporto, Portugal 88,000
Braer 1993 Shetland Islands, UK 85,000
120 nautical miles off
Khark 5 1989 80,000
Atlantic coast of Morocco
Aegean Sea 1992 La Coruna, Spain 74,000
Sea Empress 1996 Milford Haven, UK 72,000
Katina P 1992 Off Maputo, Mozambique 72,000
Off Kharg Island, Gulf of
Nova 1985 70,000
Iran
Prestige 2002 Off Galicia, Spain 63,000
Prince William Sound,
Exxon Valdez 1989 37,000
Alaska, USA
Externalities of Hazardous Materials
Possible
Type Field
Measures
Cleanup costs
Economic Costs Accidents/Spills
Relocation costs

Health services
Social Costs Public health
costs

Environmental Damage to Contamination of

Costs ecosystems local environment
Hazardous Materials Accidents in the United
States, 1975-2005
Geographical Scales of the Environmental Externalities of
Transportation
Local Scale Regional Scale Global Scale
Climate Change (Carbon
Noise and vibrations
Acid rain and acid dioxide, CFCs)
depositions
Ozone layer depletion
Carbon monoxide, Odors
(CFCs)
Reduction of fossil fuel
Smog, Nitrogen oxides, HC/VOC, Particulates, lead
reserves
Sulfur dioxide, Ozone
Accidental and intentional
releases
Fallouts
De-icing of infrastructure, Runoffs
Marine vessels discharges and spills
Construction and maintenance of infrastructure
 Controlling Air Pollution from Motor
Vehicles
• Motor vehicles are significant sources of
pollution that can damage the environment
and pose public health issues. Everyone has a
stake in limiting pollution.
 How Vehicle Pollution Harms the
Environment and Health
• Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons are released when
fuel is burned in an internal combustion engine and when air/fuel
residuals are emitted through the vehicle tailpipe. Gasoline vapors also
escape into the atmosphere during refueling and when fuel vaporizes from
engines and fuel systems caused by vehicle operation or hot weather.
• The pollutants in vehicle emissions are known to damage lung tissue, and
can lead to and aggravate respiratory diseases, such as asthma. Motor
vehicle pollution also contributes to the formation of acid rain and adds to
the greenhouse gases that cause climate change.
• Pollutants emitted directly from vehicles are not the only cause for
concern. On warm, sunny days, hydrocarbons react with oxides of nitrogen
to create a secondary pollutant, ozone. In many urban areas, motor
vehicles are the single largest contributor to ground-level ozone which is a
common component of smog. Ozone causes coughing, wheezing and
shortness of breath, and can bring on permanent lung damage, making it a
cause of crucial public health problems.
 Zero-Emission Vehicles
• Zero-emission vehicles include
battery-electric vehicles, plug-in
hybrid-electric vehicles, and
hydrogen fuel-cell-electric
vehicles. These technologies can
be used in passenger cars, trucks
and transit buses.
• New York and seven other states
joined together in an initiative to
put 3.3 million zero-emission
vehicles on the road by 2025. A
Memorandum of Understanding
outlines the steps these states
will take to expand consumer
awareness and demand for zero-
emission vehicles.
 Innovative Solution

SOLARROAD
SOLAR CYCLE LANE
WAYS
embedded
aHoverboard with solar
smart, microprocessing,
– a type
energy-harvesting
panels that could surface
of skateboard that
that generatesproduce
potentially power,
levitates
adjusts like aormagic
to heat cold, and
enough electricity to
carpet
lights up roadways with
power three houses.
LEDs

48
Battery Electric Vehicle
 Hydrogen fuel-cell-electric vehicles
Fuel cell vehicles: not just eco-cars
In addition to excellent environmental credentials, fuel cell vehicles
are fun to drive, and also offer convenience and performance.
 Biofuels

Biofuels are energy sources made from

living things, or the waste that living
things produce. Supporters of biofuels
argue that their use could significantly
reduce greenhouse gas emissions; while
burning the fuels produces carbon
dioxide, growing the plants or biomass
removes carbon diozide from the
atmosphere.
 Natural Gas Vehicle
• A natural gas
vehicle (NGV) is an
alternative fuel
vehicle that uses
compressed natural
gas (CNG) or
liquefied natural gas
(LNG) as a cleaner
alternative to other
fossil fuels.
 Reducing Vehicle Pollution

• Proper maintenance of car and truck emission

control systems not only limits harmful
emissions, but also can improve fuel efficiency
and vehicle performance extending the life of
the vehicle. Care in storing and handling
gasoline and other solvents also reduces
evaporative losses to the atmosphere.
 Road-Rail Parallel Layout
• Road-Rail Parallel Layout is a design option to
reduce the environmental impact of new
transportation routes by locating railway
tracks alongside a highway.
• In 1984 the Paris—Lyon high-speed rail route
in France had about 14% parallel layout with
the highway, and in 2002, 70% parallel layout
was achieved with the Cologne–Frankfurt
high-speed rail line.
 Exercise
• Generate possibilities in
terms of reducing the air
pollution resulting from
motorized vehicles.