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Photoelectric Controls
Table of Contents
Theory of Operation 1
Modes of Detection 3
Fiber Optics 5
Excess Gain 6
Contrast 9
Photoelectric Control Logic 9
Output Devices and Switch Logic 12
Logic Functions Using Switch Logic 14
Appendix Inside back cover
Theory of Operation
A photoelectric sensor is a type of switch. It is a switch that is The development of light emitting diodes (LED) introduced a
turned off and on by the presence or absence of received light. solid state alternative to incandescent lamps as source
The inherent advantages of such a "non-contact" switch have elements in photoe-lectric controls.
resulted in widespread application throughout the industrial
world. Some of these advantages include: In 1970 Opcon introduced the first modulated LED
photoelectric control system suitable for use in sawmills, steel
• The presence or absence of an object can be detected without factories, and other harsh environments.
direct contact.
• There are no mechanical parts or levers to wear out. Light Emitting Diodes - a Powerful Light Source
• The switch can be mounted a great distance from the object to
be detected. Today, LED's are recognized by almost everyone. Since their
development in the early 1960's, they have found their way into
many common products used everyday, including wrist
In its basic form a photoelectric control is the simplest of watches, calculators, and counters.
electronic circuits. The basic components consist of a power
supply, light source, a photo detector, and an output device.
LED's are solid state devices that function just the opposite
from photo detectors. When current is applied to them, LED's
emit light energy. LED's offer several advantages over
incandescent bulbs when applied to photoelectric controls.
They can be rapidly turned on and off, are extremely small,
consume very little power, and have an extremely long life
(100,000 hours continuous). Also, since LED's are solid state
devices they are much more immune to vibration than
incandescent bulbs.
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Fig. 1 A simple photoelectric control
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Key to this system is the photo detector. It is composed of a
silicon semiconductor material that conducts current whenever
it sees light. Photoelectric controls make use of this property to
control output devices such as mechanical relays, triacs, and
transistors. These, in turn, are used to control machinery.
Fig. 3
Early Photoelectric Controls Used in Industry
LED's emit light energy over a narrow wavelength. In
comparing the relative efficiency of various light sources, one
Early industrial photoelectric controls used focused light from can see that infrared gallium arsenide (I.R.) LED's emit energy
incandescent bulbs to activate a cadmium sulfide photocell. only at 940 nanometers. (See figure 4 below.) Because this
Since they were not modulated, ambient light such as arc wavelength is at the peak of a sili-con photodiode's response,
welders, sun light, or fluorescent light could easily "false trigger" maximum energy transfer between source and detector is
these devices. Also, the delicate filaments in the incandescent achieved.
bulbs had a relatively short life span, and did not hold up well A silicon photo detector's sensitivity to light energy also peaks
under high vibration and the kind of shock loads normally found in the infrared light spectrum. This contributes to the high
in an industrial environment. Switching speed was also limited efficiency and long range possible when used in conjunction
by the slow response of the photo cell to light/dark changes with I.R. LED's.
• Long life
• Small sensor size
• Immunity to vibration
• Long sensing distances
• Immunity to ambient light
Modulated Photoelectric Controls
A modulated photoelectric control operates on a principle
similar to that of a radio station and radio receiver. The receiver
is tuned to accept the desired radio frequency and reject other
possible interfering modulation frequencies from other radio
sources. The photoelectric sensor must be able to distinguish Fig. 7 Modulated LED photoelectric sensor block diagram
its own source light and ignore other light interference.
The Power Supply provides regulated DC voltage and current
to the sensor circuitry. It may be built internally into the
control, or it may be externally connected.
Lastly, the Output device is the active part of the control for the
end user. Depending on the application and the switching
requirements of the load, this device may be a relay, solid state
triac, FET or transistor device. In some cases the device is built
into the control or is available as a replaceable module.
Reflex Detection
Reflex photoelectric controls position the source and detector
parallel to each other on the same side of the object to be
detected. The light source is directed at a retroreflector (a
specially designed device that returns most light it receives
Fig. 8 back in the same direction from which it came). An example of
a retroreflector is a bicycle reflector. The detector receives the
light returned from the retroreflector. An output occurs when an
A thru-beam sensor consists of separate source and detector object breaks the beam between the photoelectric sensor and
elements. They are aligned facing each other across an area the retroreflector.
which the target object crosses. Detection occurs when an
object blocks the entire effective beam. The effective beam area Because the light must travel in 2 directions (to the
is defined as the column of light that travels in a straight line retroreflector and back to the control), reflex controls will
between lenses. In non-lensed versions, it is the light traveling typically not sense as far, nor will they have the optical
from source chip to detector chip. performance of a thru-beam control. Reflex controls do offer a
powerful sensing system that does not require electrical wire
to be run to both sides of the sensing area. This combination
of high sensing power and ease of mounting has made reflex
sensors the most popular choice of all sensing modes.
Features—Reflex detection
• Long range
• High light/dark contrast ratio
• Easy installation and alignment
Limitations—Reflex detection
• Can be false triggered by shiny surfaced objects
Fig. 9 Thru-beam sensor effective beam pattern
Fiber Optics
Fiber optics are bundles of thin plastic or glass fibers that the fibers from excessive flexing as well as the environment.
operate on a principle discovered in 1854 by John Tyndahl.
When Tyndahl shined a beam of light through a stream of water,
rather than emerge straight from the stream of water as might Benefits of Fiber Optic Sensing
be expected, the light tended to bend with the water as it arced
towards the floor. Tyndahl discovered that the light was
transmitted along the stream of water. The light rays inside the The addition of fiber optics to photoelectric sensing has
stream bounced off the internal walls of water and were thereby greatly expanded the application of these devices. Because
contained inside. This principle has come to be known as "total they are small in diameter and flexible, fiber optics can bend
internal reflection." and twist into tiny places formerly inaccessible to bulky
electronic devices.
Fiber optics operate in the same sensing modes as standard
photoelectric controls: thru-beam, proximity and reflex. Sensing
tips come in a variety of sizes and shapes to fit special
application requirements.
Fiber optics typically are used to solve difficult sensing problems
such as detecting small objects or objects in inaccessible
Fig. 17 Fiber optics use the principle of total internal places. Since they contain no electronics, fiber optics can also
reflec-tion to bend light. operate at much higher temperatures than other types of
sensors. Glass fiber optics are availa-ble that operate up to
Industry has since discovered that the principle of total internal 900° F continuously. Plastic fiber cables can run many feet into
reflection also applies to small diameter glass and plastic fibers, environments requiring intrinsically safe sensing operations.
and this has lead to a rapid growth of applications throughout Fiber optics also operate well in environments with high
the industry. For example, fiber optics are used to optically vibration.
transmit data in the communications field, and to transmit
images or light in medicine and industry. Photoelectric controls Fiber optics do have a few drawbacks. First, they have a limited
use fiber optics to bend the light from the LED source and sensing distance. Typical sensing distance in proximity mode is
return it to the detector so sensors can be placed in locations 3 inches, 15 inches for thru-beam mode. Second, they are
where common photoelectric sensors could not be ap-plied. typically more expensive than other photoelectric controls.
Finally, because of their small sens-ing area, fiber optics can be
easily "fooled" by a small drop of water or dirt over the sensing
surface.
Features—Fiber optics
• Permits sensing in confined spaces.
• Ability to bend around corners.
• No electronics at sensing point.
• Operate at high temperature (glass).
• Total immunity from electrical noise and interference.
• Plastic fibers can be cut to desired length.
Limitations—Fiber optics
Fig. 18 Fiber optics used with photoelectric controls are • Short sensing distance (unless lensed).
covered with outer sheaths of PVC plastic or stainless steel • Expensive (glass).
armored cable. • Can be fooled by moisture or dirt on the sensing surface in diffuse
Fiber optics used with photoelectric controls are made up of a proximity mode.
large number of individual glass or plastic fibers which are
sheathed in suit-able material for protection. The fiber optics
used with Eaton photoelectric controls are covered by either
PVC plastic, or stainless steel armored jackets. Both protect
Excess Gain
The ability of a photoelectric control to detect an object at a The boxes will pass about two to five inches from the sensor
given distance is measured in units of "excess gain." Excess as they move along the conveyor at the sensing location.
gain is a measure of energy available between the source and Given a choice between the two proximity sensors whose
detector to overcome signal loss due to dirt or contamination in excess gain curves appear in figure 20, which photoelectric
the environment. Excess gain is the single most important factor control should be selected for this application?
that must be considered when choosing a photoelectric control
for a particular application.
By definition, excess gain is the ratio of the amount of light the
detector sees to the minimum amount of light required to trip
the sensor. This ratio is depicted graphically for all photoelectric
sensors. In figure 18, excess gain is plotted along the vertical
(or Y) axis, starting at 1, the minimum amount of light required
to trigger the detector. Every point above 1 represents an
amount of light more than that required to trigger the
photoelectric control. This is the "excess gain" that the detector
sees.
Fig. 21 Excess gain for two proximity controls.
Plotted as shown:
Fig. 22 Excess gain curve for a thru-beam control rated for 100
Fig. 20 Box detection feet.
The excess gain a thru-beam sensor pair will ultimately have
depends on how well aligned the sensors are, the separation
between them, the sensitivity of the Detector Amplifier and the
optical beam pattern the sensors exhibit. Every lens generates
a different pattern. These patterns are determined by the size,
shape, material and quality of the lens, the size and intensity or
sensitivity of the source or detector chip and the focal length
between chip and lens. A relationship that clarifies the
understanding of various patterns is the comparison of
radiation patterns to shotgun patterns.
Fig. 24 Excess gain curves for long range, short
range and focused proximity photoelectric controls.
Compare the excess gain curves in figure 23. The short range
sensor delivers high excess gain over a short sensing
distance and then drops off rapidly. This is due to the fact that
the source beam and the detector's field of view converge
over a short distance from the lenses, so the energy present in
the area of coincidence is very high. This makes detecting
small or difficult to sense surfaces possible. It also provides
you with the ability to ignore objects or surfaces in the near
background.
Reflex Performance
Contrast measures the ability of a photoelectric control to detect detect a semi-transparent plastic bottle moving through the
an object. It is expressed as a ratio between excess gain under sensing zone. Given that the excess gain at that range equals
light conditions and excess gain under dark conditions. 100, and the bottle blocks 5% of the light energy and passes
95% of the light, the contrast ratio would be approximately 1
Contrast Ratio = Excess Gain under light conditions / (100/95). This does not meet the 10:1 ratio recommended, and
indeed the application would not work. The thru-beam pair is
Excess Gain under dark conditions simply too powerful for this application. Note that the high
excess gain provided by this thru-beam sensor pair does not
When applying photoelectric controls, the sensing mode that offer any advantage in this application.
provides the greatest contrast ratio should be selected. For
reliable operation, a ratio of 10:1 is recommended. A focused proximity sensor with the excess gain shown on the
chart in figure 30, and positioned 3 to 4 inches from the bottle
could provide the high contrast required, and provide
Contrast and Sensing Modes excellent back-ground rejection. This product would work
better in this application than the thru-beam pair.
The contrast a thru-beam or reflex sensor perceives is affected by:
• How far the object or surface is from the sensor. In the detection zone 3 to
• Color or material of the object or surface. 4 inches from the sensor,
• Size of the object or surface. the excess gain is 20 to
100. The background will
have no affect on the
The ideal application provides infinite contrast ratio of the reliability because
detection event. This is the case, for example, when 100% of excess gain = 0.
the beam is blocked in reflex or thru-beam sensing modes, or
when nothing is present in the case of proximity sensing modes.
Understanding the contrast ratio becomes critical when this
situation does not exist, such as detecting semi transparent
objects, or when sensing extremely small objects.
Fig. 30
For example, a thru-beam sensor is positioned 10 inches apart to
Photoelectric control logic can be divided into two categories. Light Operate Versus Dark Operate
First, are devices that "condition" the signal between the
detector and the output device. Typically, these are logic In most applications, photoelectric controls generate an output
modules that are mounted inside the photoelectric control and whenever an object is detected. This occurs in one of two
include timing or counting functions. Second, is switch logic.
Output devices from two or more controls can be wired in modes. If the control generates an output when the photo
series or parallel providing an output to the load only when the detector sees light, the control is said to be working in the
correct combination of controls is energized. "Light Operate" mode. If the control generates an output when
the photo detector does not see light, the control is said to be
Timing Functions working in the "Dark Operate" mode. Light /dark operation is
normally selected by a switch mounted inside the control. This
Timing functions provide a natural extension to the simple is most useful when the sensor is equipped with a single pole
sensor by altering the raw sensor signal to make it more useful output device.
for controlling local action in response to sensed events.
Timing functions "condition" the detection event causing the
output signal from the sensor to be stretched, shortened or
displaced in time.
Off Delay Logic
On/off delay logic combines on and off delay so the output will
be generated only after the object has been detected for a
predetermined period of time, and will drop out only after the
object has no longer been detected for a predetermined period
of time. Combining on and off delay "smooths" the output of the
photoelectric control for applications such as jam detection, fill
Fig. 32 Diagram showing object detected versus output. level detection and edge guide.
One-Shot Logic
On Delay Logic
On delay logic allows the output signal to turn on only after the
object has been detected for a predetermined period of time.
The output will turn off immediately after the object is no longer
detected. This logic is useful if a sensor must avoid false
interruptions from small objects, but detect a large or slow
moving object. On delay is useful in bin fill detection, or jam
detection since it will not false trigger on the normal flow of
objects going past.
Fig. 35 On/off delay logic
Just like a standard one-shot, a retriggerable one-shot This detection logic is capable of detecting overspeed
generates an output of predetermined length whenever an conditions as well as underspeed conditions. An underspeed /
object is detected. A retriggerable one-shot will restart each overspeed detector counts a predetermined number of objects
time an object is detected and will remain triggered as long as within a specified length of time. If the system operates either at
a stream of objects are detected before the one-shot times out. a higher or lower rate, an output is generated.
A retriggerable one-shot is useful in detecting underspeed
conditions in conveyor lines.
Delayed One-Shot
A photoelectric control actively interfaces to the outside world Transistor devices (DC switch)
through an output switching device. The load to be energized
may be a solenoid or relay coil, counter module, or input card
to a programmable controller. Depending on the current
requirement, AC or DC operating voltage, and switching speed,
an appropriate output device must be selected for best long
term performance. Photoelectric con-trols are available with
built-in solid state AC, DC or AC /DC switches, as well as with
sockets for replaceable output modules for quick repair and
system flexibility.
Fig. 41
Relay Devices
Limitations—Mechanical relays
• Slow response time (10-25 mS)
• Contact and mechanical wear
• Contact bounce
• Affected by shock and vibration
Limitations—Transistor switches
• Low current handling
• Cannot tolerate large inrush currents (unless clamped)
• Destroyed by short circuit
Triac Devices
Fig. 48
The FET (Field Effect Transistor) is slated to be the solid state
Fig. 46 Triac switches can be turned "ON" at any switch of the future because of its near ideal operating
point in the AC power cycle, "OFF" only at zero characteristics. The voltage applied to the gate controls the
crossing. conduction resistance between the source and drain. In the
"OFF STATE," source to drain resistance is typically hundreds
As long as the triac is used within its rated maximum current of megohms and only about 1 ohm when "ON." FET switches
and voltage specifications, life expectancy is virtually infinite. exhibit no "OFF STATE" leakage and, being resistive devices,
Triac devices used with photoelectric sensors generally are do not develop the fixed voltage drop across its terminals like
rated for 2 A loads or less. other solid state switch devices. Unlike a triac switch, switching
occurs immediately. FET devices are independent of voltage or
current phase. FET switches can be configured in circuits which
Triacs do have limitations. Like a transistor, shorting the load will will control AC or DC voltages and will not generate switch
destroy a triac. Inductive loads directly connected to the triac or induced line noise like relay and triac switches. FET switches
large voltage spikes from other sources can false trigger a triac cannot tolerate line spikes or large inrush currents. The device
device. To reduce the effect of these spikes a snubber circuit must be protected by using a voltage spike clamping device
composed of a resis-tor and capacitor in series is connected such as a transorb. It shunts voltage spikes which exceed the
across the device. Depending on the maximum load expected conduction threshold voltage of the transorb and dissipates the
to be switched, an appropriate snubbing network to protect the energy as heat.
triac must be used. The snubbing network contributes to the
"OFF STATE" leakage the load would see. A triac rated for 1 A
loads may have 5 mA of "OFF STATE" leakage. This leakage
must be taken into account switching loads requiring little
current such as inputs to PLC's. In "ON STATE" triacs exhibit
about 1.7 VRMS voltage drop.
Features—Bilateral FET switches A two-wire electronic switch approximates a mechanical switch
• Switch AC or DC voltages with the circuit shown above. When the switch is open the
• Low "ON STATE" voltage drop resistor provides a leakage path around the switch to power the
• Extremely fast response time photoelectric circuitry. This creates an "OFF STATE" leakage of
• Infinite life when operated within voltage/current ratings about 1.7 mA. When the switch is closed the zener diode
regulator maintains enough voltage to power the circuitry. The
• Interface direct into TTL and CMOS circuits diode bridge converts AC load current to DC for powering the
• Does not self-generate line noise sensor. Two-wire switches "steal" their operat-ing power from
the load circuit. This means there will be some leak-age current
Limitations—Bilateral FET switches when the switch is off and about 7 to 9 volts dropped across the
• Cannot tolerate large inrush currents switch when it is on. Leakage current must be about 1.7 mA or
• Can be destroyed by line spikes (if not clamped) less to ensure compatibility with programmable controller inputs.
Two-wire switch device (AC/DC) Because very little power is available to operate the control
(including LED status indicators, source, detector, switch
A two-wire photoelectric sensor is composed of 3 main circuitry, and logic module), large lens surfaces are needed to
components: the photoelectric sensing head, the power switch provide reasonable optical performance and make up for the
base, and the wiring receptacle. The power base assembly is a lack of available operating current. A two-wire photoelectric
standard mechanical limit switch style body which houses the control compromises optical performance for low "OFF STATE"
sensor power supply, output switch circuit, and socket for plug- leakage.
in logic modules. As the name implies, it requires only 2
connections just like the standard mechanical limit switch. All The voltage drop across the switch is cumulative when more
electronics are encapsulated in epoxy for electrical insulation of than one switch is wired in series with a load. The "OFF
components and to provide vibration and shock resistance. STATE" leakage current is cumulative when more than one
switch is connected in parallel with a load.
Features-2-wire switch
• Two-wire connection (low wiring cost)
• Familiar wiring and rugged package
• Switch AC or DC loads
• Low leakage current in "OFF STATE"
• Short circuit protection and EMI /RFI immune models available
Limitations-2-wire switch
• Reduced optical performance compared to 3 and 4 wire style sen-
sors
• High "ON STATE" voltage drop across the switch
The output devices from two or more photoelectric sensors can Parallel ("OR" Function)
be wired together in series or parallel to perform logic functions. The term "OR" in binary logic defines the resultant output as
It is important to keep in mind when dealing with output device
logic that an "ON" condition may represent either object being ON if one "OR" more of the inputs is on.
presence or absence. The user has a choice, through selection
of light operate or dark operate outputs or a light/dark switch in
the control.
The user should also be aware of the possible side effects of
these connections dependent on the type of switch used. These
side effects include: excessive voltage drop in series connected
switches and excessive leakage current in parallel connected
switch devices. The load being switched is a determining factor
at which point the above effects will interfere with proper
operation. Output switches that exhibit the above effects are:
triac devices ("OFF STATE" leakage current), and two-wire
devices ("OFF STATE" leakage and "ON STATE" voltage drop).
Fig. 51 Symbols of optically isolated solid state switches. Fig. 53 “OR" circuit utilizing solid state AC switches and the
affect of summed leakage currents.
10 to 30 VDC powered sensors employing transistor output
switches normally have one leg of the switch connected to DC Summed leakage currents equal: (1.7 mA)(3) = 5.1 mA total
common (the emitter on NPN transistors), or the positive rail "OFF STATE" leakage delivered to the load. If the load is
(the emitter on PNP transistors). In this case, NPN current sink effected by the total leakage applied, a shunt resistor can be
outputs may only switch loads in parallel to circuit common connected across the load to reduce the leakage seen by
and PNP current source outputs may only switch in parallel to the load. This problem is only encountered when switching
the positive DC rail. programmable controller inputs or other high impedance
inputs.
Example application utilizing parallel "OR" logic
This manual has been prepared for use by personnel, licensees and Any information and/or application example, including circuitry and/or wiring
customers of Eaton Corporation. The information contained herein is the diagrams, programming, operation and/or use shown and/or described in
property of Eaton, and may not be copied or reproduced in whole or in this manual are intended solely to illustrate the operating principles of the
part, without prior written approval. product. The presentation of an example of use shown and/or described
herein does not guarantee nor imply such example will perform in a
Eaton reserves the right to make changes, without notice, in the particular environment when converted to practice. Eaton does not assume
specifications and materials contained herein and shall not be responsibility or liability for actual use based on the examples illustrated
responsible for any damages, direct or consequential, caused by reliance and/or described herein. No patent liability is assumed by Eaton with
on the materials presented. respect to use of any applications, information, circuitry, diagrams,
equipment or programs shown and/or described herein.
Appendix