PETROLEUM EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Volume 44, Issue 1, February 2017

Online English edition of the Chinese language journal

Cite this article as: PETROL. EXPLOR. DEVELOP., 2017, 44(1): 32–39. RESEARCH PAPER

Significance of source rock heterogeneities: A case study

of Mesoproterozoic Xiamaling Formation shale in North
China
WANG Xiaomei1, 2, *, ZHANG Shuichang1, 2, WANG Huajian1, 2, SU Jin1, 2, HE Kun1, 2, WANG Yu1, 2,
WANG Xiaoqi2
1. Key Laboratory of Petroleum Geochemistry, China National Petroleum Corporation, Beijing 100083, China;
2. PetroChina Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, Beijing 100083, China

Abstract: Taking Mesoproterozoic Xiamaling Formation, Northern China as an example, the heterogeneities of source rock in different
scales and hydrocarbon microscopic occurrence are studied based on observation of outcrops and observation with microscopy, and geo-
chemical analysis. The large scale heterogeneities of source rocks are considered to be controlled by the plate movement and pa-
leo-latitude location, while the micro-scale might be controlled by climate changes driven by the astronomical orbit. The constant exis-
tence of heterogeneities includes the differences of organic matter, debris sources and porosities. The heterogeneities of source rock
should be seriously treated during the evaluation of oil and gas resources, especially the unconventional oil and gas. This kind of hetero-
geneous source rocks provides excellent source-reservoir assemblage of oil and gas generation, expulsion and accumulation, and new ref-
erence indexes for the economic evaluation of unconventional oil and gas. Therefore, quantitative study of the heterogeneity of source
rock is of great significance for investigating formation mechanism and resource estimation of unconventional oil and gas.

Key words: shale; source rock; heterogeneity; organic laminae; source-reservoir assemblage; unconventional oil and gas resources
evaluation; Mesoproterozoic; Xiamaling Formation

Introduction fore, explorationists and scientists set their eyes on source

In more than one hundred years since the birth of petroleum
industry, sources rocks have become the second circle of aca-
demic and industrial focus. The first time was in the 1970s,
when the theory of “kerogen generating hydrocarbon” was
first put forward by Tissot et al., in this theory, the argilla-
ceous rocks and shale, rich in organic matters, are regarded as
hydrocarbon sources[1], and so comes the petroleum explora-
tion concept of “hydrocarbon sources controlling hydrocarbon
accumulation”. The second time was in the 1990s, triggered
by the technological breakthrough made by the Americans in
the exploration of unconventional petroleum accumulations,
and this time the theory that argillaceous rocks and shale
could act as reservoirs was advanced[23], subsequently, a new
understanding of "source-reservoir in one" have been reached.
In over a decade, major oil and gas fields have been found in
the deep strata and ancient marine strata around the world[47],
making us wonder what’s the formation limit, depth limit and
potential limit of hydrocarbon exploration once again. There-
rock once again, and they tried to find out the factors control-
ling the organic matter enrichment, formation of source rock,
and source-reservoir types from the biogeochemical process
experienced by the source rocks, and the perspective of “at-
mosphere-continent-ocean interaction”[811].
In recent years, some researchers have found that high
quality source rocks are generally laminated organic-matter-
rich shale and organic-matter-poor siliceous rock and carbon-
ate, for example, the Mesoproterozoic Xiamaling Formation
in North China[11], the Permian Dalong Formation in South
China[12], the Early Jurassic Blue Lias Formation in the
southeastern England[13], and the worldwide Cretaceous Cam-
panian organic-matter-rich shale[14]. Further research shows
that the heterogeneity of source rocks, rather than chaotic, has
some explicit regularity. The sedimentary records reveal that
the source rocks have regular patterns in spatial distribution
and developing time. The spatial distribution pattern of source
rocks is attributed to the Wilson Cycle of tectonic move-

Received date: 04 Jul. 2016; Revised date: 19 Dec. 2016.

* Corresponding author. E-mail: wxm01@petrochina.com.cn
Foundation item: Supported by the Key Fund of National Natural Science Foundation of China (41530317); the China National Science and Technology Major
Project (2016ZX05004); the Scientific Research and Technological Development Project of China National 565 Petroleum Corporation (CNPC 2016A-0204).
Copyright © 2017, Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina. Published by Elsevier BV. All rights reserved.
 WANG Xiaomei et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(1): 32–39

ment[15], also influenced by the ancient latitude and geo-

graphic location[11]; whereas the developing time span of
source rocks is considered to be controlled by the climatic
cycle driven by the orbital force[11]. Wagner et al. studied the
Cretaceous source rocks on both sides of the Atlantic, and
found out that source rock heterogeneity was clearly influ-
enced by ancient climatic changes and the Milankovitch Cy-
cles[9,14,16]. Recent research on the Xiamaling Formation dem-
onstrates that the Mesoproterozoic source rocks are also in-
fluenced by the Milankovitch Cycles[11]. The source rock het-
erogeneity has different time scales: the large cycle is of 110
million years, shown as source rock development in different
geologic ages; the medium cycle is of 10100 thousand years,
shown as interbeds of organic-matter-rich shale and or-
ganic-matter-poor sediments; and the small cycle is less than a
thousand year in time span, shown as the alteration of or-
ganic-matter-rich layer and clastic layer observed under mi-
croscope. Thus, the macroscopic cyclicity and heterogeneity
of source rock is clearly related with the tectonic movements
of the lithosphere, the orbital force, and the ancient latitude,
whereas the microscopic heterogeneity of organic matter layer
development is related with the periodic changes of climate.
The sedimentary record of recent 0.64 million years reveals
that the ancient climatic change, which controls the primary
productivity of both the continent and the ocean, is of mon-
soon type. The climatic change is actually composed of sev-
eral cycles of different time scales, including smaller cycles of
several decades, and larger cycles of several hundred years to
several thousand years, which are influenced by solar radia-
tion and ocean current[11]. Thus, the macroscopic and micro-
scopic heterogeneity of source rocks are probably influenced
by the inherent forces of the Earth itself. It is the above con-
trolling factors of different time scales that eventually give
rise to the source rock heterogeneity of different scales.
The above researches provide us a new way to evaluate
source rock heterogeneity and cyclicity quantitatively, sur-
passing early qualitative source rock assessment from a few
parameters such as primary productivity, preservation condi-
tions, and sedimentary rate[17]. But few researches have been
carried out on the quantification and hydrocarbon accumula-
tion significance of source rock heterogeneity of different
time scales, especially in the unconventional hydrocarbon
exploration. Taking the Mesoproterozoic Xiamaling Forma-
tion of North China as an example, the source rock heteroge-
neity and its significance in hydrocarbon accumulation have
been discussed from the perspective of organic petrology,
geochemistry, and hydrocarbon migration in this paper.
1. Heterogeneity of the Xiamaling Formation
shale
The Xiamaling Formation is mainly distributed in the Yan-
liao Depression in North China (Fig. 1). The age of tuff and
bentonite samples were determined by high-precision zircon
data are (1 384.4±1.4) Ma and (1 392.2±1.0) Ma respectively,
Fig. 1. Outcrop distribution of Xiamaling Formation in North
China (Modified from literature [18]).
showing the Xiamaling Formation is of the Mesoproterozoic
age, and it is thus estimated that the ancient sedimentary rate
then was approximately (6.6±1.4) mm/ky[11]. The Xiamaling
Formation, deposited in the Xiahuayuan area, Zhangjiakou, is
in unconformable contact with the Jurassic Strata above, and
Tieling Formation below, 470 m in thickness, and low in ma-
turity (with a EasyRo of 0.6%), and the cumulative thickness
of organic-matter-rich shale with total organic carbon content
of more than 1% is over 200 m. The middle to lower part of
the Xiamaling Formation encompass interbeds of siliceous
rock and black shale, in which the black page-like shale has
the highest TOC of 24%, chloroform asphalt content of over
8 800 μg/g, and oil content of over 10%, reaching the stan-
dard of oil shale[19].
1.1. Characteristics of the outcrop
This set of low-maturity source rock in the Xiamaling For-
mation shows distinct heterogeneity on the outcrops, include-
ing sedimentary cycles of two different time scales. On the
large time scale, Unit 1 is composed of alternations of or-
ganic-matter-poor layers and organic-matter-rich layers from
top of the formation to the base; Unit 2 is rich in organic mat-
ter; Unit 3 is composed of alternations of organic-matter-poor
layers and organic-matter-rich layers; and Unit 4 is poor in
organic matter. Thus, the 350 m sedimentary strata of Xiama-
ling Formation is divided into four units (Fig. 2). On the small
time scale, each unit displays rhythmic sedimentary charac-
teristics of minor difference. Unit 1 (075 m) is mainly com-
posed of alternations of black and green shale, and green silty
mudstone and marl. Unit 2 (75242 m) is mainly composed of
alternations of black shale and thin-layer gray shale or green
mudstone. Unit 3 (242305 m) is mainly composed of alter-
nations of black shale and siliceous rock or green mudstone.
Unit 4 (305350 m) is mainly composed of red mudstone and

 33 
 WANG Xiaomei et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(1): 32–39

Fig. 2. Heterogeneity characteristics of sediments in the Xiamaling Formation in the Xiahuayuan area, Zhangjiakou (TOC).

green silty mudstone. Except for Unit 4, black shale is ubiq-
uitously distributed in the Xiamaling Formation, alternating
with other types of sedimentary layers. Based on the sedi-
mentary rate of Unit 3 of approximately (6.6±1.4) mm/103 a,
it is estimated that the lasting time of the four sedimentary
cycles are 11.4 Ma, 25.3 Ma, 9.5 Ma, and 7.0 Ma, respectively,
whereas the centimeter-thick black shale and interlayers are of
smaller time cycles of several thousand to tens of thousand
years. Such sedimentary cycles are considered to be related to
the Milankovitch Cycles driven by orbital force and the Had-
ley Cell controlled by ancient latitude distribution[11]. The
spatial distribution of effective source rock is more controlled
by basin structure, for example, black shale of the Xiamaling
Formation is mainly distributed in the slope and basin facies

 34 
 WANG Xiaomei et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(1): 32–39
in the depression (Fig. 1).
1.2. Microscopic characteristics
Orthogonal polarization microscopic observation reveals
bedding and texture structure are both widely developed in the
Xiamaling Formation. The organic matter rich laminae are
generally black, brown, and dark brown under reflected light,
around 10150 μm thick in single lamina, in continuous or
discontinuous ripple shape and fold shape. In contrast, the
alternating clastic layers poor in organic matter are generally
yellow or khaki, with quartz crystals and cubic pyrite crystals
clearly seen. In the organic-matter-rich black shale (Fig.
3a-3b), the organic laminae are generally black, thick in single
lamina, with much higher organic content than the clastic
laminae, and high alternating frequency. In comparison, in the
organic-matter-poor siliceous rock (Fig. 3c-3d), greyish-green
mudstone (Fig. 3e) and green mudstone (Fig. 3f), the organic
laminae are generally brown and khaki, thinner in single lam-
ina, and much higher in organic content than the clastic layers,
with slightly lower alternating frequency. Microscopic obser-
vation also shows that transitions among different lithofacies
exhibit obvious distinction in the number of organic laminae
and the crystal characteristics of clastic minerals (See Fig. 2
thin sections). The above observations indicate that the mi-
croscopic heterogeneity of the Xiamaling Formation derives
from the difference in organic matter content and sedimentary
source. Such microscopic heterogeneity in the time cycle of
several years to several decades might represent the influence
of climatic changes on primary productivity, sedimentary clast
source, and preservation conditions.
Scanning electron microscopic observation and energy
Fig. 3. Organic petrologic characteristics of the source rock in Xiamaling Formation.
 35 
spectrum analysis reveal that organic bands can be seen
clearly in the black shale, with a thickness of 1020 μm (ap-
proximately half the thickness of the alternating clastic band).
For example, Point a in Fig. 4, located in the organic band,
has a percentage of carbon atom of more than 70%, whereas
the percentage of carbon atom of the clastic band is below 1%;
while Point b has a high silicon atom percentage of 27.4%, a
ratio of atomic silicon to oxygen of approximately 1:2.48,
lower than quartz (1:2.0), but higher than silicate (1:3.0), in-
dicating Point b should be clay minerals with certain amount
of silicate. The observation results also reveal that the organic
bands are tight, with low porosity, and pores mostly less than
5 μm and microscale or nanometer scale; whereas pores and
micro-fractures are much more developed in the alternating
clastic layers, and mostly micrometer scale (Fig. 4). Although
micro-fractures and pores in the clastic layers are irregular,
they can connect with each other laterally into interlayer pores
and micro-fractures.
Based on the charged effect of the electron beam of the
oil-bearing samples, and utilizing the method of back scatter-
ing cross section secondary imaging of focusing ion beam–
scanning electron microscope (FIB-SEM), the in-situ distribu-
tion of free hydrocarbons in the black shale of the Xiamaling
Formation has been observed. With a spatial resolution of
nanometer scale (< 106 m), and detection limit of 1012 mol,
this method is better than the conventional fluorescence and
energy spectrum analysis in both detection effect and limit,
and can overcome the poor representativeness of analyzed
area caused by sample heterogeneity, thus achieving the goal
of in-situ imaging of free hydrocarbons in trace amount[20].
The results show that free hydrocarbons occur mainly in the
 WANG Xiaomei et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(1): 32–39
Fig. 4. Interbedded deposits and pore characteristics of organic
matter layer of gray-black shale (290.4 m) and debris layer (a
energy spectrum measurement points of organic matter layer,
benergy spectrum measured points on debris layer).
form of bands or block bright patches (Fig. 5). The block
bright patches are mostly less than 5 μm, and sporadic in
space distribution, which might represent the accumulation of
free hydrocarbons in the organic bands and micro-pores in the
clastic layers. The band bright patches are several microme-
ters, and crystals of detrital minerals are widely existed, which
may be accumulations of free hydrocarbons in micro-fractures
of the clastic layers. At transitions between black shale and
siliceous rock, or near micro-fractures, the accumulations of
free hydrocarbons could be clearly observed (Fig. 5a, 5c),
with much higher amount of hydrocarbons than the retained
hydrocarbons in the black shale, which indicates that free
hydrocarbons generated by organic matter had begun to mi-
grate from black shale to the adjacent clastic layers or frac-
tures, but due to the low maturity of organic matter, the
amount of free hydrocarbons generated by the black shale is
still limited, and still in the early migration stage. Therefore,
the distributions of free hydrocarbons and organic bands re-
flect the source rock heterogeneity and features of hydrocar-
bon generation and migration.
1.3. Geochemical characteristics
High-resolution geochemical analysis of the Xiamaling
Formation reveals that characteristics of the geochemical data
have similar trend with sedimentary rock type. Taking the
most typical Unit 3 as an example, in this unit, black shale
with TOC of over 3.0% alternates frequently with siliceous
rock with TOC of less than 1%, which is consistent with the
changing pattern of hydrocarbon generation potential index
HI and TOC (Fig. 6). The content of SiO2 can reflect clastic
quartz or silicate mineral composition, which has opposite
changing tendency with TOC. The content of TOC and SiO2
reflect the organic layers alternating with clastic mineral lay-
ers, just like the microscopic observation. Such alternating
sedimentary cycles could occur for more than 30 times within
one meter. The single organic-matter-rich shale layer is less
 36 
Fig. 5. Occurrence of free hydrocarbons in sediments of Xiama-
ling Formation.
than one centimeter thick, which represents a depositional
time span of 2050 thousand years, close to the precession
(20 thousand years), obliquity (40 thousand years) and eccen-
tricity (50 thousand years) in modern Milankovitch Cycles,
thus this might represent cyclic changes composed of several
cycles of different time scales. Thus the cyclic changes of
organic matter and clastic mineral composition are the most
typical features of source rock heterogeneity.
Geochemical analysis also reveals that source rock hetero-
geneity lead to the combination of hydrocarbon generation
and expulsion. Taking the one-meter-thick sedimentary cycle
in Fig. 6 for example, the average TOC of black shale is
4.49%, whereas the TOC of alternating siliceous rock is only
0.51%. The hydrogen index value of black shale (averaging
287.0 mg/g) is approximately twice that of the siliceous rock
(averaging 143.6 mg/g). However, the hydrocarbon index
(averaging 20.4 mg/g) and productivity (averaging 0.13) of
the siliceous rocks are much higher than that of the black
shale (averaging 9.0 mg/g, 0.03). But both the black shale and
siliceous rock have a Tmax value of 440 C, and similar car-
bon isotopic composition of kerogen (δ13Ck) (33.7‰ 
33.8‰), which indicate they have the same organic matter
source and thermal history, or same hydrocarbon generation
process and hydrocarbon index theoretically. The reason for
the higher hydrocarbon index and productivity of the siliceous
 WANG Xiaomei et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(1): 32–39

Fig. 6. High-resolution geochemical parameters of the 1m-thick sediments in unit 2 of the Xiamaling Formation.

rock should be the short distance migration of free hydrocar-
bons from black shale to the adjacent siliceous rocks. This
phenomenon is consistent with FIB-SEM observation that
hydrocarbon generated by the black shale tends to migrate to
adjacent siliceous rock.
2. Source rock heterogeneity and its significance
for hydrocarbon accumulation
Source rock heterogeneity adds difficulty to petroleum re-
source assessment. In conventional source rock evaluation,
the organic-matter-rich shale and the alternating clastic rock
or carbonate are taken as a whole set of source rock, which
might obscure the true information of hydrocarbon source
rock, and result in inaccurate estimations in petroleum re-
sources assessment. Research has proved that the main con-
tribution for oil and gas generation are the organic-matter-rich
shale and mudstone layers[21], while the alternating layers poor
in organic matter just provide pathways for hydrocarbon mi-
gration and space for hydrocarbon accumulation[9]. The high
quality source rock are actually the thin-layered dark brown or
black laminae, with extremely high content of organic matter
(carbon atom percentage of higher than 70%) and hydrogen
index, thus are the true sources responsible for hydrocarbon
generation (Fig. 7a). In contrast, the clastic rock or carbonate
with very low content of organic matter actually generates
insignificant amount of hydrocarbons, or no hydrocarbons,

Fig. 7. The hydrocarbon generation and expulsion processes and reservoir characteristics of the heterogeneous shale black shale.

 37 
 WANG Xiaomei et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(1): 32–39
thus should not be regarded as hydrocarbon source rock. It is
also found that, compared to homogeneous mudstone deposits
with large thickness, the black shale with strong heterogene-
ity actually has higher hydrocarbon generation potential. Tak-
ing the major source layer, Member Chang 7 in Ordos Basin
as an example, the black shale interbedded with tuff has
higher effective carbon, hydrogen index, and degradation rate
than the mudstone of the same thickness with weaker hetero-
geneity[22], and hydrocarbon generation potential 5  8 times
that of the homogeneous mudstone. Based on the above dis-
cussion, source rock heterogeneity, such as the thickness of
single source rock layer, scale of cycles, and hydrocarbon
generation potential of each cycle, should be taken into con-
sideration to achieve more accurate estimation of petroleum
resources.
From the view of hydrocarbon expulsion and accumulation,
the heterogeneous lithological association is better than the
homogeneous one. The organic-matter-rich layers, as hydro-
carbon sources, can generate massive oil and gas, but low in
porosity, and thus low in storage capacity. The generated hy-
drocarbons can only be absorbed on the surface of organic
matter and mineral crystals, or accumulate in the nanometer
scale organic pores and intercrystalline pores. In contrast, the
alternating clastic rock and carbonate layers, rich in fractures
and pores, with the reservoir capacity over a hundred times
that of the organic-matter-rich shale, act as effective reservoirs
for migrating hydrocarbons from adjacent shale (Fig. 7b), in
addition, the interlayer fractures can act as migration paths in
the process of hydrocarbon expulsion, giving rise to excellent
source-reservoir combination (Fig. 7c). For example, the shale
layers in Sha 3 and Sha 4 of Shahejie Formation in the Jiyang
Depression, are rich in organic matter, and high in hydrocar-
bon generation potential, the generated oil only needed to
migrate a short distance to accumulate in the interlayer, so,
these interlayers should be considered as the focus in petro-
leum exploration[23]. Therefore, the reservoir space of uncon-
ventional shale oil and gas is not limited to the traditional
large size fractures and pores, or the nanometer-scale pores in
the organic layers[24], but includes the micrometer-scale pores
and fractures in the interlayers between strongly heterogene-
ous source rock. The interlayer pores and structures can act as
paths for hydrocarbon migration to let oil and gas out besides
reservoir space.
The strong heterogeneity shale combinations are conducive
to reservoir modification and hydrocarbon current formation.
On one hand, the interlayers, rich in brittle minerals and car-
bonate minerals, only adsorb few hydrocarbons, leading to
high portion of free hydrocarbons; on the other hand, large
amount of water-soluble organic acid anion and phenols are
generated during hydrocarbon generation, which can provide
hydrogen ions and chelating metals to dissolve the phosphate
and carbonate minerals in the interlayers, forming micro-pores
and micro-fractures, thus improving the connectivity of pores
(Fig. 7c). Research results indicate that during the process of
 38 
hydrocarbon generation, shale with TOC of approximately 7%
can lead to 4.9% rise in porosity at the price of consuming
35% organic carbon[3]. The organic matter content and poros-
ity of Sha 3 of the Shahejie Formation in Zhanhua Depression
are positive correlated[25], but the increased porosity is mainly
come from the alternating clastic rocks and carbonate, not the
organic-matter-rich layers, which is the reason that or-
ganic-matter-poor interlayers have much better production
performance than the organic-matter-rich layers[26].
In summary, the clastic or carbonate layers interbedded
between source rock layers should be main reservoir space for
shale hydrocarbons, and the distribution and development of
interlayers would determine the shale oil and gas reserves.
During the exploration and development of unconventional oil
and gas resources, besides basin structure[27] and secondary
biodegradation[28], more attention should be paid to the search
of source rock with high organic carbon content, suitable ma-
turity, and combinations of strongly heterogeneous shale and
clastic rocks or carbonate.
3. Conclusions
The influence of source rock heterogeneity on hydrocarbon
generation and accumulation should be re-examined. Espe-
cially the selected parameters and calculation methods for
petroleum resource assessment should be modified to some
extent. In conventional source rock evaluation, the or-
ganic-matter-rich shale and the alternating clastic rock or car-
bonate are combined together as a whole set of source rock,
which may obscure the true information of hydrocarbon
source rock, and result in inaccurate estimations in petroleum
resources assessment. Meanwhile, the reservoir capacity and
migration potential of the alternating clastic layers and car-
bonate layers are neglected, which would bring great uncer-
tainty to petroleum resources assessment, and lower the con-
trollable estimates for unconventional hydrocarbons. This
study shows that alternating shale and clastic rock or carbon-
ate layers, with strong heterogeneity can act as excellent
source-reservoir combinations. Organic-matter-rich layers can
generate massive hydrocarbons, the pores and fractures in
interlayers can provide space for hydrocarbon accumulation
and paths for hydrocarbon migration, and the alternating sili-
ceous rock or carbonate layers are effective reservoirs respon-
sible for hydrocarbon accumulation. In the exploration and
development of unconventional oil and gas, more attention
should be paid to the source rock heterogeneity and interlayer
modification. Quantitative evaluation of source rock hetero-
geneity and study on interlayer modification would definitely
beneficial for petroleum resource assessment, and exploration
and development of unconventional oil and gas.
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