Acoustics 1 Acoustics 2

1 Introduction
SGN-14006 / A.K. SGN-14006 / A.K.

Sound, acoustics !  The word acoustics refers to the science of sound and is
a subcategory of physics
Slides based on: Rossing, ”The science of sound,” 1990.
!  Room acoustics (confusingly, sometimes just acoustics)
studies sound propagation indoors (esp. concert halls)

!  The goal in this lecture is to learn the principles, not so

Contents:
much the equations
1.  Introduction
2.  Vibrating systems
3.  Waves
4.  Resonance
5.  Room acoustics

Acoustics 3 Acoustics 4

2 Vibrating systems 2.2 Energy and damping

SGN-14006 / A.K. SGN-14006 / A.K.
(1)
!  Common to vibrating systems
–  Motion repeats in each regular time interval (the period)
–  Some force restores the system toward equilibrium
!  In a vibrating system, kinetic energy and potential energy
are alternating
2.1 Simple harmonic motion !  In the mass-spring case
!  Spring-mass system –  Kinetic energy EK = ½mv2 x
–  force F = − K ⋅ x (spring constant x stretch) acts as the restoring force
–  Potential energy EP = Kx2
–  In equilibrium, earth gravity mg = F
!  In Simple harmonic motion, the restoring force
!  Figure:
is directly proportional to the distance from –  top: displacement vs. time,
equilibrium bottom: speed vs. time
–  In that case frequency f does not depend on amplitude –  At times t1 and t3
–  Mass + spring: potential energy is at its
maximum,
− Kx = ma ≡ m!x!,
–  At times t2 and t4 kinetic
K K energy is at its maximum
!x! + x = 0, ⇒ x = A cos(ωt + ϕ ) ⇒ ω =
m m
 Acoustics 5 Acoustics 6

Energy and damping 2.3 Simple vibrating systems (1)

SGN-14006 / A.K. SGN-14006 / A.K.
(2)

!  In all realistic vibrating systems, there are energy losses !  These are simple harmonic vibrating systems (in addition
due to friction etc. to the mass-spring system)
!  Unless energy is brought to the system from outside, the 1.  Pendulum (small angle)
amplitude of the vibration will decay (see figure) –  Mass attached to a string
–  Typically a certain fraction of the mechanical energy is lost during –  Gravity as the restoring force
each vibration. In that case, the amplitude envelope is
exponentially decaying (see figure)

2.  ”Spring” of air

Amplitude envelope –  A piston of mass m moves freely
in a cylinder, of area A and length l

Acoustics 7 Acoustics 8

Simple vibrating systems (2)

SGN-14006 / A.K. SGN-14006 / A.K.
2.4 Systems with two masses
3.  Helmholz resonator !  In the above examples, one coordinate sufficed to describe the motion
–  Air in the ”neck” acts as the mass " only one degree of freedom
–  Air in the cavity acts as the spring !  In the following, we consider systems with two or three degrees of
freedom
–  Then there are also more than one mode of vibration
–  Typically each mode has a different frequency of vibration
–  Examples of Helmholz resonators !  Figure: system with two masses and three springs
•  Blowing air across and ampty bottle –  Two modes: masses moving
•  Bass reflex tube in loudspeakers (figure) (a) in the same direction
•  Sound hole in the guitar (b) in opposite directions
–  Modes are independent of each
other and have different
mode frequencies
–  In realistic cases the movement is
usually a combination of modes
 Acoustics 9 Acoustics 10
SGN-14006 / A.K. SGN-14006 / A.K.
Systems with two masses (2) 2.5 Systems with many modes of vibration

!  Figure: above-descrived two-mass system has two transverse !  Figure: in the general case a system with N masses has N
vibration modes in addition to the longitudinal ones longitudinal and N transverse vibration modes
–  Vibration is perpendicular to the spring –  2N modes, but only N frequencies, since corresponding
–  Transverse vibration: for example membrane of a drum longitudinal and transverse modes have the same frequency
–  Longitudinal vibration: for example air column in a wind instrument
!  More masses
" ”wavelike”
shape emerges
–  Vibrating
string can be
considered as
a mass-spring
system where N
is very large

Acoustics 11 Acoustics 12

Vibrations in musical instruments

SGN-14006 / A.K. SGN-14006 / A.K.
2.6 Vibrations in musical instruments (1) (2)

1.  Vibrating string 3.  Vibrating bar

–  Can be viewed as a mass-spring system: string mass and elasticity
–  Many vibration modes that are typically nearly exact integer multiples of
a fundamental frequency
"  Harmonic modes (see bottom row of the figure on the previous slide)
–  For example marimba, xylophone, glockenspiel
–  Stiffness of the bar provides a restoring force
–  Vibration modes are not harmonic, but the frequencies in glockenspiel for
example are 1 : 2.76 : 5.40 : 8.93 :... (harmonic would be 1:2:3:...)

2.  Vibrating membrane

–  Can be thought of as a two-dimensional ”string”, tension of the
membrane acts as a restoring force (membrane attached to a rim)
–  figure: four vibration modes are illustrated

4.  Vibrating plate

–  –  As in a vibrating bar, the stiffness of the plate
itself acts as a restoring force (different
from a stretched membrane of a drum)
 Acoustics 13 Acoustics 14

Vibrations in musical instruments (3) 2.7 Vibration spectra

SGN-14006 / A.K. SGN-14006 / A.K.

5.  Air-filled pipes !  When a vibrating system is excited, it usually starts to

–  Vibrating air column vibrate in several modes at the same time
–  For example organ pipe, trumpet –  Each mode has its specific frequency and amplitude
–  Comparable to a vibrating string " Spectrum of the vibration
–  Many vibration modes !  Figure: spectrum of a plucked string
" Mode frequencies of an instrument (for example) can be studied
by recording its sound and then looking at its Fourier transform

Acoustics 15 Acoustics 16

3 Waves 3.1 Progressing waves

SGN-14006 / A.K. SGN-14006 / A.K.

!  Waves transport energy and information through a

medium so that the medium itself is not transported !  For a progressing wave
!  In the case of sound, the medium is usually air v = fλ
!  Sounds may reflect, refract, or diffract where v is velocity,
!  Speed of sound in air ≈ 340 m/s (20 ºC) f is frequency, and
λ is wavelength
–  cf. speed of light ≈ 3·108 m/s
–  figure: wave in a rope
 Acoustics 17 Acoustics 18

3.2 Properties of waves Standing waves on a string

SGN-14006 / A.K. SGN-14006 / A.K.

!  Figure: reflection !  Standing wave is formed when a wave travels in opposite

directions on a string, reflecting at both ends
!  Figure: linear superposition !  Figure: resonance frequencies
–  Waves may travel ”through” each of a vibrating string
other without changing their –  Wavelength of the lowest
properties resonance λ = 2 x string length
!  Standing wave " Fundamental mode
frequency f1 = v / 2L
–  Found e.g. on a stretched string
–  Higher modes:
–  Wave traveling in the string reflects from both ends so that the
fn = n · v / 2L = n · f1
sum of waves traveling in opposite directions appears not to move
where propagation speed
–  ”Nodes” and ”antinodes” can be observed on the string v= T µ
T is string tension and µ is mass per unit length (speed and
frequency get lower by reducing tension or increasing string mass)

Acoustics 19 Acoustics 20

3.3 Sound waves

SGN-14006 / A.K. SGN-14006 / A.K.
3.4 Propagation in two or three dimensions

!  Sound waves are longitudinal waves that travel in gas, !  Usually sound waves propagate in two or three dimensions
liquid, or solid material !  Sources with different geometries radiate different kinds of
–  Speed of sound is lowest in gas
patterns
–  Hearing works also underwater, although due to the changed
speed of sound, the direction of arrival of sounds is unclear –  Point source radiates spherical waves (left figure)
!  Figure: reflection of a –  Line source radiates cylindrical waves (right figure)
sound pulse in a pipe –  Large flat source radiates plane waves
(a)  Sent positive pressure –  Real-life sources can only approximate these geometries
pulse
(b)  Reflection at open
end (negated)
(c)  Reflection at closed
end
(d)  Absorption
(no reflection)
 Acoustics 21 Acoustics 22

3.5 Doppler-effect 3.6 Reflection

SGN-14006 / A.K. SGN-14006 / A.K.

!  Normally the frequency of the waves arriving to an !  Reflection of sound waves can be experienced by
observer is the same as the frequency of vibration at the clapping hands at some distance from a large wall
sound source !  Figure: reflected waves
!  The situation changes if either the source of the observer appear to come from
is in motion an imaginary source
–  Observer ”meets” the waves more frequently when moving behind the reflecting
towards the wavefront (" frequency increases) surface
–  When moving apart from each other, observed frequency –  Think of a mirror
decreases
= Doppler-effect

Acoustics 23 Acoustics 24

3.7 Refraction 3.8 Diffraction

SGN-14006 / A.K. SGN-14006 / A.K.

!  Refraction occurs when the speed of waves changes !  Sound waves tend to bend around an obstacle
–  Direction of the waves changes !  Figures:
!  Figure: propagation speed –  left: sound bends behind a wall (see arrows)
changes abruptly as wave passes –  right: sound waves traveling through a narrow opening appear as
from one medium to another a ”new” point source
!  Speed can also change gradually
–  Figure: wind does not ”blow the sound back” (speed of wind is
small compared to sound), but because higher wind speed at
higher altitude tends to refract the sound to the sky
 Acoustics 25 Acoustics 26

4 Resonance 4.2 Standing waves on a string

SGN-14006 / A.K. SGN-14006 / A.K.

!  Idea of resonance illustrated by a child in a swing: giving the swing a

small push at a suitable frequency, its amplitude gradually increases !  Standing wave is formed when a wave travels in opposite
directions on a string, reflecting at both ends
4.1 Mass-spring vibrator resonance !  Figure: resonance frequencies
–  figure: mass-spring systems attached of a vibrating string
to a crank
–  Natural vibration frequency of the –  Wavelength of the lowest
mass-spring system is f0 resonance λ = 2 x string length
–  Crank is revolved at frequency f, " Fundamental mode
which is slowly varied frequency f1 = v / 2L
" Vibration amplitude A changes and
reaches its maximum Amax when f = f0 –  Higher modes:
!  Curve: amplitude A as a function of fn = n · v / 2L = n · f1
frequency f as mentioned in §3.2 above

Acoustics 27 Acoustics 28

4.3 Partials, harmonics, overtones Partials, harmonics, overtones (2)

SGN-14006 / A.K. SGN-14006 / A.K.

!  Terminology for discussing vibration spectra, for example

amplitude
the spectra of musical instruments: Fundamental mode (frequency = fundamental frequency)

–  Partial : any mode of a vibrating system (any component of sound) harmonic overtones (in a harmonic sound,
–  Harmonic : if partials are (nearly) integer multiples of the frequencies are integer multiples of the fundamental)
fundamental (as in a vibrating string for example), the partials are
called harmonics (fundamental is the first harmonic)
–  Harmonic sound : sound where partials are nearly integer
multiples of the fundamental
frequency

!  Relative strengths of the partials largely determine the timbre (tone

colour) of the sound
–  Temporal evolution of the partial amplitudes is another important factor of
timbre (and there are also others like tonal vs. noisy quality etc.)
 Acoustics 29
4.4 Open and closed pipes
SGN-14006 / A.K.
!  Reflection of a positive sound pulse at the ends of a pipe
–  Reflected as negative at open end and as positive at closed end
!  Human vocal tract can be modeled as an acoustic tube
–  When varying the shape of the vocal tract, resonance frequencies
(formants) move " phonemes
!  Left: vibration modes in a pipe open at both ends fn = n · f1 , n = 1,2,3,...
!  Right: vibration modes in a pipe with one end closed
fn = n · f1 , n = 1, 3, 5,... " only odd harmonics
!  –  Resonance frequencies of the sounding box largely determine the timbre
Acoustics 31
5 Room acoustics
SGN-14006 / A.K.
5.1 Sound propagation outdoors and indoors
!  Free field
–  Source is small enough to be considered a point source
–  Source is outdoors and far away from reflecting objects
"  Sound waves propagate from the source in shape of sphreres and sound
pressure is proportional to 1/r [Pa] (r: distance from source)
"  Average sound intensity I ∝ 1/r2 [W/m2]
–  Indoors, free field can be found only in an unechoic room
!  Indoors sound waves encounter walls and other obstacles
–  Figures: obstacles reflect and absorp sound in ways that determine the
acoustic properties of the room
Acoustics 30
4.5 Sympathetic vibration
SGN-14006 / A.K.
!  The amount of sound radiated by a source is proportional to the
amount of air it displaces as it moves
–  Thin vibrating string displaces very little air and therefore radiates only a
small amount of sound
–  Membrane of a drum or the element of a loudspeaker displaces more air
!  Radiation can be increased by attaching the vibrating system to a
wood plate or sounding box
–  Vibrating system makes the plate move
–  Due to its large area, sympathetic vibrations of the plate increase the
amount of radiated sound, even though its resonance frequency would
not be exactly right
!  In musical instruments, two or more vibrators often work together
–  Piano strings and soundboard, guitar strings and body
–  Clarinet reed and air column
!  String instruments are based on the sympathetic vibrations of a
sounding box or soundboard
of the instrument
Acoustics 32
SGN-14006 / A.K.
5.2 Direct, early, and reverberant sound
!  In auditorium, direct sound reaches listeners in 20-200 ms
–  Depends on the distance from the source to the listener
!  Soon after, the same sound reaches the listener from
reflecting surfaces (walls, ceiling)
–  These are called early reflections
–  Time difference to direct sound usually < 50 ms
!  Last group of reflections is called reverberant sound
–  Sound reflected several times from various surfaces
–  Weaker, many reflections, close to each other in time
–  When the source is turned off, reverberation decays in an
approximately exponential manner (dB level is a straight line)
 Acoustics 33 Acoustics 34

Direct, early, and reverberant sound 5.4 Reverberation time

SGN-14006 / A.K. SGN-14006 / A.K.
(2)

!  Figure: !  Reverberation time is among the most familiar

–  Room impulse response h(t) characteristics of auditoriums
–  direct sound –  Reverberation reinforces direct sound
–  early reflections –  Too much reverberation results
–  reverberation in a loss of clarity
–  Suitable reverberation time depends
on the auditorium size and purpose
(speech: short, organ music: long)
!  Figure: studying reverberation
–  Switch on a steady source for time T
–  Record the sound at another
location in the auditorium
" Level of the reverberant sound
first increases in steps
when early reflections arrive

Acoustics 35
Reverberation time SGN-14006 / A.K.

!  Reverberation time is usually denoted by T60

–  Time where the sound level decreases by 60 dB from its maximum
–  Figure: sound level decreases approximately exponentially, thus
dB level decay is a straight line as a function of time

p [lin.] Lp [dB]

10 log10(R(t))
R(t)

–  Curve R(t) (see the figure) describing the sound level decrease
can be also obtained from room impulse response h(t) by
∞
R (t ) = ∑ h 2 (t )
t