Article

Educational Management
Administration & Leadership
Followership Styles and Job 1–18
ª The Author(s) 2016

Satisfaction in Secondary Reprints and permission:

sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1741143215623787
School Teachers in Serbia emal.sagepub.com

Darko Hinić, Jelena Grubor and Lida Brulić

Abstract
The aim of the study was to determine the frequency of followership styles, and their connection
with job satisfaction and satisfaction with extrinsic/intrinsic aspects of work in teachers. The
sample included 206 secondary school teachers of three grammar and three vocational schools in
three towns in Serbia. The results indicate that the most prominent followership styles were star
followers (58.7%) and pragmatists (39.8%). Star followers attached greater significance to intrinsic
aspects of work and reported a higher job satisfaction rate, while pragmatists placed more
importance on extrinsic ones. Independent thinking correlated with intrinsic aspects of work and
job satisfaction, and active participation with job satisfaction and both work aspects. The results
also show that a higher degree of engagement (particularly when combined with economic
satisfaction) predicted a higher level of job satisfaction. If dominant followership and motivational
structures of teachers were learnt, the management of educational institutions would be improved
because teachers who participate in making work decisions have a greater sense of empowerment
and commitment to organizational goals. Although affected by types of personality, dominant
followership structures of the teacher may be influenced during the course of professional training,
thereby directing them towards the development of functional followership types.

Keywords
active engagement, followership styles, independent thinking, teachers

Introduction
An evaluation of teacher’s role points towards great changes it has gone through during the last
50 years. Contemporaneous educational processes are quite complex and encompass various
integrated activities for an individual, teaching staff and institution in such a way that the con-
ception of social and pedagogical roles of the contemporary teacher broadens, as well as the
content, range and forms of teachers’ activities. Current tendencies in education development
suggest growth of active involvement of teachers at all levels of education; hence, teachers’ roles

Corresponding author:
Darko Hinić, Department of Psychology, State University of Novi Pazar, Daniciceva 122/31, 34 000 Kragujevac, Serbia.
Email: dahinfla@ptt.rs

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

2 Educational Management Administration & Leadership

are expanding from assisting with the management of schools to evaluating educational initiatives
and facilitating professional learning communities (York-Barr and Duke, 2004).
A teacher is a person in a context, and teaching is a function of school environment, internal and
external settings of the school, as well as of personal qualities (Jennings and Greenberg, 2009).
Employees in school environment work in a formally organized business structure, which as such
assumes the prerequisite for obeying superiors, their orders and expectations, but may also be a
fertile ground for adverse consequences of conformism and similar forms of group behaviour. For
these reasons, we believe that it is essential to investigate teachers’ inclinations to certain follower-
ship behaviours, together with the factors reinforcing such behaviours.
Therefore, the first aim of the study is to determine the frequency with which particular
followership styles (according to Kelley’s model) occur in the teaching staff of two types of
secondary schools in Serbia (grammar school and vocational schools) and their potential differ-
ences in relation to the control variables.

Followership
The term ‘followership’ is used in a number of ways: as the opposite of leadership on a leadership/
followership continuum, a direct or indirect influential activity or as a role for those influenced by a
leader (Crossman and Crossman, 2011). Both follower and leader are roles, and not personality
structures, whereby roles are regarded as behaviours, a system of activities which are expected
from an individual holding a certain position in a particular group, such as an organization, culture,
society (Havelka, 2000).
In line with role theory (Biddle, 1986), roles are acquired through interpersonal interactions.
Roles do not have an impact only on specific activities of employees, but also on their opinions of
and attitudes to their leaders, tasks and the organization as a whole. Although organizational
behaviour is context specific and conditional on environmental, organizational and social factors
(for example cultural values, norms, beliefs, preferences), it may also be influenced by non-
normative expectations, and the roles themselves may evolve over time (Biddle, 1986). Accord-
ingly, we shall adopt the standpoint that roles are interactive, and view them as a partially change-
able construct, whose manifestations are relatively stable.
In a similar vein, the theory of Howell and Mendez (2008) stipulates that followership may take
an interactive form in which the followership role is complementary to that of the leadership role in
achieving organizational goals. It may also take an independent form in which followers act
independently of their leaders with minimal supervision and management. Finally, it may take a
changeable form where employees assume the followership or leadership role, depending on an
actual situation or assignment.
There is a considerably smaller body of research focusing on followership in contrast to
investigations into leadership, and the concept of a follower has been unjustifiably separated from
that of a leader, although these two concepts are at opposite ends of the same continuum (Baker,
2007). What is emphasized in many of the studies is that the leader is the only proactive person in a
work situation, whereas followers are reactive parts of the system, empty boxes to be filled with the
data from the leader (Can and Aktaş, 2012). Followership is normally followed by assumptions
that individuals instinctively know how to follow (Agho, 2009), which is one more reason why it
has attracted less attention than leadership in research. However, results show that 80% of work
that contributes to the success of organizations fall within followers, and the remaining 20%
represent the leader’s engagement (Kelley, 1992).

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

Hinić et al.: Followership Styles and Job Satisfaction in Secondary School Teachers in Serbia 3

Although leaders hold formal positions of power, in reality they need followers’ consent to their
leadership so that they could manage business of an entire organization (Russell, 2003). It is
essential to point out that the concept of the follower in this article is unrelated to any potential
negative connotations of the lexical unit itself or the viewpoint of followers as people with lesser
abilities, according to singular leader models (Russell, 2003). It rather denotes that a person
formally takes a subordinate position in a hierarchical structure. Thus, they simultaneously have
an immediate superior ‘above’ themselves, whose assignments they must formally complete with
obedience.1

Followership Styles
The theoretical basis of our study is Kelley’s followership theory, primarily because it focuses on
corporate environment and the application of acquired knowledge about followership within
organizational relations. Therefore, it is applicable to social relations in school environment as
well. According to this theory, followership entails courses of action or conditions in which an
individual supports or facilitates the leader to meet organizational goals (Kelley, 2008). A great
number of people spend a lot of time pursuing the follower role, which is something that deter-
mines not only their job satisfaction, but also self-satisfaction and life satisfaction (Kelley, 1988).
Kelley discerns two mutually interrelated dimensions of followership: independent critical think-
ing and active engagement. Independent thinking without active engagement may drive people
with excellent ideas away from the organization if they lack tools to put their ideas into practice,
while active engagement without independent thinking may create people who are committed, but
lack their own attitude and never refuse orders, regardless whether they are good or bad (Kelley,
1988).
Drawing on Kelley’s theory, the following followership styles were examined in this article
(cited in Marković, 2011: 113–121):

The exemplary followers (high level of independent thinking and active engagement)
–Exemplary or star followers think independently and critically, they take an active part
in their job, they are able to engage in critical situations and accept the goals of the
organization as their own. The greatest number of people starts their career in this follo-
wership style. However, depending on the concurrence of events, this can be commonly
changed.
The alienated (independent thinking at a very high level, active engagement low) – The
alienated think for themselves, but they fail to be active in fulfilling tasks. They have a
positive image of themselves, they perceive things more realistically than others do, but
they are also sceptical. Such followers are often deemed quite cynical, stubborn, trouble-
makers who undermine authority. These people have difficulty fitting into teams; they are
dissatisfied because the leader fails to exploit their abilities and ideas.
The yes-people (independent thinking at a very low level, active engagement high) – Yes-
people readily accept tasks, they are good team players, they are completely devoted to the
organization and trust their leader, they make an effort to avoid or ease a conflict, lack
personal ideas and opinions and are no threat to the leader. These people are engaged at
work, but do not question attitudes and opinions of the leader. We shall call this type of

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

4 Educational Management Administration & Leadership

followership conformists in this article because they fulfil all the criteria of conformist
behaviour (Marković, 2011).
The pragmatists (medium-level independent thinking and active engagement) – Pragma-
tists incline towards certain attitudes and change their attitudes in line with the organiza-
tion policy. They carry out appropriate tasks, but rarely work more than required, aspire to
keep conflicts to a minimum and to do their job well, but they are not willing to sacrifice
themselves for somebody or something. Emotions of anger and alienation are present in
alienated followers, whereas the dominant feeling in pragmatists is the one of self-
sufficiency, mixed with anxiety to a certain extent.
The passive followers (low-level independent thinking and active engagement) – Passive
followers always rely on their leaders and their opinions, they work only when instructed,
they have lack of initiative, motivation and feeling of security and thus they need someone
to constantly guide them. Kelley singles out extremely passive followers who cannot make
it without a leader, and people who like to be followers so that they shut themselves off
and do not use their potentials.

Job Satisfaction
A high rate of teacher departure from teaching jobs is reported in numerous countries throughout
the world regardless of differences in their education system (Crossman and Harris, 2006; Skaalvik
and Skaalvik, 2011), which places importance on investigating teachers’ job satisfaction and on
working towards the elimination of sources of negative influence on job satisfaction and work
motivation.
Job satisfaction is a construct which encompasses feelings that someone has about their job and
a cognitive evaluation of it. As such, it represents one of the most frequently studied constructs in
organizational research, because it has been interrelated both theoretically and empirically with
various organizational constructs, such as productivity, absenteeism and organizational involve-
ment among others (Wright, 2006).
Two basic viewpoints stand out relative to the definition of this concept (Matanović, 2009). The
first one is holistic, whereby job satisfaction is regarded as a one-dimensional construct, a general
feeling and attitude to one’s job. The second is additive, since this construct is seen as multi-
dimensional, as a sum of different aspects of job satisfaction. Job satisfaction would then be
defined as everything that a person feels about their job and different aspects of the job (Spector,
1997: 2). Therefore, a person dissatisfied with one or more aspects of their work may after all be
motivated to do the job. These aspects are most commonly labelled under two groups (Spector,
1997): extrinsic (work facets such as material rewards, working conditions, interpersonal relation-
ships of employees) and intrinsic (work content, work autonomy, level of responsibility and
creativity, and the like).
Findings have shown schoolteachers’ morale, job satisfaction and motivation to be much less
influenced by externally initiated factors, such as salary, educational policy and reforms, than by
factors from the more immediate context within which teachers work (Evans, 2001). The nature of
this influence is different to different teachers, because of their diverse job-related needs, values
and goals; nevertheless, building relationships with colleagues and headteachers emerges as one of
the key factors in the effectiveness of teachers in school environment (Evans, 2001; Silva et al.,

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

Hinić et al.: Followership Styles and Job Satisfaction in Secondary School Teachers in Serbia 5

Table 1. Distribution of the sample according to school types and regions.

School region

School type Sjenica Novi Sad Kragujevac Total

Grammar 41 26 36 103
Vocational 43 29 31 103
Total 84 55 67 206

2000). Various studies conducted in educational settings have revealed that leadership behaviours
of headteachers, as well as recognition, support and respect from superiors had an effect on job
satisfaction of teachers (Cerit, 2009; Crossman and Harris 2006). However, the question how
followership behaviours of teachers affect job satisfaction is yet another unanswered question.
This is the reason why in the second part of the article the extracted followership dimensions and
styles have been correlated with job satisfaction, level of extrinsic and intrinsic satisfaction.

Methods
Sample and Procedure
The research was carried out with the sample of 206 secondary school teachers of three grammar
schools and three vocational schools in three towns (Sjenica, Novi Sad and Kragujevac) within a
month. These towns were chosen because they differ in size, region and the level of economic
development (SORS, 2013).2 Novi Sad, the largest city of all and most developed, is the
capital of the northern region. Kragujevac, the next largest and developed city from the list, is
located in Central Serbia. Finally, Sjenica, the smallest and least developed of the three
towns, is situated in the southern part of Serbia. Research indicates that the type of school
as defined by ownership, funding and religious affiliation may have an impact on teachers’
job satisfaction (Crossman and Harris 2006). The difference between secondary schools
according to the type of educational profile (grammar versus vocational schools) has not
been investigated so far. Accordingly, we included grammar school as a more comprehensive
type of school, which covers a wider range of general subjects to be studied, and vocational
technical schools as examples of occupational-oriented courses that are more directed at
practical work in their classes (Table 1).
Female teachers from the sample outnumbered male teachers with 62.6% in comparison with
37.4% (2(1) ¼ 13.123, p < 0.000). This distribution was similar regardless of the type of school
(67%-33% in grammar schools and 59%-41% in vocational schools), which follows the distribution
of general population of teachers in Serbia. The youngest employee was 23 years of age, the oldest 64
(M ¼ 43,17; SD ¼ 10,475), and their work experience ranged from one to forty years (M ¼ 16.08;
SD ¼ 10.062). No differences were found according to age (t(204) ¼ 0.8114, p ¼ 0.418), nor work
experience (t(204) ¼ 0.249, p ¼ 0.804) relative to school type. As regards teachers’ degrees, 1.5%
completed vocational college, 84.5% held a bachelor’s degree and 14.1% a master’s degree.3

Instruments
The following instruments were used in the study.

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

6 Educational Management Administration & Leadership

Followership Questionnaire (Kelley, 1992), which measures two dimensions of followership:

independent critical thinking (10 items, for example, ‘Do you act on your own ethical standards
rather than the leader’s or the group’s standards?’) and active participation (also 10 items, for
example, ‘Do you take the initiative to seek out and successfully complete assignments that go
above and beyond your job?’). The existent data speak in favour of psychometric properties of the
scale, with the aggregate coefficient of internal consistency a ¼ 0.84, and individual scores on the
subscales ranging from 0.63 to 0.74 for independent thinking and 0.69 to 0.87 for active engage-
ment (Seeley, 2007).
There are different versions of the scale in languages other than English, in which the two-factor
structure of the instrument in question has been also obtained, as well as a satisfactory reliability of
the followership measure (Gatti et al., 2014). In the current study, the Serbian version was
employed (Jovanović et al., 2003), which was translated to the Serbian language and style with
no content changes. It consisted of 20 items that the participants evaluated on a six-point Likert
scale in terms of how much the statements were applicable (or not) to them. The ranges of the
points were 0 – ‘something rarely happens or you rarely do it’, 3 – ‘something happens occasion-
ally or you occasionally do it’, 6 – ‘something almost always happens or you almost always do it’.
The results on the scale were formed by adding up scores to the sum, whereby the minimal number
of scores on each dimension was 0 and maximum 60 (Jovanović et al., 2003). The instrument also
measures five styles of organizational behaviour described in the introductory part of the article: an
exemplary follower (score > 45 on IT, and > 45 on AE4), an alienated follower (> 45 on IT, < 15 on
AE), a conformist (< 15 on IT, > 45 on AE), a passive follower (< 15 on IT, < 15 on AE), and a
pragmatist (15–45 on IT, 15–45 on AE).
Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire or MSQ (Weiss et al., 1967), which measure individual
job satisfaction and encompasses twenty different aspects of work environment, was used in this
article in its Serbian version (Kosanović and Stevanov, 2003). Similarly to the previous scale, this
scale is also a direct translation of the original scale, adapted to the Serbian language and style with
no content changes. Research to date shows good properties of the scale, such as internal con-
sistency coefficients ranging from 0.85 to 0.96, and test-retest reliabilities of 0.70 to 0.80 (Kosa-
nović and Stevanov, 2003; Buitendach and Rothmann 2009). Twenty items were factor analysed
and the following factors were extracted: factor of intrinsic (11 items describing satisfaction with
the degree of autonomy at workplace, level of creativity, responsibility, social status) and extrinsic
satisfaction respectively (nine items relating to working conditions, wages, interpersonal relation-
ships among the employed, safety). Besides the scores on the individual factors, an aggregate score
of general job satisfaction may be provided, whereby lower values indicate lower levels of job
satisfaction.
Finally, with an aim to collect demographic information relevant to the study, we have also
included questions about sex, age, level of education (degree), economic status and work experi-
ence of the sample, which were treated as control variables in this study.

Statistics
The normal distribution of the variables was verified by using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. The
internal consistency of the scales was measured by Cronbach’s alpha. Differences in scores were
computed with Mann–Whitney and Kruskal–Wallis tests, independent t-test and one-way analysis
of variance. The Pearson’s and Spearman’s coefficients were used for correlation. All tests were

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

Hinić et al.: Followership Styles and Job Satisfaction in Secondary School Teachers in Serbia 7

two-tailed, with p  0.05 considered statistically significant. For the purposes of data analysis,
PASW Statistics 18 was employed.

Results
The Followership Scale showed a satisfactory reliability (a ¼ 0.83). The most prominent follower-
ship style was that of exemplary followers (58.7%), followed by pragmatists (39.8%), whereas the
alienated (1%) and conformists (0.5%) were insignificant in number. The distribution of responses
on the subscale of independent thinking significantly differs from normal distribution (KS (206) ¼
0.078, p ¼ 0.004) and is skewed towards higher values (M ¼ 41.66, SD ¼ 7.551). The situation is
similar with responses on the subscale of active participation (KS (206) ¼ 0.066, p ¼ 0.028,
M ¼ 43.51, SD ¼ 8.172).
The Job Satisfaction Scale indicated a high reliability as a whole (a ¼ 0.90), as well as with
the individual subscales (extrinsic: a ¼ 0.83; intrinsic: a ¼ 0.85). The mean value was 73.07
(SD ¼ 12.145) out of maximum 100, which on average suggests mildly expressed job satisfaction
of the participants, although the distribution of responses was within normal, both in the grammar
school teachers (KS (103) ¼ 0.074, p ¼ 0.191) and vocational school teachers (KS (103) ¼ 0.081,
p ¼ 0.093). With regard to intrinsic aspects, the minimum was 28, maximum 60 out of 60 in total
(M ¼ 46.30, SD ¼ 7.229), while the minimum relative to extrinsic aspects was 7, and maximum
30 out of 30 in total (M ¼ 19.88, SD ¼ 5.021).
In terms of individual work aspects, most positively evaluated aspect was ‘prospect to do
something for others’ (M ¼ 4.24) and ‘prospect for independent work’ (M ¼ 4.07). Most
negatively evaluated aspect was the one relating to the ‘relation between wages and com-
mitment’ (M ¼ 2.86). The teachers were mainly dissatisfied (24.8%) or somewhat dissatis-
fied (30.1%) with their overall economic situation. Only 4.4% of the teachers were satisfied
with their economic circumstances, whereas 23.8% were somewhat satisfied and 17% were
neutral.

Demographic Characteristics and Followership Styles

If we include the two most frequent types of followership in the analysis (that is, exemplary
followers and pragmatists), what can be noticed is that there are no differences according to the
control variables: school type (2(1) ¼ 0.049, p ¼ 0.824), region (2(2) ¼ 0.890, p ¼ 0.345), sex
(2(1) ¼ 0.056, p ¼ 0.813), age (t(201) ¼ 0.744, p ¼ 0.458) and work experience (t(201) ¼
0.714, p ¼ 0.476). The only difference was found in satisfaction with economic circumstances,
wherein the exemplary followers were significantly more satisfied than the pragmatists were
(t(201) ¼ 2.541, p ¼ 0.012).
The scores on the dimensions of independent thinking and active participation showed no
differences according to sex (U(206) ¼ 4672, p ¼ 0.476; U(206) ¼ 4799, p ¼ 0.685), and school
type (U(206) ¼ 4780, p ¼ 0.519; U(206) ¼ 5108, p ¼ 0.646).
Having employed Kruskal-Wallis test, we detected significant differences in scores on these
dimensions of followership according to the region variable (Table 2).
Independent thinking had no correlation with the rest of the control variables, whereas active
participation showed a weak correlation with satisfaction with economic situation (the greater
satisfaction, the higher level of participation). A strong positive correlation was found between
active participation and independent thinking (Table 3).

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

8 Educational Management Administration & Leadership

Table 2. Differences between region and the mean ranks of followership dimensions.

Independent thinking Active participation

School region N Mean rank Mean rank

Sjenica 84 82.34 106.93

Kragujevac 67 108.40 80.54
Novi Sad 55 129.85 126.24
H(2) ¼ 21.833** p ¼ 0.000 H(2) ¼ 18.255** p ¼ 0.000
Note: **Differences are significant at 0.01 level.

Table 3. Correlations between age, work experience, satisfaction with economic circumstances, and the
followership dimensions.

Active Work Satisfaction with economic

participation Age experience situation

Independent rs 0.508** 0.082 0.072 0.127

thinking p 0.000 0.242 0.303 0.069
Active participation rs 0.091 0.095 0.239**
p 0.192 0.173 0.001

Note: **Correlations are significant at 0.01 level.

Table 4. Differences in job satisfaction according to sex, school type and region.

Job satisfaction N M SD t/F p

Men 77 72.87 11.150 t(204) ¼ 0.185 .854

Women 129 73.19 12.473
Grammar school 103 73.32 12.438 t(204) ¼ 0.292 .771
Vocational school 103 72.83 11.900
Kragujevac 67 69.94 11.308 F(2) ¼ 4.005 .020*
Sjenica 84 73.68 12.384 eta ¼ 0.195
Novi Sad 55 75.96 12.112
Note: *Differences is significant at 0.05 level.

Demographic Characteristics and Job Satisfaction

The arithmetic means of the subsamples with regard to job satisfaction did not differ according to
sex, school type and region (Table 4).
Similar findings were recorded for intrinsic and extrinsic scores. However, there was no
difference found according to regions for intrinsic, but it was detected for extrinsic scores
(Table 5).
Job satisfaction was moderately (positively) correlated with satisfaction with economic sit-
uation and strongly (positively) correlated with both types of work aspects. The same applied to
both intrinsic and extrinsic aspects, which were mutually strongly (positively) correlated as well
(Table 6).

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

Hinić et al.: Followership Styles and Job Satisfaction in Secondary School Teachers in Serbia 9

Table 5. Differences in motivation according to sex, school type and region.

Intrinsic motivation N M SD t/F p

Men 77 45.69 7.241 t(204) ¼ 0.932 .352

Women 129 46.66 7.226
Grammar school 103 46.80 7.164 t(204) ¼ 0.993 .322
Vocational schools 103 45.80 7.294
Kragujevac 67 45.54 6.528 F(2) ¼ 2.599 .077
Sjenica 84 45.67 7.723
Novi Sad 55 48.18 7.048
Extrinsic motivation N M SD t/F p
Men 77 20.30 4.280 t(204) ¼ 0.917 .360
Women 129 19.64 5.415
Grammar school 103 19.51 5.387 t(204) ¼ 1.005 .293
Vocational school 103 20.25 4.622
Kragujevac 67 17.55 4.992 F(2) ¼ 12.392 .000**
Sjenica 84 20.51 4.278 eta ¼ 0.330
Novi Sad 55 21.33 5.167

Notes: **Difference is significant at 0.01 level.

Table 6. Correlation between demographic variables and job satisfaction, and motivation types.

Work Satisfaction with Intrinsic Extrinsic

Age experience economic situation motivation motivation

Job satisfaction r 0.045 0.065 0.374** 0.917** 0.855**

p 0.521 0.354 0.000 0.000 0.000
Intrinsic motivation r 0.007 0.027 0.317** 1.000 0.596**
p 0.922 0.705 0.000 0.000
Extrinsic motivation r 0.069 0.076 0.324** 0.596** 10.000
p 0.321 0.275 0.000 0.000

Note: **Correlations are significant at 0.01 level.

Followership Dimensions/Styles and Job Satisfaction

Finally, in this section we shall present the analysis showing the correlation between followership
dimensions and styles, on the one hand, and the level of job satisfaction and motivation, on the
other. As in the previous section, we have included only the two most common followership styles,
which showed significant differences in job satisfaction intensity and motivation. While the
exemplary followers stood out in terms of the level of intrinsic and job satisfaction, extrinsic
satisfaction was somewhat more present in the pragmatists (Table 7).
Independent thinking as a followership dimension, showed a moderate positive correlation with
intrinsic aspects of work (r ¼ 0.341, p ¼ 0.000), and a weak correlation with job satisfaction
(r ¼ 0.194, p ¼ 0.005), whereas active participation showed a strong to moderate correlation with
job satisfaction (r ¼ 0.545, p ¼ 0.000) and both work aspects (intrinsic r ¼ 0.523, p ¼ 0.000;
extrinsic r ¼ 0.473, p ¼ 0.000).
By means of employing hierarchical regression analysis and following the requirements for
conducting the analysis (Urdan, 2005), in further process we only included the control variables

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

10 Educational Management Administration & Leadership

Table 7. Differences in motivation and job satisfaction according to followership styles.

Followership styles N Mean SD t p

Intrinsic motivation Exemplary followers 121 49.17 6,394 t(201) ¼ 7.439 0.000**
Pragmatics 82 42.39 6,347 eta ¼ 0.465
Extrinsic motivation Exemplary followers 121 18.87 4,213 t(195) ¼ 2.847 .005**
Pragmatics 82 20.76 5,235 eta ¼ 0.189
Job satisfaction Exemplary followers 121 77.11 11,659 t(201) ¼ 5.870 .000**
Pragmatics 82 67.79 10,199 eta ¼ 0.383
Notes: **Differences are significant at 0.01 level.

Table 8. Regression analysis.

Adjusted
Model R R square R square SE of the estimate

1 0.545 0.297 0.294 10.206

2 0.600 0.360 0.354 9.764

Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients

Model B SE Beta t Sig.

1 (Constant) 37.814 3.861 9.793 0.000

Active participation 0.810 0.087 0.545 9.290 0.000
2 (Constant) 35.317 3.736 9.452 0.000
Active participation 0.719 0.086 0.484 8.361 0.000
Satisfaction with economic situation 2.566 0.576 0.258 4.458 0.000

and followership dimensions which were moderately or strongly correlated with the job satisfac-
tion variable, together with the predictor variables that were not mutually strongly correlated.
Active participation and satisfaction with economic circumstances were also included in the
analysis. The model significantly predicted job satisfaction (F(2) ¼ 57.081, p < 0.001), explaining
36% of the total variance, with the dominant part of active participation of nearly 30% (Table 8).

Discussion
Followership Styles and Dimensions
In the introductory part of the article, we have underlined that numerous factors influence teachers’
behaviour, from personal qualities, intragroup relations, to school/organizational environment and
a wider social/cultural context. First, we shall turn our attention to a potential link between
individual and group factors, and extracted followership styles.
With almost 60% in our sample, the exemplary followers (a high level of independent thinking
and active participation) exceed maximum 35%, which is normally expected in organizations
(Kelley, 1992). However, these data are quite common in educational institutions. In a study

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

Hinić et al.: Followership Styles and Job Satisfaction in Secondary School Teachers in Serbia 11

investigating followership among the employees of an American university, on average the parti-
cipants also showed high scores (over 5 out of maximum 7), both on the dimension of active
participation and independent thinking (Blanchard et al., 2009). In groups composed of well-
educated individuals, who are assured of their competence, the degree of conformity is lower
(Morris and Miller, 1975), and dependent on feeling secure in one’s position in a group. If a person
feels confident about their position in a group, they will more frequently express their disagree-
ment with other people’s opinions (Rot, 2006), that is, independent critical thinking will be more
conspicuous, as it is the case with our results.
There are findings suggesting that the majority of people start their professional career as
exemplary followers (Kelley, 2008), or else that they have a strong desire to prove themselves
at the beginning of their employment (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990). This is only partly true for our
sample that reported the highest number of exemplary followers around the first two years of
work experience, but also between 15 and 20 years of work. What may be at work with regard
to this finding is the impact of a teacher’s period of life. Teachers’ readiness to assume the role
of a leader is conditioned by their being at a personal life stage, which allows one time and
energy to assume the position of leadership (Katzenmeyer and Moller, 2001). Having developed
their own family community and family life, teachers may fully re-commit to their work, both
critically and actively in a later period of life. These data correspond to some studies showing
that life events in persons aged between 31 and 40 have a negative effect on job satisfaction,
whereas there is an increase in job satisfaction after the stated period (Crossman and Harris
2006).
The next dominant group is that of pragmatists that Kelley describes as followers who incline
towards certain attitudes, and change their attitudes along with the changes of organizational
policies. This type shows a medium level of independent thinking and active participation. With
nearly 40% of the participants, this style slightly differs from 35%, which the existing data on
general population predict most (Kelley, 1992). In addition, there is a possibility that the antici-
pated percentage of conformists (of 20–30%) in our sample was replaced with this style of
behaviour in the organization, because pragmatists also have a somewhat explicit need to feel
secure and they achieve it by not standing out in behavioural patterns, which is similar to con-
formity (Bordens and Horowitz, 2008).
Finally, the results of the present study may also be interpreted in the light of conformity, or
more precisely by giving socially desirable responses, because the participants were most likely
able to anticipate which statements entailed exemplary professional behaviour, and which involved
negative behavioural patterns. Consequently, we may not claim with complete confidence that
these results portray the genuine followership styles and not the one that our participants wanted
others to see in them. Convergence is also likely to have occurred, since it is similar to conformity,
whereby judgements and norms of people belonging to the same group and judging the same
objects spontaneously converge towards each other, thus becoming similar (Rot, 2006). This is
especially true when individuals in a group are perceived as similar (Berg and Bass, 1986 cited in
Lacković-Grgin, 1994).
With regard to a potential connection between followership dimensions and the control vari-
ables, we detected a weak link between active participation and satisfaction with economic
circumstances (the greater satisfaction, the higher degree of participation),5 as well as a signif-
icant difference in scores according to regions. The distribution of scores in terms of satisfaction
with economic situation tallies with the distribution of scores relative to active participation
according to regions. Therefore, in line with the previous finding, it is quite unsurprising that

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

12 Educational Management Administration & Leadership

Kragujevac had the lowest level of economic satisfaction, followed by the lowest level of
engagement.

Organizational, Cultural Characteristics and Followership. We have not evaluated thoroughly in this
article the characteristics of schools as institutions. In our study the headteachers were chosen by
the teaching staff, which may also be the reason why these teachers could easily express disagree-
ment and free will because their headteachers are most likely regarded as ‘one of their kind’. What
should be explored in some future studies, though, is the connection between followership styles of
teachers and certain characteristics of school leaders and their organizational behaviour.
Moreover, in further research it would be sensible to examine differences between state and
private educational institutions because there are data stating that the majority (63.6%) of the
participants at private universities acted as pragmatist followers, and only 12.5% were exemplary
followers (Oyetunji, 2013). In addition, teachers in privately managed schools exhibited higher
satisfaction levels than those in foundation schools, which may be explained with a number of
environmental factors, such as larger financial/non-financial resources and less state-driven
bureaucracy (Crossman and Harris, 2006).
As regards the broader social context within which the surveyed schools operate, several things
are worthy of mention that have possibly led to the polarization of the teachers’ followership
behaviour into exemplary followers and pragmatists. According to cultural values theory (Hof-
stede and Hofstede, 2005), and theory of corporate, organizational cultures (Trompenaars, 1994), it
is acceptable for people to spontaneously express their emotions in cultures high in affectivity.
Since the nature of cultural values and relationship in Serbia falls within this framework
(Dzamonja-Ignjatovic et al., 2010), this spontaneity may bring people to express both their emo-
tions, opinions and disagreement freely, which can be one of possible contextual interpretations for
the high level of independent thinking in some of the participants.
Since social conditions favourable to the development of the pragmatic style are also common
in Serbia, such as highly insecure and uncertain working conditions, with changeable agenda and
working instructions, together with the atmosphere where employees need to make internal agree-
ments to ‘get the job done’ (Kelley, 1992), it is no surprise that it stood out as dominant in our
sample. In collectivist (Hofstede and Hofstede, 2005) or communitarian (Trompenaars, 1994)
cultures such as Serbia, there is an emphasis of strong connectedness and cohesive integration
among people. This results in feeling secure, but also in a strong sense of loyalty and uniformity of
attitudes. In the light of the events of the last 20 years or so, a strong tendency towards harm
avoidance has also developed in this environment (Dzamonja-Ignjatovic et al., 2010),6 which
brings about unification and conformity (Hofstede and Hofstede, 2005; Rot, 2006). Nonetheless,
these changes have also brought about some minor changes in cultural values. Analogous with
other former communist countries (Trompenaars, 1994), individualism has become prominent in
one part of the population, which may be a possible explanation for this division of the sample into
pragmatists and exemplary followers.

Followership Dimensions and Job Satisfaction

In terms of the connection between followership styles and job satisfaction, the exemplary fol-
lowers attached greater significance to intrinsic aspects of work and reported higher job satisfac-
tion, while the pragmatists placed more importance on extrinsic ones. These data correspond with
the existing findings in educational institutions, which have shown that participants with a higher

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

Hinić et al.: Followership Styles and Job Satisfaction in Secondary School Teachers in Serbia 13

level of active participation and independent thinking (exemplary or star followers) reported the
highest scores on intrinsic satisfaction (Blanchard et al., 2009).
Although independent thinking failed to show any significant predictive value as regards job
satisfaction, the results of the current study suggest that there is a certain interconnection between
these variables. This is in accordance with the findings of Deci (1991), who concludes that
intrinsically motivated people find it very important to have the feeling of autonomy (independent
thinking) supported, because they afterwards have a feeling that they shape their own behaviour
and take it as a consequence of personal choices, and not as the result of external control. What the
participants of the present study singled out as one of the most positive aspects of their work was
the opportunity to work autonomously.
Intrinsically motivated employees are more productive, satisfied and committed to work (Deci,
1991), but at the same time less prone to conformist behaviour (Lacković-Grgin, 1994). Motiva-
tional research to date, however, also suggests a positive connection between intrinsic motivation
and satisfaction with economic situation (Bong, 2001). A number of previous studies reported that
teachers are for the most part satisfied with their profession, primarily motivated by intrinsic
aspects of work, such as the inherent nature of the job, its achievements, affection for children
and teaching (Beara, 2009). In contrast, it is also evident that Serbian teachers, being financed
through the country’s budget, also tend to be dissatisfied with working conditions. They are
discontented with wages, school equipment, management and similar factors, which is something
they expressed in the current research by giving the lowest mark to the aspect of remuneration.
Not only do employees satisfied with their economic situation show a higher degree of extrinsic
work satisfaction, but also a greater degree of engagement and a higher level of independency in
decision-making, which suggests that we should not exclusively rely on intrinsic work aspects
when successful results are expected at work. This is in line with the theory of self-determination,
whereby intrinsic and extrinsic motivation aspects are not taken as dichotomous, but are rather at
opposite ends of the same continuum (seminal work of Deci and Ryan). While intrinsic factors may
primarily motivate people to become teachers, extrinsic work conditions can influence their
satisfaction and their desire to remain in teaching (Lee et al., 1991). The results of our study also
indicated that a higher degree of engagement predicted a higher level of job satisfaction, and in
combination with economic satisfaction, it even showed a higher degree of its predictive value.
The teacher’s role and position are conditioned by the character of an education system and also
by a host of sociocultural factors, whereby social reputation of the teacher is reflected in the
importance given to the teaching profession in a society, esteem for professional and moral values
of the teaching job and the amount of remuneration which the teacher receives for their work
(Havelka, 2000). If we take a look at earlier definitions of followership and its dimensions, we shall
notice that there is a human’s need for personal development and improvement, on the one hand,
and for security and personal protection, on the other (Steger et al., 1982). These two dimensions
are the ones present in the two extracted followership styles (the former in the exemplary fol-
lowers, the latter in the pragmatists). They typically describe two dominant, but opposite tenden-
cies of an employed person in our society. They typify teachers who possess knowledge and skills,
who are self-confident, motivated (especially by intrinsic factors, although they need to have a
higher degree of extrinsic satisfaction as well) and have a team support of their colleagues.
Therefore, they more readily accept changes in contemporaneous education, reforms, active learn-
ing, class teamwork activities and the like.
On the negative side, they also typify some teachers who are pragmatists, less motivated, with
dominant extrinsic needs, more inclined to bureaucracy and obedience to rules, with no need to

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

14 Educational Management Administration & Leadership

experiment in different situations. They have the knowledge, but lack confidence and urge to step
out of the comfort zone; thus, they feel more confident to work routinely, following uniform rules
and holding on to the traditional class format since it excludes additional engagement, creativity
and potential situations in which they lack ready-made answers.

Limitations and Suggestions for Future Studies

It is necessary to point to the limitations of the study. First, it is a correlational study, and it has not
been longitudinally conducted to determine the relationships between the variables more clearly.
Second, with the employment of self-reported questionnaires, especially when psychological
processes are concerned, there is always a risk relative to the issue of subjectivity, such as
providing socially desirable answers in the first place.
Finally, Kelley himself (1992) maintains that it is necessary to assess followership styles of
people within different cultures because of the impact of different social and cultural factors.
Research to date has failed to address the question how people display their dependency or free
will in hierarchical relationships with respect to cultural values (Can and Aktaş, 2012). Conse-
quently, it would be reasonable to compare followership styles in schools from different cultural
milieus in the future, to compare state and private schools, schools that are part of a pilot pro-
gramme and traditional schools, and the like. Until then, part of the results of our study pertaining
to certain followership styles, may be generalized only to the environments with similar socio-
political characteristics, that is, developing countries or countries in transition, with dominant
presence of state schools and a low budget for the education sector.
One of the aspects that should definitely be more thoroughly investigated in future studies is the
role of independent thinking. In similar research, the followership dimensions together explained
10% of the variance in terms of job satisfaction, whereby active participation was positively
connected with job satisfaction, and independent thinking with extrinsic motivation (Blanchard
et al., 2009). In the professional model of education restructuring (Elmore, 1990), besides tradi-
tional, other characteristics of daily teacher’s activities are recognized, such as variety, uncertainty,
and ambiguity; thus, it is vital that teachers have dominant critical thinking and self-evaluation.
Critical thinking and re-examination of a work situation may lead to increased awareness of
negative aspects of employment (most commonly remuneration or overtime). Nonetheless, in
combination with active participation, it may also give rise to the comprehension of meaningful
and positive aspects of the job (helping others, autonomy, creativity), which further complicates
the picture of the impact of independent thinking on job satisfaction and performance.

Conclusion
The presence of particular followership styles has far-reaching consequences for functioning of
people in a work environment such as school. School is an institution towards which practical
interventions should be directed in order to prevent potential negative impacts of conformist or
similar negative forms of employees’ behaviour, since school is a significant agent in the devel-
opment of an individual and society in general.
If teaching staff members could grasp the dynamic relationship between leaders and followers,
which actually exists in their immediate environment, it could help to promote a transparent,
inclusive and more comprehensive interaction among all members of such organizations (Crippen,

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

Hinić et al.: Followership Styles and Job Satisfaction in Secondary School Teachers in Serbia 15

2012). It may also lead to the development of trust, loyalty and engagement of employees through
clearer and better-defined mutual relationships.
Schools are too complex to be led by headteachers only. Teachers are the ones who possess
comprehensive knowledge with regard to daily operations and interactions with students and
parents. Therefore, their perspectives and insights should be acknowledged by the management
as they may result in reaching more effective decisions (Barth, 2001). The more teachers
participate in making decisions about working conditions, the stronger sense of empowerment
they have, which leads to greater ownership and commitment to organizational goals (Barth,
2001). Schools in which the headteacher and teachers worked closely together and communi-
cated regularly were reported to show more positive outcomes and to uphold norms of teamwork
and openness (Hart, 1994).
Investing in leadership preparation of school headteachers is important because it may result in
more positive working conditions, and consequently enhanced student learning. Although a pro-
gramme design for leadership preparation can play an important role in school improvement
(Orphanos and Orr, 2014), it is not sufficient on its own. It is essential to invest in teachers’ in-
service training and courses with regard to functional forms of followership behaviour. This takes
on an added importance because followership constitutes a manner of fulfilling the followership
role, which as such is dominantly dependent on personality types (certain personality character-
istics will be more liable to certain followership styles), but is also quite dependent on environ-
mental factors, wider social settings, current position in an organization, and the like.
Despite the fact that prevailing followership structures of the teacher are in essence conditional
on personality characteristics, we can influence them in the process of professional and in-service
training, thereby directing them towards the development of functional followership types. Finally,
it would result in a higher quality of work, better educational outcomes, as well as greater
satisfaction of students and parents (Beara, 2009). Hopefully, some of the conclusions and ques-
tions raised in this study will encourage some further steps in the mentioned directions of the
present-day education.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Notes
1. For an in-depth analysis of followership, theoretical foundations and followership survey instruments,
Baker (2007) or Crossman and Crossman (2011).
2. These differences among towns had to be taken into consideration because, for instance, results show that
teachers in larger communities tend to be seen by students as more task-oriented, authoritative, and less
personal than their colleagues in smaller communities (Larkin, 1973).
3. In the education system of Serbia, vocational college involves three years of study, a bachelor’s degree
studies four, and a master’s degree one year.
4. A participant must have a score higher than 45, both on the subscale independent thinking as well as on the
subscale Active engagement.

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

16 Educational Management Administration & Leadership

5. It is important to emphasize that satisfaction with economic circumstances herein has not been equalized
with satisfaction with wages, remuneration at workplace because it may encompass other forms of
attaining material rewards.
6. Civil wars in former Yugoslavia, the 1999 bombing, sanctions, political crises, and so on.

References
Agho A (2009) Perspectives of senior-level executives on effective followership and leadership. Journal of
Leadership and Organizational Studies 16(2): 159–166.
Baker SD (2007) Followership: the theoretical foundation of a contemporary construct. Journal of Leadership
& Organizational Studies 14(1): 50–60.
Barth RS (2001) Teacher leader. Phi Delta Kappan 82: 443–449.
Beara M (2009) Teachers’ Motivation vs Willingness to Professionally Develop. Novi Sad: University of Novi
Sad – ACIMSI.
Biddle BJ (1986) Recent development in role theory. Annual Review of Sociology 12: 67–92.
Blanchard AL, Welbourne J, Gilmore D and Bullock A (2009) Followership styles and employee attachment
to the organization. The Psychologist-Manager Journal 12: 111–131.
Bong M (2001) Generality of academic self-efficacy judgments: evidence of hierarchical relations. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology 89: 696–709.
Bordens KS and Horowitz IA (2014) Social Psychology (Fourth Edition). St. Paul, MN: Freeload Press.
Buitendach JH and Rothmann S (2009) The validation of the Minnesota job satisfaction questionnaire in
selected organizations in South Africa. South African Journal of Human Resource Management 7(1): 1–8.
Can A and Aktaş M (2012) Cultural values and followership style preferences. Procedia – Social and
Behavioral Sciences 41: 84–91.
Cerit J (2009) The effects of servant leadership behaviour of school principals on teachers’ job satisfaction.
Educational Management Administration & Leadership 37(5): 600–623.
Crippen C (2012) Enhancing authentic leadership-followership: strengthening school relationships. Manage-
ment in Education 26(4): 192–198.
Crossman A and Harris P (2006) Job satisfaction of secondary school teachers. Educational Management
Administration & Leadership 34(1): 29–46.
Crossman B and Crossman J (2011) Conceptualizing followership – a review of the literature. Leadership 7:
481–497.
Deci EL (1991) Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology 18: 105–115.
Dzamonja-Ignjatovic T, Svrakic DM, Svrakic N, Divac-Jovanovic M and Cloninger RC (2010) Cross-cultural
validation of the revised temperament and character inventory: Serbian data. Comprehensive Psychiatry
51: 649–655.
Elmore RF (1990) Restructuring schools: The next generation of educational reform. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.
Evans L (2001) Delving deeper into morale, job satisfaction and motivation among education professionals –
re-examining the leadership dimension. Educational Management & Administration 29(3): 291–306.
Gatti P, Tartari M, Cortese CG and Ghislieri C (2014) A contribution to the Italian validation of Kelley’s
followership questionnaire. Testing Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology 21(1): 67–87.
Hart AW (1994) Creating teacher leadership roles. Educational Administration Quarterly 30: 472–497.
Havelka N (2000) The Student and the Teacher in the Educational Process. Belgrade: Zavod za udžbenike i
nastavna sredstva.

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

Hinić et al.: Followership Styles and Job Satisfaction in Secondary School Teachers in Serbia 17

Hofstede G and Hofstede GJ (2005) Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Howell J and Mendez M (2008) Three perspectives on followership. In Riggio RE, Chaleff I and Lipman-
Blumen J (eds) The Art of Followership: How Great Followers Create Great Leaders and Organizations.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, pp. 25–40.
Jennings PA and Greenberg MT (2009) The prosocial classroom: teacher social and emotional competence in
relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research 79(1): 491–525.
Jovanović M, Živković M and Cvetovski T (2003) Organizational Behaviour. Belgrade: Megatrend
University.
Katzenmeyer M and Moller G (2001) Awakening the sleeping giant: Helping teachers develop as leaders
(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Kelley RE (1988) In praise of followers. Harvard Business Review 66(6): 142–148.
Kelley RE (1992) The Power of Followership: How to Create Leaders People Want to Follow and Followers
Who Lead Themselves. New York: Doubleday Currency Publishers.
Kelley RE (2008) Rethinking followership. In: Riggio RE, Chaleff I and Lipman-Blumen J (eds) The Art of
Followership: How Great Followers Create Great Leaders and Organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jos-
sey-Bass, pp. 5–15.
Kosanović B and Stevanov Z (2003) General characteristics of the Minnesota job satisfaction questionnaire.
In Empirical Studies in Psychology IX, pp. 92–93. Belgrade: Institute of Psychology.
Lacković-Grgin K (1994) Self-conception of the Young. Jastrebarsko: Naklada Slap.
Larkin RW (1973) Contextual influences on teacher leadership styles. Sociology of Education 46(4):
471–479.
Lee VE, Dedrick RF and Smith JB (1991) The effect of the social organization of schools on teachers’
efficacy and satisfaction. Sociology of Education 64: 190–208.
Marković Z (2011) Leadership and Followership Psychology. Niš: Faculty of Philosophy.
Matanović J (2009) Personality traits as predictors of job satisfaction. Primenjena psihologija 2(3):
327–338.
Mathieu JE and Zajac DM (1990) A review and meta-analysis of the antecedents, correlates and consequences
of organizational commitment. Psychological Bulletin 108: 171–194.
Morris W and Miller R (1975) The effects of consensus-breaking and consensus preempting partners on
reduction in conformity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 11: 215–223.
Orphanos S and Orr MT (2014) Learning leadership matters: the influence of innovative school leadership
preparation on teachers’ experiences and outcomes. Educational Management Administration & Leader-
ship 42(5): 680–700.
Oyetunji CO (2013) The relationship between followership style and job performance in Botswana private
universities. International Education Studies 6(2): 179–187.
Rot N (2006) Introduction to Social Psychology. Belgrade: Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna sredstva.
Russell M (2003) Leadership and followership as a relational process. Educational Management Adminis-
tration & Leadership 31(2): 145–157.
Seeley TA (2007) The Impact of Followership Dimensions on Affective Commitment and In-role and Extra-
role Performance. San Diego, CA: Alliant International University.
Silva DY, Gimbert B and Nolan J (2000) Sliding the doors: locking and unlocking possibilities for teacher
leadership. Teachers College Record 102: 779–804.
Skaalvik EM and Skaalvik S (2011) Teacher job satisfaction and motivation to leave the teaching profession:
relations with school context, feeling of belonging, and emotional exhaustion. Teaching and Teacher
Education 27: 1029–1038.

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016

18 Educational Management Administration & Leadership

SORS – Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia (2013) Census of Population, Households and Dwellings
in the Republic of Serbia. Belgrade: Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. http://www.popis2011.
stat.rs
Spector PE (1997) Job Satisfaction: Application, Assessment, Causes and Consequences. Thousand Oaks,
CA: SAGE.
Steger JA, Manners GE Jr and Zimmerer TW (1982) Following the leader: how to link management style to
subordinate personalities. Management Review 71(10): 22–28, 49–51.
Trompenaars F (1994) Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Diversity in Global Business. Burr Ridge,
IL: Irvin Publishing.
Urdan TC (2005) Statistics in Plain English. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
Weiss DJ, Dawis RV, England GW and Lofquist LH (1967) Manual for the Minnesota satisfaction ques-
tionnaire. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Industrial Relations Center.
Wright TA (2006) The emergence of job satisfaction in organizational behaviour. A historical overview of the
dawn of job attitude research. Journal of Management History 12(2): 262–277.
York-Barr J and Duke K (2004) What do we know about teacher leadership? Findings from two decades of
scholarship. Review of Educational Research 74(3): 255–316.

Author biographies
Darko Hinić is an associate professor with the Faculty of Philology and Arts, as well as the Faculty
of Science, University of Kragujevac, where he is teaching educational psychology. In addition, he
is teaching social and environmental psychology at the State University of Novi Pazar. His main
areas of interest are environmental behaviour, problematic Internet use, and social interaction in
educational institutions.

Jelena Grubor earned a PhD degree at the Faculty of Philology, University of Belgrade in the
field of applied linguistics. She is working with the State University of Novi Pazar, Serbia, at the
Department of Philology, teaching ELT Methodology. She has had articles published within SLA
and sociolinguistic research. Her main areas of interest are language attitudes and interdisciplinary
research within educational linguistics.

Lida Brulić gained an MA degree in psychology at the State University of Novi Pazar. Her main
area of interest is social psychology, especially conformity research.

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at University of Otago Library on June 4, 2016