The World of Energy

Chapter 31 ± LNG Gas Turbine

31.1. Gas Turbine Fundamentals

Ch. 31 - 1
Gas Turbine History

† First gas turbine was developed in 1872 by Dr. F.

Stolze

† *DV7XUELQH(QJLQH«:KDWGRHVLWGR"
„ Generates thrust by mixing compressed ambient air
with fuel and combusting the mixture through a nozzle
to propel an object forward or to produce shaft work.

Ch. 31 - 2
 What is a gas turbine ?
† A Heavy Duty GT is a single shaft turbo-machine with:
„ 1 compressor, 1 combustion system, 1 expansion
turbine

Ch. 31 - 3
Turbine and Compressor Design

Ch. 31 - 4
 Gas Turbine Issues

† Compressor and
Turbine Design
† Cooling
† Dynamic Surge
† Stall Propagation

Ch. 31 - 5
How Does it Work?

† 1HZWRQ¶VWKLUGODZ
³)RUHYHU\DFWLRQWKHUHLVDQHTXDODQGRSSRVLWH
UHDFWLRQ´

† As the working fluid is exhausted out the nozzle of

the gas turbine engine, the object that the engine is
attached to is pushed forward

† In the case of generating shaft work, the shaft turns

a generator which produces electrical power.

Ch. 31 - 6
 How Does it Work?

Exhaust
Gas

Ambient
Air In

Shaft

Ch. 31 - 7
Gas Turbine Components

Ch. 31 - 8
Gas Turbine Components

Ch. 31 - 9
 Closed Brayton cycle

QH
heat
exchanger

Wnet
compressor turbine

heat
exchanger

QL
Ch. 31 - 10
 Open Brayton cycle

Gas turbine cycle

combustion
chamber
fuel

Wnet
compressor turbine

air intake exhaust

Ch. 31 - 11
 Brayton cycle with regeneration

regenerator
exhaust

Air intake fuel

combustion
chamber Wnet

compressor
turbine

Ch. 31 - 12
Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas
Turbine Engines
† Ideal Brayton Cycle
„ In reality, gas turbines operate on an open cycle
„ Fresh air is continuously drawn into the compressor and
exhaust gases are thrown out

Ch. 31 - 13
Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas
Turbine Engines

† Ideal Brayton
Cycle (cont.)
„ The open gas-
turbine cycle
can be modeled
as a closed cycle
„ The combustion
process is
replaced by a
constant-
pressure heat-
addition process
and the exhaust
process is
replaced by a
constant-
pressure heat-
rejection
process

Ch. 31 - 14
Gas Turbine Schematic

Ch. 31 - 15
Land Base Gas Turbine Cutaway

1. Air Intake Section

2. Compression Section
3. Combustion Section
4. Turbine Section
5. Exhaust Section
6. Exhaust Diffuser

Ch. 31 - 16
Gas Turbine Operation

† Compressor is connected to the turbine via a

shaft. The turbine provides the turning moment
to turn the compressor.

† The turning turbine rotates the compressor fan

blades which compresses the incoming air.

† Compression occurs through rotors and stators

within the compression region.
„ Rotors (Rotate with shaft)
„ Stators (Stationary to shaft)

Ch. 31 - 17
Types of Gas Turbines
† Centrifugal
„ Compressed air output is around the outer
perimeter of engine

† Axial
„ Compressed air output is directed along the
centerline of the engine

† Combination of Both
„ Compressed air output is initially directed along
center shaft of engine and then is compressed
against the perimeter of engine by a later stage.

Ch. 31 - 18
 Example of Centrifugal Flow

Airflow being
forced around
body of engine
Centrifugal
Compressor

Intake airflow is being forced around the

outside perimeter of the engine.

Ch. 31 - 19
 Example of Axial Flow

Multistage
Axial
Compressor

Center
Shaft

Intake airflow is forced down the center shaft of

the engine.

Ch. 31 - 20
 Example of Combination Flow

Centrifugal
Compressor

Intake Air
Flow
Axial Compressor

Intake air flow is forced down the center shaft initially

by axially compressor stages, and then forced against
engine perimeter by the centrifugal compressor.

Ch. 31 - 21
Major Components of Interest

† Compressor
„ Axial
„ Centrifugal

† Turbine
„ Axial Axial Compressor

„ Radial

Centrifugal Compressor
Ch. 31 - 22
 Axial Compressor Operation

Average Velocity
Axial compressors are designed in a divergent shape
which allows the air velocity to remain almost
constant, while pressure gradually increases.

A&P Technician Powerplant Textbook published by Jeppesen Sanderson Inc., 1997

Ch. 31 - 23
Axial Compressor Operation
† The airflow comes in through the inlet and first
comes to the compressor rotor.
„ Rotor is rotating and is what draws the airflow
into the engine.
„ After the rotor is the stator which does not
move and it redirects the flow into the next
stage of the compressor

† Air flows into second stage.

„ Process continues and each stage gradually
increases the pressure throughout the
compressor.

Ch. 31 - 24
Axial Compressor Staging
† An axial compressor stage consists of a rotor and a
stator.
† The rotor is installed in front of the stator and air
flows through accordingly. (See Fig.)

www.stanford.edu/ group/cits/simulation/

Ch. 31 - 25
Centrifugal Compressor Operation

Centrifugal compressors rotate ambient air about an impeller. The

impeller blades guide the airflow toward the outer perimeter of the
compressor assembly. The air velocity is then increased as the rotational
speed of the impeller increases.

Ch. 31 - 26
Axial Turbine Operation

Hot combustion gases

expand, airflow
pressure and
temperature drops.
This drop over the
turbine blades creates
shaft work which
rotates the compressor
assembly.

Airflow through
stator
Airflow around rotor
Axial Turbine with airflow
Ch. 31 - 27
Radial Turbine Operation
† Same operation
characteristics as axial
flow turbine.

† Radial turbines are

simpler in design and
less expensive to
manufacture.

† They are designed much

like centrifugal
compressors.
Radial Flow Turbine
† Airflow is essentially
expanded outward from
the center of the
turbine.

Ch. 31 - 28
 Gas Turbine Issues
† Gas Turbine Engines Suffer from a number of
problematic issues:

† Thermal Issues
† Blade (airfoil) Stalls
† Dynamic Surge

http://www.turbosolve.com/index.html

Ch. 31 - 29
Thermal Issues
† Gas Turbines are
limited to lower
operating temperatures
due to the materials
available for the engine
itself.

† Operating at the lower

temperature will
decrease the efficiency
of the gas turbine so a
means of cooling the
components is
necessary to increase
temperatures at which
engine is run.

Ch. 31 - 30
Cooling Methods

† Spray (Liquid)
† Passage
† Transpiration

Ch. 31 - 31
Spray Cooling
† The method of spraying a
liquid coolant onto the
turbine rotor blades and
nozzle

† Prevents extreme turbine

inlet temperatures from
melting turbine blades by
direct convection between
the coolant and the blades.

Ch. 31 - 32
Passage Cooling
† Hollow turbine
blades such that
a passage is
formed for the
movement of a
cooling fluid.

† DOE has
relatively new
process in which
excess high-
pressure
compressor
airflow is
directed into
turbine
passages.

http://www.eere.energy.gov/inventions/pdfs/fluidtherm.pdf

Ch. 31 - 33
Transpiration Cooling
† Method of forcing air
through a porous
turbine blade.
„ Ability to remove
heat at a more
uniform rate.
„ Result is an effusing
layer of air is
produced around the
turbine blade.
„ Thus there is a
reduction in the rate
of heat transfer to
the turbine blade.

Ch. 31 - 34
Blade (airflow) Stalls
† When airflow begins
separating from the
compressor blades over
which it is passing as the
angle of attack the blades
exceeds the design
parameters

† The result of a blade stall

is that the blade(s) no
longer produce lift and
thus no longer produces a
pressure rise through the Separation Regions
compressor.

Ch. 31 - 35
Dynamic Surge
† Occurs when the static
(inlet) air pressure rises past
the design characteristics of
the compressor.
† When there is a reversal of
airflow from the compressor
causing a surge to propagate
in the engine.
† Essentially, the flow is
exhausted out of the
compressor, or front, of the
engine.
† Result, is the compressor no
longer able to exhaust as Compressor Turbine Exit
quickly as air is being drawn Inlet
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http://www.turbosolve.com/index.html

Ch. 31 - 36
Dynamic Surge Effects
† Cause: Inlet flow is reversed
„ Effect: Mass flow rate is reduced into engine.
„ Effect: Compressor stages lose pressure.
„ Result: Pressure drop allows flow to reverse back into
engine.
„ Result: Mass flow rate increases
† Cause: Increased mass flow causes high pressure
again.
„ Effect: Surge occurs again and process continues.
„ Result: Engine surges until corrective actions are taken.

Ch. 31 - 37
Dynamic Surge Process
P Compressor Surge Point,
Pressure Loss Flow Reverses
Occurs

No Surge
Condition

Flow reverses
back into Corrective
engine Action Taken

mout V

min
mout
Ch. 31 - 38
Axial Compressor Design

† Assumption of Needs
† Determination of
Rotational Speed
† Estimation of number
of stages
† General Stage Design
† Variation of air angles

Ch. 31 - 39
Assumption of Needs

† The first step in compressor design in the

determination of the needs of the system

† Assumptions:
„ Standard Atmospheric Conditions
„ Engine Thrust Required
„ Pressure Ratio Required
„ Air Mass Flow
„ Turbine inlet temperature

Ch. 31 - 40
Rotational Speed Determination
† First Step in Axial Compressor Design
„ Process for this determination is based on
assumptions of the system as a whole
„ Assumed: Blade tip speed, axial velocity, and hub-
tip ratio at inlet to first stage.

Rotational Speed
Equation

Ch. 31 - 41
Derivation of Rotational Speed
† First Make Assumptions:
„ Standard atmospheric conditions

m
„ Axial Velocity: Ca 150  200
s
m
„ Tip Speed: U t 350
s
„ No Intake Losses

„ Hub-tip ratio 0.4 to 0.6

Ch. 31 - 42
Compressor Rotational Speed
† Somewhat of an iterative process in
conjunction with the turbine design.
† Derivation Process:
„ First Define the mass flow into the system

mdot UAU where U = C a1

„ C a1 is the axial velocity range from the root of

the compressor blades to the tips of the blades.

Ch. 31 - 43
Axial Velocity Relationship
ª §r ·
2
º rr Radius to root of
C a1 «1  ¨¨ r ¸¸ » * Ca blade

«¬ © rt ¹ »¼ rt Radius to tip of
blade

Ch. 31 - 44
Tip Radius Determination
By rearranging the mass flow rate equation we can obtain an
iterative equation to determine the blade tip radius required
for the design. m
rt 2 dot

ª § rr ·
2
º
SU 1Ca1 «1  ¨
¨r ¸
¸ »
«
¬ © t ¹ »
¼

Now Looking at the energy equation, we can determine the

entry temperature of the flow.
2
U 2
U 2 C
c pT0  0
c pT1  1 T1 T0  a1

2 2 2c p

Ch. 31 - 45
Isentropic Relationships
† Now employing the isentropic relation between
the temperatures and pressures, then the
pressure at the inlet may be obtained.
J
ª T1 º J 1
P1 P0 « »
¬ 0¼
T

† Now employ the ideal gas law to obtain the

density of the inlet air.

P1
U1
RT1

Ch. 31 - 46
Finally Obtaining Rotational Speed
† Using the equation for tip speed

Ut 2Srt N
† Rearranging to obtain rotational speed.

Ut
N
2Srt
† Finally an iterative process
is utilized to obtain the table
seen here.

Ch. 31 - 47
Determining Number of Stages

† Make keen assumptions

„ Polytropic efficiency of approximately 90%.
„ Mean Radius of annulus is constant through
all stages.
† Use polytropic relation to determine the
exit temperature of compressor.
n 1
n = 1.4, Ratio of
ª P02 º n Specific Heats, Cp/Cv
T02 T01 « »
¬ P01 ¼

P02 is the pressure that the compressor outputs

To1 is ambient temperature
Ch. 31 - 48
Determine Temperature Change
† Assuming that Ca1 = Ca
† NJ is the work done factor
† Work done factor is estimate of stage efficiency
† Determine the mean blade speed.

Um 2Srmean N
† Geometry allows for determining the rotor blade
angle at the inlet of the compressor.

Um
tan E 1 
Ca

Ch. 31 - 49
 Temperature Rise in a Stage
‡ Determine the speed of the flow over the blade profile.

Ca Velocity flow over

V1
cosE 1 
blade V1.

‡ This will give an estimate of the maximum possible rotor

deflection.

cosE 2 
Ca E 2  E1 Blade _ Deflection
V2
‡ Finally obtain the temperature rise through the stage.

OU m Ca tanE1   tanE 2 
'T0 s
cp
Ch. 31 - 50
Number of Stages Required

† The number of stages required is dependent upon the

ratio of temperature changes throughout the
compressor.

'T
Stages 'T T2  Tamb
'T0 s
'T is the temperature change within a stage

'T0 s is the average temperature change over all the stages

Ch. 31 - 51
Designing a Stage
† Make assumptions
„ Assume initial temperature change through first
stage.
„ Assume the work-done factors through each
stage.
„ Ideal Gas at standard conditions
† Determine the air angles in each stage.

Ch. 31 - 52
Stages 1 to 2
† Determine the change in the whirl velocity.
„ Whirl Velocity is the tangential component of the
flow velocity around the rotor.

Ch. 31 - 53
Stage 1 to 2
† Change in whirl velocity through stage.

'Cw Cw2  Cw1

c p 'T
'C w
OU m
Cw1 Ca tanD1 
Alpha 1 is zero at the first stage.

U m  Cw 2
tanE 2 
Ca
Cw 2
tanD 2 
Ca
Ch. 31 - 54
Compressor Velocity Triangles

Ch. 31 - 55
Pressure ratio of the Stage
The pressure ratio in the stage can be determined
through the isentropic temperature relationship and the
polytropic efficiency assumed at 90%.

J
P03 ª K s 'T0 s º J 1
Rs «1  »
P01 ¬ Tamb ¼

K s 0.9

Ch. 31 - 56
 Stage Attributes
The analysis shows that the stage can be outlined by
the following attributes:

1.) Pressure at the onset

of the stage.
2.) Temperature at the
onset of the stage.
3.) The pressure ratio of
the stage.
4.) Pressure at the end of
the stage.
5.) Temperature at the
end of the stage.
6.) Change in pressure
through the stage.
Example of a single stage

Ch. 31 - 57
Variation in Air Angles of Blade

† Assume the free vortex condition.

Cw 2 r const
† Determine stator exit angle.

Um
tanD 3   tanE1 
Ca
† Then determine the flow velocity.

Um
C3
cosD 3 

Ch. 31 - 58
 Air Angle Triangle
Alpha 1 is 0 at
the inlet stage
because there
DUHQR,*9¶V

Thus, Ca1=C1,
and Cw1 is 0

Note: This is
the whirl
velocity
component and
not a blade
spacing!

Ch. 31 - 59
Velocity Triangle

Ca
Red is C a
Green is E
Blue is D

Ca

Ch. 31 - 60
Variation in Air Angles of Blade
† Determine the exit temp., pressure, and density of
stage 1 J
2
Ca ª T º J 1 P3
T3 T0  P3 P03 « 3 » U3
2c p ¬ T03 ¼ RT3
† Determine the blade height at exit

mdot A3
A3 h
U 3C a 2Srmean
† Finally determine the radii of the blade at stator
exit.

h h
rts rmean  rrs rmean 
2 2
Ch. 31 - 61
Variation in Air Angles of Blade
† Determine the radii at the rotor exit.
rtri  rts rrri  rrs
rtr rrr
2 2
Note: That rtri is the radius of the blade at the tip at rotor
inlet.

Note: That rrri is the radius of the blade at the root at rotor
inlet.

† Determine the whirl velocities at the blade root and

tip.
rmean rmean
Cw2 r Cw2 m Cw 2t Cw2 m
rrr rtr
Note: Cw 2 m Cw 2 because there is no other whirl velocity
component in the first stage.
Ch. 31 - 62
 Finally determine the Air Angles
Cw2 r
tan D 2 r  ‡ Stator air angle at root of blade
Ca
Cw2 m
tan D 2 m  ‡ Stator air angle at middle of blade
Ca

tan D 2t 
C w 2t ‡ Stator air angle at tip of blade
Ca
U rr  C w 2 r
tan E 2 r  ‡ Deflection air angle at root of blade
Ca
U m  Cw2m
tan E 2 m  ‡ Deflection air angle at middle of blade
Ca
U tr  C w 2t ‡ Deflection air angle at tip of blade
tan E 2t 
Ca
Ch. 31 - 63
Compressor Design Example
Design of a 5 stage axial compressor:
Givens: rt 0.2262m
Use this and chart to get
Ta 288K Rotational speed of
engine.
T2 452.5 K
Ca 150 ms
O 0.98

Once rotational speed is found,

determine mean blade tip speed.

Ch. 31 - 64
Example
rt  rr
rmean 0.1697m
2
m
Um 2Srmean N 266.6
s
Determine the total temperature rise through the first
stage.
'T T2  Tamb 164 .5K
We are designing for more than just one stage, so
we need to define an average temperature rise per
stage:
'T
'T0 s 32 .9 K
# Stages

Ch. 31 - 65
 Example (Air Angle Determination)

Um
E1 tan 1 60.64q
Ca
'Cw Cw 2  Cw1
m
Cw1 0
s
c p 'T0 s m
'Cw 126.55 Cw 2
OU m s

Ch. 31 - 66
 Example (Air Angle Determination)

U m  Cw 2
E2 tan 1 43.03q
Ca
Ca m
V2 205.21
cosE 2  s

Cw 2
D2 tan 1 40 .15 q
Ca

Ch. 31 - 67