1   Intro
Temperature Effects
Key Points
• Concrete hydration generates heat.
• The risk of cracking is increased with
increasing placement temperature.
• Concrete expands with increasing
temperature and contracts (shrinks) with
decreasing temperature. The amount of
this expansion and contraction is governed
primarily by the aggregate type (see
Aggregates in chapter 3, page 39.)
• Concrete hydration rate is accelerated with
increasing temperature and with increasing
cement fineness. This can accelerate setting
time and reduce the sawing window.
• Supplementary cementitious materials
typically have lower heat of hydration.
• In cold-weather concreting, the challenge
is to maintain the concrete temperature to
prevent freezing while gaining strength.
• Testing specifications: ASTM C 186,
ASTM C 1064 / AASHTO T 309,
AASHTO TP 60.
Simple Definition
The hydration of cement and water in concrete
generates heat (see the time-heat curve in figure 4‑13,
page 74). Monitoring the temperature is a useful
means of estimating the degree of hydration of the
system. In turn, the temperature of the concrete will
influence the rate of hydration (strength development)
and the risk of cracking.
Significance of Thermal Properties
An optimal temperature for freshly placed con-
crete is in the range of 10 to 15°C (50 to 60°F), and it
should not exceed 30 to 33°C (85 to 90°F) (Mindess
et al. 2003). Problems associated with high concrete
Integrated Materials and Construction Practices for Concrete Pavement
temperatures include increased water demand to
2 Design
maintain workability, decreased setting time, increased
danger of plastic shrinkage cracking, reduction in the
effectiveness of the air-void system, increased risk of
incompatibility (see Potential Materials Incompat-
3 Materials
ibilities in chapter 4, page 97), and lower ultimate
strength. During the winter, the primary danger is
that low temperatures may slow hydration, and thus
strength gain, and in extreme cases may permanently
damage the concrete if it freezes early in its life
(Mindess et al. 2003).
 4 Hydration
Other thermal effects that may be of interest
include solar reflectance, specific heat, and thermal
diffusivity. These properties affect the amount of solar
energy absorbed by concrete, the corresponding tem-
perature change of the concrete, and the rapidity with
   5 Properties
which the concrete dissipates this temperature to its
surroundings.
Effects on Hydration
The rate of hydration of concrete is significantly
accelerated with increasing temperatures and slowed
  6 Mix
at lower temperatures, affecting placement and consol-
idation due to early stiffening, as well as the timing of
saw cutting. The early strength of a concrete mixture
    7    Preparation
will be higher with an elevated temperature, but the
strength may be lower at later ages than the same mix
kept at a lower temperature. All chemical reactions are
faster at higher temperatures; therefore, setting times
will be reduced as the temperature of the concrete
rises. With increasing temperature, the potential for
 8    Construction    9    QA/QC
an imbalance in the cementitious paste system will be
exacerbated, possibly leading to problems with unex-
pected stiffening of the mixture before the mixture
can be consolidated. It has been observed that water
may be added to such a mix to restore workability,
but with the effect of reducing strength and durability.
Water should not be added to the mix in excess of the
specified maximum water-cement ratio.
Effects on Cracking
Concrete expands as temperature rises and
 10 Troubleshooting
contracts as temperature falls. These movements
can contribute significantly to the risk of cracking
in concrete, particularly within the first 24 hours.
If the concrete sets when it is hot, then it will
127
1   Intro

Temperature Effects

contract a significant amount when it cools later, thus temperature of the concrete may be higher, as the heat
2 Design

significantly increasing the risk of cracking. When a is evolved more quickly.

cold front passes over concrete that has been placed in Pozzolans also generate heat during hydration
the middle of a hot day, the risk of cracking is greater but, generally, less than portland cement. (The ben-
because the temperature drop is large (see Early-Age efit of a lower heat of hydration is to reduce thermal
3 Materials

Cracking in this chapter, page 148).
Factors Affecting Thermal Properties
Primary factors that affect a concrete pavement’s
thermal properties are the following:
Heat of Hydration of Cementitious Materials. Type III
 4 Hydration
shrinkage and the possibility of resultant cracking.
When blended with cement, Class F fly ash has a heat
of hydration that is typically 50 percent of cement.
Class C fly ash generally has a heat of hydration in
the range of 70 to 90 percent of that of cement. The
heat of hydration of both silica fume and metakaolin

cements, which are typically used in applications
where early strength is a goal, generate more heat and
at a faster rate than Type I cements. Table 5-3 shows
the typical ranges of chemical compounds in cement,
and the heat evolution associated with these com-
   5 Properties
are approximately 125 percent of cement. The heat of
hydration in concrete is affected by the amount and
grade of ground, granulated blast furnace (GGBF)
slag. The heat of hydration of grade 100 GGBF slag is
typically 80 percent.

pounds. This table is useful in predicting the relative
heat generation of similar cements.
Cement fineness affects the rate of heat genera-
tion. Finer cements (smaller particle sizes) hydrate
faster and generate heat at a faster rate. The total heat
evolution is not affected by the fineness, but the peak
  6 Mix
    7    Preparation
Initial Temperature. As mentioned previously, mul-
tiple strategies can be employed during construction
to reduce the initial temperature heat. A common
practice is to conduct paving only at night and/or to
use pre-cooled materials in the batch. Pre-cooling
can be achieved by shading and wetting the aggre-

Table 5-3. Chemical Composition and Heat Evolution of Typical Portland Cements

Potential phase composition*, %

Cement type C3S (%) C2S (%) C3A (%) C4AF (%) Blaine fineness, m2/kg

Type I Range 45–65 6–21 6–12 6–11 333–431

Mean 57 15 9 8 384
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Type II Range 48–68 8–25 4–8 8–13 305–461

Mean 56 17 7 10 377

Type III Range 48–66 8–27 2–12 4–13 387–711

Mean 56 16 8 9 556

Type V Range 47–64 12–27 0–5 10–18 312–541

Mean 58 18 4 12 389

Heat evolution**, a b c d
kJ/kg
(kilojoules/kg) 3 d 243 50 887 289
7 d 222 42 1556 494
13 yr 510 247 1356 427
 10 Troubleshooting

* Source: Tennis and Bhatty (2006)

 

** Cement paste with water/cement ratio 0.4 at 21˚C (70˚F).

Values represent coefficients in the equation:
Heat evolution (kJ/kg) = a(C3S) + b(C2S) + c(C3A) + d(C4AF) (Taylor 1997)

128 Integrated Materials and Construction Practices for Concrete Pavement


gates and using chilled water or ice in the mixture.
A white‑pigmented curing compound should always
be applied immediately after final finishing while
the surface is still damp to alleviate evaporation and
reduce heat buildup from solar radiation (Kosmatka et
al. 2003).
Environmental Factors. The rate of heat loss to the
environment is influenced by the thickness of the
concrete, the temperature of the environment, and the
degree of insulation provided by the materials sur-
rounding the concrete. Thinner concrete sections will
not get as hot as thicker sections.
In cold-weather concreting, the challenge is to
maintain the concrete temperature to prevent freez-
ing while the concrete gains strength. Strategies that
may be employed include heating one or more of the
materials, warming the jobsite environment, and/or
covering the slab with insulation to hold in the heat
produced as the cement hydrates.
Thermal Expansion/Contraction. Thermal expansion
and contraction of concrete (that is, expansion and
contraction related to temperature change) vary
with factors such as aggregate type, cement content,
water-cementitious materials ratio, temperature
range, concrete age, and relative humidity. Of these,
aggregate type has the greatest influence, as aggre-
gates account for about 60 to 75 percent of concrete
by volume.
A material’s coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)
is a measure of how much it changes in length (or
volume) for a given change in temperature. Typically,
an increase in temperature will result in lengthening
(expansion) and a decrease will result in shortening
(contraction). Because aggregates make up a majority
of a concrete’s volume, the CTE of the aggregate par-
ticles will dominate the CTE for a concrete. Table 3-12
in chapter 3, page 48, shows some typical values of
the linear CTE of several aggregates, as well as those
for concrete and other concrete ingredients. Typically,
limestone aggregates have lower coefficients than sili-
ceous aggregates, and concretes made with them have
lower values. CTE values are considered in design
calculations for pavements and are used in durability
modeling of concretes.
Integrated Materials and Construction Practices for Concrete Pavement
1   Intro
Temperature Effects
An average value for the CTE of concrete is about
2 Design
10 × 10-6/°C (5.5 × 10-6/°F), although values ranging
from 6 to 13 × 10-6/°C (3.2 to 7.0 × 10-6/°F) have
been observed. In practical terms, this amounts to a
length change of around 5 mm for 10 m of concrete
3 Materials
(2/3 in, for 100 ft of concrete) subjected to a rise or fall
of 50°C (90°F). Temperature changes may be caused by
environmental conditions or by the heat of hydration.
Testing for Thermal Properties
If specific information is needed about the actual
 4 Hydration
heat of hydration of the cementitious materials, the
heat of hydration should be measured. Testing should
be conducted using the proportions that will be used
in the concrete mix, rather than using the individual
components.
   5 Properties
The heat of hydration can be measured in
accordance with ASTM C 186 or in a conduction
calorimeter. Heat evolution of the concrete can also be
measured directly by a calibrated calorimeter. Several
such instruments are commercially available. They
consist of a calibrated insulated container that mea-
  6 Mix
sures the heat flow out of a cylinder of fresh concrete.
The adiabatic (without loss or gain of heat from the
surroundings) temperature rise of the concrete can be
    7    Preparation
measured directly by Army Corps Method CRD-C 38
(figure 5-12). It should be noted that the actual tem-
perature rise of a concrete pavement is only a fraction
of that of the adiabatic temperature rise because the
 8    Construction    9    QA/QC
 10 Troubleshooting
Figure 5-12. A typical field semi-adiabatic temperature
monitoring system for mortar (W.R. Grace & Company)
129
1   Intro
Temperature Effects
large surface-to-volume ratio of a pavement allows
2 Design
heat to escape almost as rapidly as it is generated.
Pavement temperatures and the associated risk
of cracking can be estimated with finite element
software or by the Schmidt method (a finite dif-
3 Materials
ference method) described in ACI 207. FHWA’s
HIPERPAV software (www.hiperpav.com) is a helpful
analysis tool to determine early-age properties and
the potential for cracking. Pavement temperatures
measured with embedded sensors (ASTM C 1064 /
AASHTO T 309‑99) and environmental conditions
 4 Hydration
monitored with aportable weather station (see Con-
crete Temperature, Subgrade Temperature, and Project
Environmental Conditions in chaper 9, page 260) are
HIPERPAV data inputs.
   5 Properties
  6 Mix
    7    Preparation
 8    Construction    9    QA/QC
Figure 5-13. Measuring the coefficient of thermal expansion
 10 Troubleshooting
130 Integrated Materials and Construction Practices for Concrete Pavement
Coefficient of thermal expansion can be mea-
sured using the method described in AASHTO TP 60
(figure 5-13) (see Coefficient of Thermal Expansion in
chapter 9, page 269). The test involves measuring the
length change of a specimen observed due to a change
in temperature of 40°C (72°F) controlled using a
water bath.
Concrete Durability is Affected by
Many Concrete Properties
The rest of this chapter discusses concrete properties
that can affect concrete durability.
Durability is the ability of concrete to resist chemical
attack while in service. It is a critical characteristic
of long-life pavements but, in itself, is not generally
considered a property of concrete.
Durability is environment-specific; that is, a concrete
pavement that is durable in a snow environment
is probably not going to be durable in the desert.
Therefore, concrete properties that contribute to
durable concrete may include any (but not necessarily
all) of the following:
• Low permeability.
• Frost resistance.
• Sulfate resistance.
• Low alkali-silica sensitivity.
• Abrasion resistance.
Cracking also affects concrete permeability. Note,
however, that concrete strength is not necessarily a
good measure of potential durability.