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AIR WALK PUBLICATIONS
(Near All India Radio)

80, Karneeshwarar Koil Street
Mylapore, Chennai - 600 004.
Ph.: 2466 1909, 94440 81904
Email: aishram2006@gmail.com,
airwalk800@gmail.com
www.airwalkpublications.com
and
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
III Year B.Tech. B.E. I-Sem
DESIGN OF MACHINE MEMBERS - I
UNIT I - INTRODUCTION
General considerations in the design of Engineering Materials and their properties - selection
- Manufacturing consideration in design. Tolerances and fits - BIS codes of steels.
STRESSES IN MACHINE MEMBERS
Simple stresses - Combined stresses - Torsional and bending stresses - impact stresses - stress
strain relation - Various theories of failure - factor of safety - Design for strength and rigidity -
preferred numbers. The concept of stiffness in tension, bending, torsion and combined situations -
Static strength design based on fracture toughness.
UNIT II - STRENGTH OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
Stress concentration - Theoretical stress concentration factor - Fatigue stress concentration
factor notch sensitivity - Design for fluctuating stresses - Endurance limit - Estimation of Endurance
strength - Goodman’s line - Soderberg’s line - Modified goodman’s line.
UNIT III
Riveted and welded joints - Design of joints with initial stress -eccentric loading
UNIT IV
Bolted joints - Design of bolts with pre-stresses - Design of joints under eccentric loading -
locking devices - both of uniform strength, different seals.
UNIT V - KEYS, COTTERS AND KNUCKLE JOINTS
Design of Keys - stresses in keys-cotter joints-spigot and socket, sleeve and cotter, jib and
cotter joints-Knuckle joints.
UNIT VI - SHAFTS
Design of solid and hollow shafts for strength and rigidity - Design of shafts for combined
bending and axial loads - Shaft sizes - BIS code. Use of internal and external circlips, Gaskets and
seals (stationary and rotary).
UNIT VII - SHAFT COUPLING
Rigid couplings - Muff, Split muff and Flange couplings. Flexible couplings - Flange coupling
(Modified).
UNIT VIII - MECHANICAL SPRINGS
Stresses and deflections of helical springs - Extension-compression springs - Springs for fatigue
loading - natural frequency of helical springs - Energy storage capacity - helical torsion springs -
Co-axial springs, leaf springs.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER - 1
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members

1.0 Definition of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
1.1 Introduction to Design Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
1.2 Classification of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3
1.3 Factors Influencing Machine Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3
(i) Factors related to customer requirement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4
(ii) Factors related to manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4
1.3 Classification of Engineering Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5
1.3.1 Mechanical properties of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5
1.3.2 Selection of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7
1.3.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8
(a) Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8
(b) Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8
(c) Cast steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9
(d) Alloy steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10
(e) Aluminium and its alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12
(f) Non-metallic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
1.4 Preferred Numbers, Fits and Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
1.4.1 Preferred Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
1.4.2 Limit system and interchangeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.15
1.4.3 Terminology in limit system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.16
1.4.4 Fits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.18
1.4.5 Types of limit system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.19
1.4.6 Fundamental tolerance and IT grade of Indian standard (IS) system . . . 1.20
1.4.6 Designation of a fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.22
1.4.7 Calculation of fundamental deviation of shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.22
1.4.8 Calculation of fundamental deviation for holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.24
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.24 to 1.34
1.5 Simple Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.34
1.5.1 Types of the Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.34
Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.34
1.5.2 Direct, Bending and Torsional stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.35
I. Stresses due to Axial loading (or) Direct loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.35
(iv) Contact stress, Bearing stress (or) Crushing stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.35
ii. Stresses due to Bending load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.36
(iii) Torsional stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.37
(iv) Shear Stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.38
(v) Stress-strain diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.39
1.5.3 Factor of safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.40
1.6 Impact Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.44
1.7 Principal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.46
1.8 Combined Stresses due to Eccentric Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.72
DESIGN OF CURVED BEAMS

1.9 Design of Curved Beams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.77
1.10 Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.90
1.10.1 Common modes of failure: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.90
1.10.2 Factor of Safety (FOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.91
Static Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.91
1.10.4 Failure Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.91
1. Max. Principal stress theory (or) Rankine’s theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.92
2. Max. shear stress theory (or) Guest’s theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.92
3. Max. Strain theory (or) St. Venant’s theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.93
4. Max. Strain energy theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.93
5. Distortion energy theory (Octahedral theory): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.93
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.93 to 1.118
1.10.5 Fatigue Failure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.119
1.11 Stress Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.119
1.11.1 Definition of Stress Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.120
1.11.2 Nominal Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.121
1.11.3 Stress Concentration Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.122
1.11.4 Reduction of Stress Concentration Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.122
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.123 to 1.133
FLUCTUATING STRESSES: Variable stresses

1.12 Design for Variable Loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.134
1.12.1 Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.134
1.12.2 Endurance Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.136
1.12.3 Soderberg and Goodman Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.137
1.12.4 Goodman Method for Combination of Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.139
1.12.5 Soderberg Method for Combination of Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.141
1.12.6 Modified Goodman’s Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.142
1.12.7 Design Equations for Variable Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.144
1.12.8 Design for Finite Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.146
1.12.9 Cumulative Fatigue Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.146
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.147 to 1.193
CHAPTER 2
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
2.2 Types of Shaft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
2.3 Standard Shaft Diameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2
2.4 Stress in Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2
2.5 Design of Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2

2.6 Design of Shaft Based on Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3
(a) Shaft subjected to torsion only (according torsion equation) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3
(b) Shaft subjected to bending only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3
(c) Shaft Subjected to Combined Bending and Twisting Moment . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4
(d) Hollow shaft subjected to bending, torsion and axial load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5
2.7 Design of Shaft Based on Torsional Rigidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7

2.7.1 Comparison of Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8
2.7.2 Percentage Saving of Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8
2.7.3 Calculation of Twisting Moment Mt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9
2.8 Design Based on Critical Speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10
Critical Speed Formulae. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11
Dunkerley Equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12
2.9 Torque Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12

DESIGN OF KEYS
2.10 Introduciton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.79

2.10.2 Types of keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.79
(A) Saddle Key. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.79
(B) Sunk Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.80
(C) Gib Head Tapered Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.80
(D) Feather Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.81
(E) Woodruff Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.82
(F) Round Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.82
(G) Splined Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.82
Forces Acting on a Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.83
Assumptions Made in the Design of Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.83
Failure Modes of Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.83
2.10.3 Design procedure of key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.86
2.10.4 Effects of Keyways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.86
DESIGN OF COUPLINGS
2.11 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90
1. Rigid Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90
2. Flexible Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90
2.11.2 Features of shaft coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90
2.11.3 Box (or) Sleeve (or) Muff Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.91
Design procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.91
2.11.4 Clamp (or) Compression (or) Split Sleeve Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.100
Design procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.101
2.11.5 Flange Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.103
Design of flange coupling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.104
2.11.6 Marine Type Flange Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.107
2.11.7 Flexible Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.108
Types of flexible couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.108
2.11.8 Bushed pin flexible coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.108
Design of Bushed - Pin Flexible Coupling: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.108
2.11.9 Oldham’s Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.130
Universal or Hooke’s Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.131
Design of Universal coupling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.131

DESIGN OF CRANKSHAFT
2.12.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.134

2.12.2 Design Procedure of a Overhung Crankshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.134
2.12.3 Design of Centre Crankshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.144
CHAPTER 3
Design of Temporary and Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners
3.1 Threaded Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1

3.1.1 Advantages of threaded joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
3.1.2 Disadvantages of threaded joints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
3.1.3 Nomenclature of screw threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
3.1.4 Common types of screw fastening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3
3.1.5 Bolt of uniform strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5
3.1.6 Designation of screw threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6
3.1.7 Design of bolts for cylinder cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 to 3.11
3.1.8 Stress due to combined forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11
3.1.9 Design of bolted joints under eccentric loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.16
3.1.9.1 Eccentric load acting parallel to the axis of bolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.16
3.1.9.2 Eccentric load acting perpendicular to the axis of bolt . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.19

3.1.9.3 Eccentric load acting in the plane containing the bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.22
Design of Knuckle and Cotter Joints
3.2 Knuckle Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.27
3.2.1 Proportions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.27
3.2.2 Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.27
5. Stresses in the eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.30
6. Stresses in the fork: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.32
3.3 Cotter Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.33

3.3.2 Sleeve and Cotter Joint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.47
3.3.2.1 Design of Sleeve and Cotter Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.48
3.3.3 Design of Gib and Cotter Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.53
3.3.3.1 Design procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.54
DESIGN OF RIVETED JOINTS

3.4 Riveted Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.59
3.4.1 Types of Riveted Joints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.59
1. Lap Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.59
2. Butt Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.60
3.4.2 Terms used in riveted joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.60
3.4.3 Caulking and Fullering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.61
3.4.4 Failures of a Riveted Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.61
3.4.5 Standard diameter of rivet and rivet hole diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.64
3.4.6 Design Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.65
3.4.7 Strength of a Riveted Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.65
3.4.8 Efficiency of a Riveted Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.65
Solved Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.66 to 3.69
3.4.9 Design of Boiler Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.69
3.4.9.1 Design of Longitudinal Butt Joint for a Boiler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.69
3.4.9.2 Design of Circumferential Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.72
DESIGN OF WELDED JOINTS

3.5 Welded Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.79
3.5.1 Classification of Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.79
3.5.2 Types of Welded Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.80
3.5.3 Strength of Fillet Weld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.80
3.5.4 Parallel fillet weld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.81
3.5.5 Method of indication of Weld Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.82
3.5.6 Combination of transverse and parallel fillet welds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.83
3.5.7 Eccentric load on welded joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.93
3.5.8 Design procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.94
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.96 to 3.104
CHAPTER 4
Design of Energy Storing Elements – Springs and Flywheels
4.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1

4.1 Material of Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1
4.2 Applications of the springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2
4.3 Important types of Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2
1. Helical Compression (or) Extension Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2
2. Helical torsion springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2
3. Spiral springs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2
4. Leaf spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3
5. Disc or bellevile springs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3
6. Special purpose springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3
4.4 Helical Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4

4.4.1 Terminology used for Helical springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4
4.4.2 Close-Coiled Helical Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5
4.4.3 Open-Coiled Helical Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5
4.4.4 Helical Compression Springs Subjected to Axial Loading: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5
Curvature effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8
End connections for helical springs: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9
4.5 Eccentric Loading of Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10
4.6 Buckling of Compression Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10
Helical Tension springs (Extension springs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11
4.7.1 Types of Ends for Extension Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11
4.8 Advantages of Compression Springs over Extension Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
4.9 Spring Surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
4.10 Energy Stored in Helical Springs of Circular Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.13
4.11 Fatigue Loading of Helical Springs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.55
4.12 Springs in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.56
4.13 Springs in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.57
4.14 Helical Torsion Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.58
4.15 Flat Spiral Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.61
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.63
4.16 Disc Springs or Belleville Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.64
Design procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.64
4.17 Concentric Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.84
4.17.1 Design procedure of concentric springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.85
4.17.2 Coaxial springs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.86
4.17.3 Advantages of concentric springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.93
Other Types of Springs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.93
Conical and Volute Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.93
4.18 Leaf Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.93

4.18.1 Constructional Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.94
4.18.2 Nipping of Leaf Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.99
Notations used in the analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.100
4.18.3 Initial gap (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.100
4.18.4 Initial Pre-load: Pi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.102
4.18.6 Design Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.103
5. Central deflection / Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.104
4.18.6 Leaf spring material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.104
4.18.7 Permissible stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.105
DESIGN OF FLYWHEEL
4.19 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.118

4.19.1 Differences between Flywheel and Governor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.118
4.19.2 Coefficient of Fluctuation of speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.119
4.19.3 Fluctuation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.119
4.19.4 Maximum flunctutation of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.120
4.19.5 Coefficient of fluctuation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.121
4.19.6 Energy stored in a flywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.122
4.19.7 Design of Flywheel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.123
I. Calculation of mass moment of inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.123
II. Calculation of mass of the flywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.124
III. Calculation of Rim Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.124
IV. Calculation of Flywheel Shaft Diameter (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.125
Design of key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.133
4.19.8 Stresses in a Flywheel Rim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.146
1. Tensile stress due to the centrifugal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.147
2. Tensile bending stress caused by restraint of the arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.148
4.19.9 Stress in Flywheel Arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.149
1. Tensile stress due to the centrifugal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.150
2. Bending stress due to the torque transmitted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.150
4.19.10 Design of Flywheel Arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.151
4.19.11 Design of Shaft, Hub and Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.152
CHAPTER 5
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
5.1.1 Classification of Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
5.1.2 Common Types of Sliding Contact Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
5.1.2.1 Slider Bearing (or) Slipper (or) Guide Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
5.1.2.2 Journal Bearing (or) Sleeve Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
5.1.2.3 Thrust Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3
Comparison of Hydrodynamic & Hydrostatic bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3
5.1.2.4 Non-Metallic bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4
5.1.3 Properties required for Bearing materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4
5.1.4 Materials used for sliding contact bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4
5.1.5 Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5
5.1.6 Properties of Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5
5.1.6.1 Viscosity: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5
Effect of Temperature on Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
5.1.7 Hydrostatic Lubrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
5.1.8 Principle of Hydrodynamic Lubrication in Journal bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
5.2 Hydrodynamic Journal Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
5.2.1 Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7
5.3 Design of Ball and Roller Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.40
5.3.1 Advantages of Ball and roller bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.40
5.3.2 Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.41
5.3.3 Radial Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.41
5.3.3.1 Design of Ball and roller bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.41
5.3.3.2 Dynamic Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.42
5.3.3.3 Dynamic load rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.42
5.3.3.4 Bearing Life Expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.43
5.4 Gaskets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.60
5.4.1 Gasketed Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.61
5.5 Design of Connecting Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.67
2 Marks Q&A
Solved Anna University Problems
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.1
CHAPTER - 1
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine

Members
1.0 DEFINITION OF DESIGN

Design is an innovative and highly iterative process of formulating a plan for
the realisation of a specified need or to solve a specific problem resulting in creation
of a product that is functional, safe, reliable, competitive, usable, manufacturable and
marketable. A designer’s personal resources, communicative ability and problem
solving skills are interlinked with the knowledge of technology and engineering tools
to produce the product.
Machine design is creation of new machines and improving the existing machines
which are more economical in overall cost of production and operation.
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN PROCESS

Designing of a machine component or solving a design problem involves the
various steps as shown in the Fig. 1.1.
Identification of N eed / D efin ition of problem
Synth esis of M echa nism s
A n alysis and O ptim isation
Iterations Iterations
M a terial selection
D esign of elem en ts (size & stress)
E va luation and M odification
D eta iled D esign a nd D raw in gs
P rodu ction / P roduct

Fig. 1.1 Design Process
1.2 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements
There is no general rigid rule but design can be made in several methods and
procedure is as follows.
(i) Identification of need/design problem

The first step in design process involves identifying the need or defining of a
design problem for which a machine needs to be designed. Definition of a problem is
more specific and must include all the specifications for the object that is to be
designed.
(ii) Synthesis
Synthesis is the scheme of connecting possible elements or mechanisms or group
of mechanism which gives the desired motion. Synthesis is sometimes called the
invention of the concept or concept design.
(iii) Analysis and optimisation

It is the process of calculating the various forces acting on each machine element
and the energy transmitted by each member. Each element has to survive the analysis
and elements which have the higher margins are optimised to determine the best
performance and this process is an iterative with subsequent process.
(iv) Material selection

Based on the different material physical and functional properties suitable
material is selected for each machine element being designed.
(v) Design of size and stresses of elements

Sizes of each machine element member is defined based on the analysis of
various forces acting on each member causing stresses which are within limits of the
permissible stresses of material used. It is ensured that no element deflects or deforms
within the permissible limit.
(vi) Evaluation and modification

Evaluation is the final proof of successful design and usually involves testing of
a prototype in the laboratory. Any deficiency noticed, the process gets iterated with
the synthesis or analysis.
(vii) Detailed design and drawings

Once the design has satisfactorily completed the evaluation and modification
process, the detailed design and drawings of each machine component, assemblies are
made with complete specification of manufacturing to reduce the overall cost.
(viii) Production and product

The component as per the drawing is manufactured, assembled and the product
is launched.
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DESIGN

Machine design is classified as follows
(a) Adaptive design

Adaptive design is one in which designer’s work is concerned with the adaptation
of the existing design requiring no special skills and knowledge. Examples are bicycles
and IC engines where development has practically ceased except for certain minor
modification and alterations.
(b) Developed design

In developed design, a high standard of scientific training is essential when the
proven existing designs are to be modified to their method of manufacture, material,
appearance etc. In this case, designer starts with an existing design and the final
product outcome is remarkably different from the original product.
(c) New design

New design requires a lot of research, technical capability and creativity. A few
designers bring out new machines by making use of basic scientific principles.
Designers with high personal capabilities of higher order can only take up new design.
1.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING MACHINE DESIGN

Machine design is greatly influenced by the factors arising from the customer’s
requirement and factors concerned with the manufacture. Machine component design
should meet the following important requirements.
1. Functional
2. Operational
3. Maintenance
4. Material used
5. Manufacturing methods used

(i) Factors related to customer requirement

(a) Material cost, production cost, operating cost.
(b) Mechanical and chemical environmental influence.
(c) Ease of maintenance.
(d) Economy of energy consumption.
(e) Handling, shipping and transportation.
(f) Size, weight and form.
(g) Appearance and Aesthetics
(h) Quantity and delivery schedules
(i) Spare part availability.
(ii) Factors related to manufacturing

(a) Loading and stress limits.
(b) Working principle and design.
(c) Strength, wear resistance and corrosion resistance.
(d) Material selection, its condition and availability.
(e) Manufacturing method and assembly method.
(f) Limits, fits and tolerance.
(g) Type and quality of surface finish.
(h) Protective coating requirements.
(i) Type of standards required.
(j) Jigs, fixtures and tools required.
(k) Gauges and inspection method.
(l) Design for manufacture.
(m) Type of scrap generated and utilisation.
(n) Interchangeability.
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Engineering materials are broadly classified as
(i) Metal and its alloys.
Eg: Iron, steel, copper, aluminium
(a) Ferrous metals containing iron as major constituent.
(b) Non-ferrous metal containing other than iron like Cu, Al, etc.
(ii) Non metals like plastic, fibre, rubber, glass, composite, etc.
1.3.1 Mechanical properties of materials

(a) Strength is the ability of the material to resist the externally applied loads
without failure (fracture or yielding). Measure of strength is ultimate strength for
brittle materials and yield point stress for ductile materials.
(b) Elasticity is a property of the material to regain the original shape after
deformation on removal of load.
(c) Plasticity enables the material to permanently retain the deformation produced
by the externally applied loads.
(d) Stiffness (Rigidity) enables the material to resist deformation under loads.
(e) Ductility enables the
material to be drawn into for brittle for brittle
wire when tensile force is m aterial m aterial
S tress, 
S tress, 
applied. Steel, aluminium

and copper are ductile
materials. Ductile material
has large plastic deformation
Strain ,  Strain , 
before rupture while brittle (a) Fig.1.2. (b)
material has a small plastic
deformation (Fig. 1.2 (a) & (b)).
Ductility helps the material to absorb large overloads. Operations like bending,
drawing, heading, etc., require ductility in the materials.
(f) Brittleness means lack of ductility. Cast iron is a brittle material.
(g) Malleability is ability of material to be drawn into thin sheets under
compressive force. Eg: Gold, Aluminium
(h) Resilience of a C
material is its capacity to A B
absorb energy with in the  
elastic range. Resilience
enables material to resist A D
shock and impact and hence O B  O 
it is desired in springs. The M odulus of resilience M odulus of Toughness
Fig. 1.3.(a) Fig. 1.3.(b)
shaded area (Fig. 1.3 (a))
represents modulus of
resilience, i.e., strain energy stored per unit volume when the stress is at the
proportional limit.
(i) Toughness enables the material to absorb energy in the plastic range (Fig. 1.3
(b)), it enables the material to be twisted or bent under a sudden load before rupture.
Shaded area in Fig. 1.3 (b) represents the modulus of toughness.
(j) Hardness enables the material to resist indentation, wear or plastic deformation.
(k) Creep: At elevated temperatures, materials yield and undergo permanent

deformation at a stress lower than the yield point stress. In addition to the loss of
strength, there is a continuous gradual elongation of the members at high temperature
over a long period of time, known as creep. Steam and gas turbine castings, turbine
blades, rocket engines, missile nose cones and nuclear reactor components are
subjected to creep.
(l) Strain hardening: When drawing ductile materials like mild steel, copper, brass
and aluminium through dies or when rolling them between rollers, plastic deformation
takes place and this increases the yield point stress and ultimate strength. This is
known as strain hardening.
(m) Damping capacity is the ability of a material to damp vibrations by absorbing

the kinetic energy of vibration. Cast iron has greater damping capacity than steel.
Hence C.I is used in machine tools to decrease vibrations.
(n) Hardenability is the ability of steel to through harden. Hardenability can be

improved by using alloying elements like boron, vanadium, manganese, chromium and
molybdenum.
(o) Machinability is the ease with which the metal can be removed in machining
operations like turning, drilling, etc. When selecting materials for mass production of
components, machinability is a deciding factor. Good machinability results in less tool
wear, good surface finish and less power consumption. Good machinability is obtained
by adding sulphur and lead in steel. However, there is a reduction in tensile strength.
1.3.2 Selection of Materials

Selection of a proper material for the machine component is one of the most
important steps in the process of machine design. The selection process may involve
trial and error method.
The following factors should be considered while selecting the material.
1. Availability: The material should be readily available in large enough quantities

to meet the requirement.
2. Cost: When the limiting cost of the component exceeds, the designer has to
consider other alternative materials. In cost analysis, there are two factors
(a) Cost of Material.

(b) Cost of Processing the material into finished goods.
3. Mechanical Properties: The important mechanical properties from the
consideration of design are strength, rigidity, ductility, hardness, toughness. Depending
upon the service conditions and the functional requirements, different mechanical
properties are considered and a suitable material is selected.
 For example, the material for the connecting rod of an internal combustion
engine should be capable to withstand the fluctuating stresses induced due
to combustion of fuel. In this case, the endurance strength becomes the
criterion of design.
 The piston rings should have hard surface to resist the wear. In this case,
surface hardness is the design criterion.
 In case of bearing materials, low coefficient of friction is desirable.
 In case of clutch or brake lining, high coefficient of friction is required.
4. Manufacturing Considerations: Some times, an expensive material is more

economical than a low priced material, which is difficult to machine.
When the product is of a complex shape, casting properties are important.
The manufacturing processes, such as casting, rolling, forging, extrusion, welding

and machining govern the selection of the material.
1.3.3 Materials
CAST IRON
Cast iron is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon with carbon content around
3%. The type of cast irons are grey iron, white iron, chilled cast iron, malleable iron,
spheroidal or modular graphite iron, alloy cast iron.
Advantages
1. It is available in large quantities and is produced on a mass scale. The tooling
required for the casting process is relatively simple and inexpensive. This
reduces the cost of Cast iron products.
2. Cast iron components can be given any complex shape without involving costly
machining operations.
3. Cast iron has a higher compressive strength compared to steel.
4. Cast iron has an excellent ability to damp vibrations, which makes it an ideal
choice for machine tool guides and frames.
5. Cast iron has more resistance to wear even under the conditions of boundary
lubrication.
6. Mechanical properties of cast iron parts do not change between room
temperature and 350 C.
Disadvantages
1. It has a poor tensile strength compared to steel.
2. Cast iron does not offer any plastic deformation before failure, and exhibit no
yield point. The failure of cast-iron parts is sudden and total.
3. Cast iron is brittle and has poor impact resistance.
4. The machinability of cast iron parts is poor compared to parts made of steel.
Applications
1. Machine tool-beds, Frames and Guideways, Hydraulic cylinders, Pulleys, Gears,
Anvils etc.
2. I.C. engine-cylinder block, cylinder head, Flywheel, Brake drums etc.
(b) Steel
Steel consists of iron, carbon and manganese. Carbon content is less than 1.7%.
Effects of various elements in steel

Carbon: Increase in carbon content from 0% to 0.83% increases the ultimate
strength. If the carbon content is going to be more than 0.83%, the increase in carbon
content reduces the strength. Hardness increases with carbon content but ductility
and weldability decrease as carbon content increases.
Manganese: As manganese content increases, ultimate strength and hardness

increase and weldability decreases.
Sulphur: Sulphur lowers toughness and makes the steel soft (adds to free cutting).
Silicon: Silicon is added to steel as a deoxidiser to minimize the last traces of oxygen.
Classifications
Low carbon steels/mild steels Carbon content 0.05 to 0.25%.
Medium carbon steels Carbon content 0.3 to 0.83%.
High carbon steels Carbon content 0.9 to 1.3%.
Applications
Carbon 0.1 to 0.2% Tubing, forgings, pressed steel parts, rivets, screws and for case
hardened parts.
Carbon 0.2 to 0.3% General purpose grade. Forged and machined parts, structural
members, boiler plates.
Carbon 0.3 to 0.55% Forged and machined parts, automotive bolts, shafts. Heat
treated to a hardness of 200 - 450 BHN.
Carbon 0.55 to 0.75% Rails, hammers.
Carbon 0.65 to 0.85% Coil and flat springs.
Carbon 0.6 to 0.95% Tools, punches, dies, saws. Heat treated to a hardness of 375
- 500 BHN.
(c) Cast steel

Cast steel has higher strength, higher endurance limit, much higher ductility
and greater toughness than cast iron. Cast steel weighs less than cast iron for the
same strength and stiffness. Steel castings are used for heavy machinery bases,
machine frames, gears, wheels, etc.
Designation
Example: CS 130 Unalloyed steel castings with minimum tensile strength
2
1300 N/mm .
(d) Alloy steels

In alloy steels alloying elements are added to impart special effects like higher
tensile strength, increased toughness and hardness, greater resistance to corrosion etc.
Most common alloying elements and their effects

1. Chromium improves hardenability, corrosion resistance and increases wear
resistance and hardness. If the chromium content is more than 11%, the steel is called
stainless steel. Stainless steels offer high resistance to corrosion.
2. Nickel increases strength (ultimate strength) without decreasing ductility. Nickel

steels have good impact properties.
Nickel and chromium are mostly used together to obtain the toughness and
ductility provided by nickel and hardness and wear resistance provided by chromium.
3. Molybdenum improves hardenability and creep strength.
4. Vanadium improves hardenability, imparts toughness, retains strength and

hardness at elevated temperature, improves shock and fatigue resistance (increases
resilience) and retards softening during tempering.
5. Tungsten retains hardness even at elevated temperature, improves wear

resistance and imparts toughness and hardness.
System of designation for steels
Carbon steel
Example: C 30
Prefix C stands for carbon, 30 for the average percentage of 0.30%.
Steels specified by tensile properties
Example: St 40 - Steel having a minimum tensile strength of 400 N/mm 2
Alloy steel
Prefix C is not used.
Chemical symbols of significant elements are arranged in the descending order

of their average percentages.
Underlining by a bar indicates percentage is in the decimal value.
Example: 15 Ni 13 Cr 1 Mo 12
Carbon 0.15% average

Nickel 1.3% average
Chromium 1% average
Molybdenum 0.12% average
Carbon tool steel

Example: T 80 - Letter T for tool steels. Carbon 0.8% average.
Designation of Steels
A large number of varieties of steel are used for machine components. Steels
are designated by a group of letters or numbers indicating any of the following three
properties:
1. Tensile strength
2. Carbon content
3. Composition of alloying element.
Steels which are standardised on the basis of their tensile strength without
detailed chemical composition.
Ex: Fe 360 indicates a steel with a minimum tensile strength of 360 N/mm 2.
(or) Fe E250 indicates a steel with a minimum yield strength of 250 N/mm 2.
Designation of Plain carbon steels

(a) A number indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon.
(b) A letter C.
(c) A number indicating 10 times the average % of Mn.
Example: 55C4.
Indicates plain carbon steel with 0.55% of Carbon and 0.4% of Manganese.
Ex: A steel with 0.35 - 0.45% C and 0.7 to 0.9% Mn is designated as 40C8.
In case of cast alloy steels, chemical symbol of significant alloying elements are
arranged in descending order of percentage content. The average percentage of each
alloying element is indicated by the number following its chemical symbol. When the
alloying element is less than one percent, it is written upto two decimal places
underlined by a bar.
Ex Carbon 0.12 to 0.81% 15 Cr 65 Silicon and Manganese are not

Silicon 0.10 to 0.35% important alloying elements
Manganese 0.4 to 0.6% and they are deleted
Chromium 0.5 to 0.8%
Ex Carbon 0.15 to 0.25% Average Carbon content - 0.2% or 20
Silicon 0.1 to 0.5% hundredth of a percent.
Manganese 0.3 to 0.5% 20 Cr 18 Ni 2
Nickel 1.5% to 2.5%
Chromium 16 to 20%
Ex 40 Cr 14 Carbon 0.4%
Chromium 0.14%
(c) Non-ferrous metals are used to meet the following requirements:
(a) Resistance to corrosion
(b) Ease of casting and cold working
Copper base alloys: Copper is alloyed with zinc to produce brass. If alloyed with
tin, aluminium, manganese, silicon or phosphorous, it is called bronze.
Brass is used in application where moderate strength and ductility, resistance

to corrosion and resistance to wear are required. Bronze is superior to brass in the
above qualities but it is more costly.
Materials for bearing linings

Tin babbit 87.75% tin, 4% copper, 8% antimony and 0.25% bismuth
Lead babbit 80% lead, 20% antimony
(d) Aluminium and its alloys

Pure aluminium is highly ductile and has good forming properties, but it has
poor casting and machining properties.
When alloyed with copper, ultimate strength and endurance strength increased
and there is an improvement in machinability and casting characteristics.
Aluminium-Copper alloys are used in crank cases, transmission housing, etc.
Aluminium-Silicon alloys have better mechanical properties and corrosion
resistance than Aluminium-Copper alloy, but they have poorer machinability. These
alloys are used in marine castings, water jacket housings and castings where
machining is minimum.
Duralumin
Duralumin is an Al-Cu-Mg-Mn alloy and it has good corrosion resistance and
strength.
(e) Non-metallic materials

Non-metallic materials used are
(a) Plastics (light weight housings, panels, flexible hoses)
(b) Fibre Reinforced Plastics (car bodies, boat hulls)
(c) Rubber (insulators, belts, piping, tyres)
(d) Leather (belts)
(e) Asbestos (friction lining for clutches and brakes).
1.4 PREFERRED NUMBERS, FITS AND TOLERANCE
1.4.1 Preferred Numbers

When a machine is to be made in several sizes with different powers or
capacities, it is necessary to decide what capacities will cover a certain range
efficiently with minimum number of sizes. It has been shown by experience that a
certain range can be covered efficiently when it follows a geometrical progression with
a constant ratio. The preferred numbers are the conventionally rounded off values
derived from geometric series including the integral powers of 10 and having as
common ratio of the following factors:
Ratio’s Serie’s
10

5
  1.58 (R5)
10

 10  1.26 (R10)
20

 10  1.12 (R20)
40

 10  1.06 (R40)
These four series are called basic series. The other series called derived series
may be obtained by simply multiplying or dividing the basic sizes by 10, 100, etc.
The preferred numbers in the above four series shown in Table 1.1 as per standard
IS: 1076 (Part I).
Notes
1. The standard sizes (in mm) for wrought metal products are shown in Table
1.2 according to IS: 1136 - 1990. The standard G.P. series used correspond to
R10, R20 and R40.
2. The hoisting capacities (in tonnes) of cranes are in R10 series, while the
hydraulic cylinder diameter are in R40 series and hydraulic cylinder capacities
are in R5 series.
3. The basic thickness of sheet metals and diameter of wires are based on R10,
R20 and R40 series. Wire diameter of helical springs are in R20 series.
4. Standard spindle speeds for machine tools are given in Table 1.3.
5. Also preferred basic and design sizes are given in PSG design data book Pg.No.
3.12.
Table 1.1 Preferred numbers of the basic series. IS: 1076-1990
Basic series Preferred numbers
R5 1.00, 1.60, 2.50, 4.00, 6.30, 10.00
R10 1.00, 1.25, 1.60, 2.00, 2.50, 3.15, 4.00, 5.00, 6.30, 8.00, 10.00
R20 1.00, 1.12, 1.25, 1.40, 1.60, 1.80, 2.00, 2.24, 2.50, 2.80, 3.15, 3.55,
4.00, 4.50, 5.00, 5.60, 6.30, 7.10, 8.00, 9.00, 10.00
R40 1.00, 1.06, 1.12, 1.18, 1.25, 1.32, 1.40, 1.50, 1.60, 1.70, 1.80, 1.90,
2.00, 2.12, 2.24, 2.36, 2.50, 2.65, 2.80, 3.00, 3.15, 3.35, 3.55, 3.75,
4.00, 4.25, 4.50, 4.75, 5.00, 5.30, 5.60, 6.00, 6.30, 6.70, 7.10, 7.50,
8.00, 8.50, 9.00, 9.50, 10.00
Table 1.2 Preferred sizes for wrought metal products. IS: 1136-1990
Size range Preferred sizes (mm)

0.01 - 0.10 mm 0.02, 0.025, 0.030, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.08 and 0.10
0.10 - 1 mm 0.10, 0.11, 0.12, 0.14, 0.16, 0.18, 0.20, 0.22, 0.25, 0.28, 0.30, 0.32,
0.35, 0.36, 0.40, 0.45, 0.50, 0.55, 0.60, 0.63, 0.70, 0.80, 0.90 and 1
1-10 mm 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 2.22, 2.5, 2.8, 3, 3.2, 3.5, 3.6, 4, 4.5,
5, 5.5, 5.6, 6, 6.3, 7.8, 9 and 10
10 - 100 mm 10 to 25 (in steps of 1 mm), 28, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 40, 42,
44, 45, 46, 48, 50, 52, 53, 55, 56, 58, 60, 62, 63, 65, 67, 68, 70,
71, 72, 75, 78, 80, 82, 85, 88, 90, 92, 95, 98 and 100
100 - 1000 mm 100 to 200 (in steps of 5 mm), 200 to 310 (in steps of 10 mm),
315, 320, 330, 340, 350, 355, 360, 370, 375, 380 to 500 (in steps
of 10 mm), 520, 530, 550, 560, 580, 600, 630, 650, 670, 700, 710
and 750 - 1000 (in steps of 50 mm)
1000 - 10000 mm 1000, 1100, 1200, 1250, 1400, 1500, 1600, 1800, 2000, 2200, 2500,
2800, 3000, 3200, 3500, 3600, 4000, 4500, 5000, 5600, 6000, 6300,
7000, 7100, 8000, 9000 and 10000
Table 1.3 Standard spindle speeds for machine tools
Basic series Preferred numbers

R20   1.12 100, 112, 125, 140, 160, 180, 200, 224, 250, 280, 315, 355, 400,
450, 500, 560, 630, 710, 800, 900, 1000
R20/2   1.25 112, 140, 180, 224, 280, 355, 450, 560, 710, 900
R20/3   1.4 11.2, 16, 22.4, 31.5, 45, 63, 90, 125, 180, 250, 355, 500, 710, 1000,
1400, 2000, 2800, 4000, 5600, 8000
R20/4   1.6 112, 140, 180, 224, 280, 355, 450, 560, 710, 900
R20/6   2 11.2, 22.4, 45, 90, 180, 355, 710, 1400, 2800, 5600
1.4.2 Limit system and interchangeability

Certain recognised and calculated variations are allowed in the sizes of the
mating parts to give the required fitting, facilitating the selection at random from a
large number of parts for an assembly, this is called interchangeability. This results
in saving of production costs.
The system of controlling the size of finished parts, with due allowance for error
for interchangeable parts is called limit system.
1.4.3 Terminology in limit system

 Nominal size - It is the size of a part specified in the drawing.
 Basic size - It is the size of a part to which limits of variation (i.e.
tolerances) are applied to arrive at final dimensioning of the mating parts.
The nominal or basic size of a part is often same.
 Actual size It is the actual measured dimension of the part. The difference
between the basic size and the actual size should not exceed a certain limit,
otherwise it will interfere with the interchangeability of the mating parts.
 Upper limit and lower limit T oleran ce
There are two extreme permissible A llow ance
sizes for a dimension of the part. T oleran ce
The largest permissible size for a
dimension of the part is called
upper limit, where as the H ole Sh aft
smallest size of the part is known
L ow er lim it
as lower limit.
L ow er lim it U pper lim it
 Allowance - It is the difference U pper lim it
between the basic dimensions of Fig.1.4. Lim it an d Toleran ce
the mating parts. When the shaft
size is less than the hole size, then the allowance positive and when the
shaft size is greater than the hole size, then the allowance is negative.
 Tolerance - It is the difference between the upper limit and lower limit of
a dimension. In other words, it is the maximum permissible variation in a
dimension. The tolerance may be unilateral or bilateral. When all the
tolerance is allowed on one side of the nominal size, e.g. 40  0.000
0.004 , then it
is said to be unilateral system of tolerance.
When the tolerance is allowed on both sides of the nominal size, e.g.
40  0.002
0.002 , then it is said to be bilateral system of tolerance. In this case
 0.002 is the upper limit and  0.002 is the lower limit.
 Tolerance zone It is the zone between the maximum and minimum limit
size, as shown Fig. 1.5.
T oleran ce
U pp er deviation L ow er
T oleran ce L ow er deviation
deviation
T oleran ce U pp er
zone deviation
M ax.size
Zero
lin e
H ole
M in .size B asic
M a x.size size
Fig.1.5.Toleranc e Zon e, D eviation of B asic H o le System
 Zero line It is a straight line corresponding to the basic size. The deviations
are measured from this line. The positive and negative deviations are shown
above and below the zero line respectively.
 Upper deviation It is the algebraic difference between the maximum limit

and the basic size. The upper deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol
ES and of a shift is represented by es .
 Lower deviation It is the algebraic difference between the minimum limit

and the basic size. The lower deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol
EJ and of a shaft is represented by ei.
 Actual deviation It is the algebraic difference between an actual size and

the corresponding basic size.
 Mean deviation It is the arithmetical mean between the upper and lower
deviations.
 Fundamental deviation It is one of the two deviations which is

conventionally chosen to define the position of the tolerance zone in relation
to zero line.
 International tolerance grade number (IT) Designate groups of

tolerances such that the tolerances for a particular IT number have the same
relative level of accuracy but vary depending on the basic size.
 Hole basis Represents a system of fits corresponding to a basic hole size.

The fundamental deviation is H .
 Shaft basis Represents a system of fits corresponding to a basic shaft size.

The fundamental deviation is h.
1.4.4 Fits
Fits of two mating parts is defined as the degree of tightness or looseness
between them. The type of fit between the two mating parts depends upon the size
of clearance and interference.
Clearance is the amount by which the actual size of shaft is less than the actual
size of the hole in an assembly. Mathematically
Maximum clearance = Upper limit of hole - lower limit of shaft
Minimum clearance = Lower limit of hole - upper limit of shaft
The difference is always positive.
Interference is the amount by which the actual size of the shaft is larger than the
actual size of the mating hole in an assembly. Mathematically,
Maximum Interference  Lower limit of hole  upper limit of shaft
Minimum Interference  Upper limit of hole  lower limit of shaft.
The difference is always negative.
Types of fits
According to the type of clearance and interference as per Indian standards fits
are classified as clearance fit, interference fit and transition fit.
(a) Clearance fit

Clearance fit is the type of fit between two mating parts such that there is
always clearance occurring between them. In clearance fit the tolerance zone of hole
M a x.
M in .clearance M in .Interference
Interference
M a x.
clea ran ce
H ole
Shaft
(a) C learance fit. (b) Interference fit. (c) Transition fit.
Fig.1.6.Types of fits.
is entirely above the tolerance zone of shaft as shown in Fig. 1.6 (a). Further clearance
fits may be of loose fit, slide fit, running fit and slack running fit.
(b) Interference fit

Interference fit is the type of fit between two mating parts such that there is
always interference existing between them. In interference fit, the tolerance zone of
hole is entirely below the tolerance zone of the shaft as shown in Fig. 1.6 (b). Further
interference fits may be shrink fit, heavy drive fit and light drive fit.
(c) Transition fit

Transition fit is the type of fit between two mating parts such that the tolerance
zones of hole and shaft overlaps. In transition fit, either clearance or interference may
occur depending upon the actual size of the mating parts.
1.4.5 Types of limit system

There are two basis of limit system
(i) Hole basis system

Hole basis system represents a system of fits corresponding to a basic hole size.
The fundamental deviation is H . In other words, in hole basis system, the size of the
hole is kept constant (lower deviation of hole is zero) and different fits are obtained
by varying the size of the shaft. [Fig. 1.7 (a)]
(ii) Shaft basis system

Shaft basis system represents a system of fits corresponding to a basic shaft
size. The fundamental deviation is h. In other words, shaft size is kept constant (upper
H ole H ole Sh aft
1 2 3
Sh aft
1 2 3
1. Clearance fit. 2. Transition fit. 3. Interference fit.
(a) Hole basis system . (b) Shaft basis system .
Fig.1.7. B asis of lim it System
deviation of shaft is zero) and different fits are obtained by varying the sizes of the
holes. [Fig. 1.7 (b)]
From manufacturing point of view, the hole basis system is preferred as the
hole size is produced and finished by standard tools like drill, reamers, etc.
1.4.6 Fundamental tolerance and IT grade of Indian standard (IS) system

According to IS system of limits and fits, there are 18 grades of fundamental
tolerances and 25 types of fundamental deviations indicated by letter symbols of both
holes and shafts in diameter steps ranging from 1 to 500 mm.
For holes  A to ZC (capital letter)
For shafts  a to zc (small letter)
The magnitude of the tolerance zone is the variation in part size and is same
for both the internal and external dimensions. The tolerance zones are specified in
international tolerance grade numbers called IT numbers. The smaller grade number
specify a smaller tolerance zone.
The 18 tolerance grades are designated as IT01, IT0, IT1,  IT16 - these are
called standard tolerance.
The standard tolerance for grade 5 to 16 is obtained by standard tolerance unit

i in microns and is given by
i (microns)  0.45 3D  0.001 D [PSG Tech Data book Pg No. 3.6]
where D  size or mean diameter in mm
Table 1.4 shows the standard tolerance unit (i) magnitude for IT grade 5 to 16
Table 1.4 Magnitude (i) for IT5 to 16 [PSG Tech. Pg No. 3.6]
Tolerance IT5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
grade (Tg)
Magnitude 7i 10i 16i 25i 40i 64i 100i 160i 250i 400i 640i 1000i
The standard tolerance unit (i) for IT01 , IT0 and IT1 are
For IT01, i  0.3  0.008 D In microns
IT0, i  0.5  0.12D In microns
IT1, i  0.8  0.020D In microns

IT2 to IT4 ~
 IT1 and IT5 (Between)
The alphabetical representation of fundamental deviations for basic shaft and

basic hole system is shown in Fig. 1.8
+35 0
+30 0 A
H oles
+20 0
B
+10 0 C
D B asic size
EF MN
0 GH J K PR
S
TU
-100 VX
JS YZ
Fu ndam ental T oleran ce in M icron s.
-200 ZA
ZB
-300 ZC
+30 0
zc
+20 0 zb
js za
+10 0 xyz
uw
s
0 gh j mnp r t
e f k
B asic size
d
-100 c
b
-200 Sh afts
-300 a
-350
Fig.1.8. Fundam ental Deviations for Shafts and H oles
( P SG Tech D .B .P g no 3.3 )
Note:
1. The fundamental tolerances of grade IT01, IT0, IT1  IT6 for shaft diameters
from 1 to 500 mm are given in the table in PSG Tech Data book Pg No. 3.3.
2. The manufacturing processes capable of producing the particular IT grades of
work are shown in table in PSG Tech Data book Pg No. 3.6.
3. The standard uses tolerance position letters, with capital letters for internal
dimensions (holes) and cover case letters for external dimensions (shafts).
For hole, H stands for a dimension whose lever deviation refers to the basic
size. The hole H for which the lower deviation is zero is called basic hole.
For shaft, h stands for a dimension whose upper deviation refers to the basic
size. The shaft h for which upper deviation is zero is called basic shaft.
1.4.6 Designation of a fit

A fit is designated by its basic size followed by symbols representing the limits
of each of its two mating components. The hole is designated first and shaft is
designated second.
For example: 50 H7/6 fit means
Basic size  50 mm
Tolerance grade (hole) 7
Tolerance grade (shaft)  6
Note
1. Some commonly used fits used for running and sliding fits (clearance fit) with
typical uses are given in the table in PSG Tech Data book pg no 3.4.
2. The transition and interference fit with typical uses are given in PSG Tech
Data book pg no 3.5.
1.4.7 Calculation of fundamental deviation of shaft

 For holes upper deviation is represented by ES and lower deviation is
represented by EI.
 For shafts upper deviation is denoted by es [shaft a to h] and lower
deviation is denoted by ei [shafts j to zc].
The fundamental deviations of shafts with letter code a to h

Upper deviation es  fundam ental deviation F
Lower deviation ei  upper deviation es  tolerance grade IT
i.e es  F
ei  es  IT
The fundamental deviation of shafts with letter code j to zc

Lower deviation ei  fundamental deviation f
Upper deviation es  lower deviation ei  tolerance grade IT
ie ei  f
es  ei  IT
U pper deviation,u M ax.size,d m ax

Lower deviation,l M in.size,d m in
Fundam ental deviation,

F (letter)
B asic size,D(d)
Lower deviation,l
U pper deviation,u
Fundam ental
deviation, /F (letter)
International tolerance
grade, D (IT num ber) M in.size,D m in
M ax.size,D m ax
Fig. 1.9. Definition of Cylinderical Fit.
From the Fig 1.9 we have
D - Basic size of hole
d - Basic size of shaft
es - Upper deviation
ei - Lower deviation
F - Fundamental deviation
IT H - Tolerance grade for hole
IT S - Tolerance grade for shaft
Then for the hole we have D max  D  IT H ; D min  D
For the shaft with clearance fits (shafts a to h)
dmax  d  f; dmin  d  f  ITs
For the shaft with interference fits (shafts j to zc)
dmin  d  f; dmax  d  f  ITs
1.4.8 Calculation of fundamental deviation for holes

Hole limits are identical with the shaft limits of same symbol (letter and grade)
but disposed on the other side of the zero line.
For size less than 3 mm

EI  upper deviation es of the shaft of same letter symbol but of opposite sign.
For size above 3 mm

ES  0 for N and 9, coarser grade
ES  Lower deviation ei of shaft of same letter symbol but one grade finer
and of opposite sign increased by the difference between the tolerance of the two
grades in question.
J K M, N - up to 8 grade inclusive
P to ZC - upto grade 7 inclusive
Problem 1.1 A journal bearing and bushing need to be designed. The nominal size is
25 mm. What dimensions are needed for a 25 mm basic size with a close running fit
which is a lightly loaded journal and bushing assembly.
Given
Basic size D  25 mm, close running fit, lightly loaded assembly
Solution
(i) Selection of fit

From PSG Data book Pg. No. 3.4 for close running and sliding fit we select
H8/f8 coarse fit.
(ii) Determination of IT grades

Diameter 25 mm lies between steps of 24 and 30 mm, therefore the geometric
mean diameter [PSG pg no. 3.7 to 3.10)
Mean diameter D  

24  30  26.83
i  0.45 3D  0.001 D (PSG pg no 3.6)
 0.45 3  0.001  26.83  1.37

26.83
i  1.37 microns o r 1.37  0.001  0.00137 mm
IT grade from PSG pg no. 3.6
For hole of grade 8 IT8  25 i  25  0.00137  0.034 mm
For shaft of grade 8 IT8  25i  25  0.00137  0.034 mm
Note:
For shaft the tolerance grade is also calculated in the following method.
Fundamental deviation of for hole EI  0
For shaft of fit f8 (lies between a to h)
 upper deviation es  fundamental deviation f
From PSG pg no 3.7 for f8, diameter range 24 to 30 mm
Upper deviation es   20  0.001   0.020 mm  f
Lower deviation ei   53  0.001   0.053 mm  es  ITs
  0.053   0.020  IT s
 IT s   0.020  0.053  0.033 mm
(iii) Hole & shaft dimensions
Hole
Min-hole dimension D min  D  25 mm
Max hole dimension D max  D  IT H  25  0.034  25.034 mm
For shaft
Shaft fit is f8 (lies a to h)
 Max. dimension of shaft dmax  d  f
 25    0.020 
 dmax  24.98 mm
Min. dimension of shaft dmin  d  f  IT s
 25  0.020  0.033 
dmin  24.947 mm
Problem 1.2 Find the hole and shaft limits for a medium drive fit using a basic hole
size of 60 mm. Also calculate tolerances and fundamental deviations.
Given
Basic hole size D   60 mm, Medium drive fit
Solution

From PSG Data book pg no 3.6 for medium drive fit we select H7/r6 fit.
(ii) Tolerance on hole & shaft

From PSG DB pg no 3.3 from IT grade table
For shaft of grade 6 (IT6) and shaft size between 50 and 80 mm we have
shaft IT6  IT s  19 micron  19  0.001  0.019 mm
For hole of grade 7 IT 7 we have
Hole IT 7  ITH  30 micron  30  0.001  0.030 mm
(iii) Fundamental deviations

For Hole EI  0
For shaft r6 (lies between j to zc)
For r6 and between diameter (50 and 65) we have
ei  41 microns, es  60 microns
 Lower deviation ei  f  41  0.001  0.041 mm  f

Now upper deviation es  ei  IT s
60  41  IT s
 IT s  19 microns as selected earlier
(iv) Limits
For Hole
Minimum diameter D min  D  60 mm
Maximum diameter D max  D f  IT H  60  0.030  60.030 mm
For shaft
For r6 shaft (lies between j to zc)
Minimum diameter dmin  d  f
dm in  60  0.041  60.041 mm
Maximum diameterdmax  d  f  ITs
 60  0.041  0.019
dmax  60.060 mm
Problem 1.3 The dimensions of two mating parts (shaft and hole) according to a basic
hole system are given as follows
Hole: 50.00 mm, 50.04 mm, Shaft: 49.96 mm, 49.94 mm
Calculate the hole tolerance, shaft tolerance and allowance.
Given
Lower limit of hole D m in  50.00 mm
Upper limit of hole D m ax  50.04 mm
Lower limit of shaft dm in  49.94 mm
Upper limit of shaft dm ax  49.96 mm
Solution
(i) Hole tolerance  D max  D m in  50.04  50.00  0.04 mm
(ii) Shaft tolerance  D max  dm in  49.96  49.94  0.02 mm
(iii) Allowance  Lower limit of H ole  U pper limit of shaft
Allo w anc e  50.00  49.96  0.04 mm
Problem 1.4 Calculate the tolerance, fundamental deviations, limits of sizes for the shaft
designated by 40 H7/f6.
Given
Basic size is 40 mm, fit is H7/f6.
Solution
(i) Tolerance grade of hole & shaft

Hole with H7 grade IT H  25 microns  25  0.001  0.025 mm
Shaft with f6 grade IT S  16 microns  16  0.001  0.016 mm
(From PSG Data book pg no. 3.3 IT tolerance table)
(ii) Fundamental deviations

For hole basis system
For hole
EI  0
For shaft
Shaft of fit r6 (lies between j to zc)
For r6 from PSG Data book page no 3.8 and diameter 40 mm
We have tolerance  50 and  34 microns.
Lower deviation ei  34 microns  34  0.001  0.034 mm  f
Upper deviation es  ei  IT s
50  34  IT s
 IT s  16 microns  0.016 mm as selected in i

(iii) Limits of shaft and hole
For hole
Lower limit or minimum hole size D min  D  40 mm
Upper limit or maximum hole size D max  D  IT H
 40  0.025
D max  40.025 mm
For shaft
For shaft r6 (lies between j to zc)
Lower limit or minimum shaft size dm in  d  f
dmin  40  0.034
dmin  40.034 mm
Upper limit or maximum shaft size dm ax  d  f  ITs
 40  0.034  0.016
dmax  40.050 mm
Problem 1.5 Calculate the dimensions of the following

(a) A 20 mm large electric motor sleeve bearing
(b) A 240 mm medium force fit shaft
(c) A 100 mm sleeve bearing for a elevating mechanism
Solution
A 20 mm large electric motor sleeve bearing

From PSG DB pg no 3.4 for large electric motor bearing with normal running
we select H8/e8 fit
(ii) Calculation of tolerances

From PSG data book pg no 3.3 tolerance table we have
For hole H8 fit tolerance grade IT H  33 microns
 33  0.001  0.033 mm
(For 20 mm dia & HS fit)
For shaft e8 fit tolerance grade IT s  33 microns
 33  0.001  0.033 mm
(For 20 mm dia & H8 fit)
(iii) Fundamental tolerances

For hole basis system
For hole EI  0
For shaft with e8 fit (lies between a & h shaft)
Upper deviation es  fundamental deviation f
From PSG DB pg no 3.7 for e8 and 20 mm diameter the tolerances are  40

and  73 microns.
 Upper deviation es   40  0.001   0.04 mm  f
Now lower deviationei  es  IT S
 73   40  IT S
 IT S   40  73  33 microns as selected
(iv) Dimensions of shaft & hole
For hole
Lower limit or minimum diameter of hole D min  D
 D min  20 mm
Upper limit or maximum diameter of hole D max  D  IT H
D max  20  0.033
 20.033 mm
Dimension of hole  20  0.033

0 mm
For shaft with fit e8 (lies between a to h)

Upper limit or maximum size of shaft dmax  d  f
dmax  20  0.04
dmax  19.94 mm
Lower limit or minimum size of shaft dmin  d  f  IT S
dmin  20  0.04  0.033
dmin  19.927 mm
Dimension of shaft d  20  0.040

0.073 mm
Maximum clearance
Maximum clearance  upper limit of hole  lower limit of shaft
 20.033  19.927
Maximum clearance  0.106 mm
Minimum clearance  L ow er limit of hole  Upper limit of shaft
 20  19.94  0.060 mm
Minimum clearance  0.060 mm
(b) A 240 mm medium force fit shaft

For medium force fit refer PSG data book pg no 3.6 we select H7/r6 fit.
(ii) Tolerances
(Ref PSG pg no 3.3 tolerance table)
For hole with H7 fit and 240 diameter IT H  46 microns  0.046 mm
For shaft with r6 fit and 240 diameter IT S  29 microns  0.029 mm

For hole basis system F
For hole EI  0
For shaft (shaft with r6 fit lies between j and zc)
From PSG data book pg no 3.8 for 240 mm dia and r6 tolerances are  113
and  84
ei  84 microns = 0.084 mm  f
Upper deviation es  low er deviation ei  IT S
113  84  IT S
IT S  29 microns  0.029 mm as selected earlier
(iv) Dimensions of hole and shaft
For hole
Minimum diameter or lower limit of hole D min  D  240 mm
Maximum diameter or upper limit of hole D max  D  IT H
 240  0.046
D max  240.046 mm
 Dimension of hole  240 0 0.046 mm
For shaft (r6 lies between j and zc)
Lower limit or minimum diameter of shaft dmin  d  f
dmin  240  0.084  240.084 mm
Upper limit or maximum diameter of shaft dmax  d  f  ITS
dmax  240  0.084  0.029
dmax  240.113 mm
Dimensions of shaft 240  0.113

0.084 mm
(c) A 100 mm sleeve bearing for an elevating machine

For elevating machine loose running fit will be suitable and hence from PSG
DB 3.4 we select H8/d9 normal fit
(ii) Selection of tolerance

From PSG DB pg no 3.3 for 100 mm and H8 fit
For H8 hole IT H  54 microns  0.054 mm
For d9 shaft IT S  87 microns  0.087 mm

For hole basis system for hole EI  0
For shaft with d9 fit (lies between a to h shaft)
From PSG DB pg no 3.7 for 100 mm diameter and d9 tolerances are  120 and
 207 microns.
 Lower deviation ei   207 microns   0.207 mm  f
Upper deviation es  ei  IT S
 120   207  ITS
IT S   207  120   87 microns as selected
(iv) Dimension of hole & shaft
For hole
Lower limit or minimum diameter of hole D min  D  100 mm
Upper limit or maximum diameter of hole D max  D  IT H
 100  0.054
D max  100.054 mm
 Dimensions of hole 100 0 0.054 mm

For shaft (for d9 lies between a to z)

Upper limit or maximum diameter of shaft dmax  d  f
 100    0.207
dmax  99.793 mm
Lower limit or minimum diameter of shaft dmin  d  f  ITS
 100    0.207  0.087 
dmin  99.706
 0.207
Dimensions of shaft 100  0.294 mm
(v) Maximum and minimum clearance

Maximum clearance  upper limit of hole  lower limit of shaft
 100.054  99.706
 0.348 mm
Minimum clearance  0.207 mm
1.5 SIMPLE STRESSES

LOAD: It is an external force acting on machine member.
1.5.1 Types of the Load

1. Static load (or) Steady load
2. Variable load (or) Dynamic load (Load varying with time)
3. Suddenly applied load (or) Shock load (When load is suddenly applied or
removed)
4. Impact load (When load is applied with some initial velocity)
STRESS
The internal resistance force per unit area at any section of the body is known
stress.
Mathematically,
lo ad
Stress  in N /mm2
unit area
1.5.2 Direct, Bending and Torsional stresses
I. Stresses due to Axial loading (or) Direct loading

(i) Tensile stress ( t)
i) Ten sile stress = t
P
Tensile Stress  t 
A
P - Tensile load in N
P P
A - cross-sectional area in mm 2
l
(ii) Compressive stress (c)
Fig.1.10. Ten sile Stress
P 
Compressive stress c    
A ii) C om pressive stress = c
P - Compressive load in N
A - Cross-sectional area in mm 2
P P
If,
l
l Length of specimen in m F ig .1.11. Com pressive Load
E Modulus of elasticity in N/m 2
G Modulus of rigidity in N/m 2

 Poisson’s ratio
e Elongation in m
We have
P.l
(iii) Elongation e 
A .E
E
(iv) Poisson’s ratio  
2G
(Refer PSG D.B page no 7.1)
* In general, for tensile load, consider  ve sign.

for compressive load, consider  ve sign.
(iv) Contact stress, Bearing stress (or) Crushing stress.

It is a localised compressive stress at the surface of contact between two
members.
P
Bearing stress  P b 
ld B earing
where P - Radial load acting on the journal.; l - length Journa l

of the contact between journal & bearing; d - Dia. of
the journal; l  d - represents the projected area. (It d
is not cross-sectional area).
Radial load
Bearing stres s or Crushing stress 
Projected area
P
 l
ld F ig .1.12. Crushing Stress.
II. Stresses due to Bending load
(i.e., Due to transverse load)
According to theory of simple bending.
b M E
 
y I R (PSG Databook Pg.No.7.1)
My
b 
I
where b - Bending stress; y - Distance between

A
Neutral axis and Extreme outer fibre; M - Bending
moment; I - Movement of Inertia, R - Radius of N eutral axis
curvature. M M
In Fig 1.13 (a) at (A),  b Bending stress is B (a)

My A
compressive  b  
I
N eutral axis
at (B),  b Bending stress is tensile M
M
My
b   B
I (b)
In Fig 1.13 (b) at (A), Bending stress is tensile Fig.1.13. Bending Stress
My
 b  
I
My
at (B) Bending stress is compressive  b  
I
* In general, Tensile bending stress, consider  ve sign.

Compressive bending stress, consider  ve sign.
* For Circular Cross-Section
My d
b  bending stress   y
I 2
d
M
2 32M  4
  3
I d
 4 d 64
d
64
32M
b  
d3
(iii) Torsional stress

Consider a shaft of radius r and diameter d subjected to a twisting movement
or torque T as shown in Fig. 1.14.
If
T Torque or twisting moment in Nm
T d T
r Radius of shaft in m
J Polar moment of inertia in m 4
l Length of shaft in m Fig.1.14. Torsional Stress
2
G Modulus of rigidity in N/m
N Speed of shaft in RPM
 Shear stress in kgf / cm 2 in MKS and in N/m 2 in SI)
 Angle of twist in radians
We have Torsional equation
T GQ 
  (Refer PSG DB pg no 7.1)
J l r
Tr
 Shear stress  
J
Tl
Angle of twist  
GJ
Polar moment of Inertia J
d4
For solid shaft J 
32
 d40  d4i 
Hollow shaft J
32
do outer diameter
di inner diameter R ivet
(iv) Shear Stresses
(i) Direct Shear Stress

Ex: Shearing of Rivet. P late
Let d - Dia. of the rivet.
P - shear load.
P
Direct Shear Stress  d 
 2
d
4
(ii) Torsional Shear: s
When a body is subjected to twisting moment or torque T
T s
According to torsion equation 
J r
T s where T - Twisting moment.; J - Polar moment of inertia.;


 4 d d
d r - Radius of the shaft  ,
32 2 2
 4 
JS  d (Solid shaft); JH  d4  d4i  Hollow shaft
32 32 o
16T
s  Torsional shear stress 
d3
(v) Stress-strain diagram

In designing various
E A - Proportional limit
parts of a machine, it is
F B - Elastic limit
necessary to know the C
mechanical properties of the B
Stress ( 8)
A C - Upper yield point
D
material. These properties
D - Lower yield point
are commonly determined by
conducting a standard tensile E - Ultimate (or)
test, on UNIVERSAL Maximum stress
TESTING MACHINE (UTM). F - Breaking point.
This test consists of
gradually loading a standard O Strain (e)
specimen of a material and Fig.1.16. Stress strain plot.
recording the corresponding
values of load and elongation until the specimen fractures. The load is applied
gradually and measured by a testing machine. The stress is determined by dividing
the load value by the original cross-sectional area of the standard specimen.
The elongation is measured by determining the distance between the two
reference points on the specimen which are moved apart by the application of gradual
load. The original length between two reference points is known as Gauge length.
The strain is determined by dividing the elongation value by the gauge length.
The values of the stress and strain are used to draw the stress-strain diagram
of the material used.
The stress-strain diagram for a mild steel under tensile test is shown in the
Fig. 1.16.
Proportional limit: From point O to A is a straight line, which represents that the
stress is proportional to strain. The Hook’s law holds good upto point A, and it is
known as proportional limit.
Elastic limit: It may be noted that even if the load is increased beyond point A
upto the B, the material will regain its shape and size, when the load is removed.
The material has elastic properties upto the point B. This point is known as elastic
limit. It is defined as the stress developed in the material without any permanent
deformation.
Yield point: If the material is stressed beyond point B, the plastic stage will reach,
i.e., on removal of the load, the material will not be able to recover its original size and
shape. Beyond point B, the strain increases at a faster rate with any increase in the
stress until the point C is reached. At this point, the material yields before the load and
there is an appreciable strain without any increase in stress. The stress corresponds to
yield point is known as yield point stress.
C - Upper yield stress,
D - Lower yield stress,
E - Ultimate stress,
F - Breaking stress.
1.5.3 Factor of safety

While designing a component, it is necessary to ensure sufficient reserve strength
in case of an accident. It is ensured by taking a suitable factor of safety. (FOS)
Failure stress F ailure load

Factor of s afety  
Allow able stress Allowab le load
The allowable stress is the stress value which is used in design to determine
the dimensions of the component.
For Ductile materials,
Yield stress
FOS 
A llow able stress o r Permissible stress
For Brittle materials,
Ultimate stre ss
FOS 
Allowable s tress
There are number of factors which are difficult to evaluate accurately in design
analysis.
Some factors are as follows:
1. Uncertainty in the magnitude of external force acting on the component.

2. Variations in the properties of materials like yield strength or ultimate
strengths.
3. Variables in the dimensions of the component due to imperfect workmanship.
In addition to these factors, the no. of assumptions made in analysis, in order

to simplify the calculations, may not be exactly valid in working conditions. The factor
of safety ensures against these uncertainties and unknown conditions.
Problem 1.6 A steam engine cylinder of diameter 200 mm, the maximum pressure across
the piston is 50 kN/m2. Design the diameter of piston rod if the maximum tensile or
compressive stress on piston rod is limited to 42 N/mm2.
Given
max  42 N/mm 2  42  10  6 N/m 2; dc  200 mm  0.2 m,
P max  50 kN/m 2  50  10 3 N/m 2
Solution
(i) Load on piston rod

Load P   P max  Area of cylinder
 d2c 50  103    0.2 2

 P max    1.57081  10 3 N
4 4
Lo ad P   1571 N
(ii) Find diameter of piston rod

L oad P
max 
Area of piston rod
1571
42  10 6 
 d2p
4
1571  4
d2p  6
 4.762  10  5
42  10  
dp  6.9  10  3 m
or dp  6.9 mm
From nearest standard diameter R20 series we get dp  7.10 mm

Problem 1.7 A link as shown in figure is subjected to a steady tensile force of 50 kN.
Find the tensile stress induced in link.
Given
Load P  50 kN  50  103 N
A A
B
P P 50 75
50
10
A B A 30
Fig.1.17. Section A -A
Tensile stress at section B  B
Area at section B  B A B   l  b  10  50  500 mm2
Load P 50  10 3
Tensile stress tB    100 N/mm2  50 MPa
A rea A B  500
Tensile stress induced at section A  A
Area at section A  A A A  30 75  50   750 mm 2
Load P 50  10 3
Tensile stress t    66.67 N/mm 2  66.67 MPa
A Area A A 750
Problem 1.8 Two rectangular plates are fastened by two bolts of 25 mm diameter and
nut. There is a washer whose ID  27 mm and OD  55 mm placed between the plates
and there is an another washer placed between the nut and upper plate of dimensions
ID  27 mm and OD  49 mm. The base plate carries a load of 100 kN. Calculate the
stress on both washers before nut is tightened. When nut is tightened so as to produce a
tension of 10 kN an each bolt, what are the stresses in each washer.
Given
Bolt dia (d) = 25 mm, washer 1: d01  55 mm, di1  27 mm;
washer 2 d02  49 mm, di2  27 mm; load P   100 kN  100  10 3 N

(i) Stresses without nut tightening

 2 
Area of washer 1 A 1  [d  d2i1]  [55 2  27 2]  1803.27 mm 2
4 o1 4
 
Area of washer 2 A 2  [do2  d2i2]  [49 2  27 2]  1313.18 mm 2
4 4
(ii) Load acting and stress before tightening of nut

Load P  is acting on two bolts, so load on each washer
100  10 3
P1   50  10 3 N
2
Upper washer (2) load  0
Lower washer (1) load  P 1  50  10 3 N
P1 50  10 3
Stress on washer between plates  1    27.73 N/mm 2
A1 1803.27
(iii) Nuts are tightened

Load on upper washer 2  P 2  10 kN  10  10 3 N
P2 10  10 3
Stress on upper washer  2    7.615 N/mm 2
A2 1313.18
Load on lower washer 1  P 3  P 1  10 kN
P 3  100  10  110 kN
P3 110  10 3
Stress on washer between plates  3    61 N/mm 2
A1 1803.27
Problem 1.9: A simply supported beam of rectangular cross section having depth three
times width is subjected to a point load of 20 kN at 300 mm from the left support. The
span of beam is 700 mm. Determine the dimensions of section if the allowable strength of
material is 200 MPa. (JNTU, Dec 2011)
Given
Simply supported beam, L  700 mm , a  300 mm , b  700  300  400 mm
P  20 kN  20  10 3 N , []  200 N/mm 2 , d  3b

Solution
From PSG DB pg no 6.5 for SSB with a, b and point load we have maximum
bending moment d=3b 20k N
P ab 20  10 3  300  400 CS
M max  
L 700 a=3 00 b=4 00
M max  3.428  10 6 Nmm b

700
Mb b
Bending stress equation 
I y [PSG D.B pg 7.1]
bd 3 b  3b
3
27b4
I   mm 4
12 12 12
d 3b
y 
2 2
3.428  10 6  3.48  10 6  3b  12
  or b   200
27b4 36/ 2 27b 4  2
12
3.428  10 6  3  12
b3   11426.66
27  2  200
b  22.52 mm say 23 mm
 width b  23 mm
depth d  23  3  69 ~
 70 mm
1.6 IMPACT STRESS

When machine members are subjected to the load with impact, then the stress
produced in the member due to the falling load is known as ‘impact stress’.
Consider a load ‘W’ falling on a body from a height ‘h’.
The load is suddenly applied and the type of loading is called impact loading.
Let A  area of cross-section of the member.
W
The stress on the member for gradually applied load is   .
A
But due to the application of sudden load, the

stress induced in the member will be greater than the
W
value .
A
Let   Deflection due to the impact. Load

W
P Equivalent load which will produce the
deflection ‘’.
l
Energy gained by the system in the form of strain h
energy  Area of triangle OAB Body
1
 P
2 ...(1)

Potential energy lost by weight
 Wh   ...(2)
But, the energy gained by the system in the form
Fig. 1.18. Im pact L oad ing.
of strain energy is equal to the potential energy lost
by the weight.
Equal equations (1) and (2)
1
P  W  h
2 ... (3)
Let   stress induced in the member due to the application of impact load.
P
where E  young’s modulus 
A
or P    A
 P l  l
Deflection     E
 A E 
l
Replace P    A and     in the equation (3)
E
1  l   l 
   A      W     h  expand and simplify the equation.
2  E  E 
Al 2 W l
    Wh  0 (is a Quadratic equation.)
2E E
Solving the equation,
  1 .


W 2hAE  = OB . AB
 1 1 2
A  Wl  1 .
=  .P
2
P A
 


2hAE 
(or)   A  W  1  1 Strain
 Wl 
E n ergy
 


2hAE 
PW1 1
 Wl  O B

Fig. 1.19.
1.7 PRINCIPAL STRESSES
Machine components are subjected to several external loads of different nature.
Therefore, it is necessary to find the equivalent single stress by using principal
stresses.
At any point in a strained material, there are three mutually perpendicular
planes on which only direct stresses are acting, and there are no shear stresses. These
planes are principal planes and the direct stresses are called Principal stresses or
Normal stresses. Out of three Principal stresses  1, 2, and 3 one is maximum, one
is minimum and the other one is intermediate.
Two-dimensional
Max. principal stress


2
x   y   x  y  x   y 1
 1 
2
 
2
2
  xy 
2

2

  x  y2  42xy
 
Min. principal stress


2
x   y   x  y  x   y 1
 2 
2
 
2
2
  xy 
2

2

  x  y2  4 2xy
 
1   2
M ax. shear stress  ma x  [Refer PSG D.B Pg No.7.2]
2
N orm al y
Stress xy
xy

x
x
tan gential
stress
yx
yx y
Fig.1.20. Principal Stress.
2xy
tan 2  where   angle between  1 and x  axis
 x  y
Note: If  1 and  2 both are  ve. Consider  3 into account.
Let  z be stress in z-direction. If z  0, then 3  0
 1  3 1  0
Then max  
2 2
1
max 
2
Problem 1.10:
50m m T =1K N -m
A F =3K N
P = 15K N
B
250m m
Fig. 1.21.
Calculate normal stresses at (A) and (B).
Also calculate max. shear stresses at (A) and (B). (JNTU, Dec 2011)
Solution
Given:
d  50 mm , T  1 kNm  1  10 3 Nm, F  3 kN  3000 N
P  15 kN  15  10 3N, l  250 mm
(i) Consider axial load

Axial load induces direct stress. P  Axial load  Te nsile  15 kN
3
P 15  10   15  10 3 N
t  Direct stress   tensile
A 1963.49
 7.639 N/mm 2  2 
[Area A  d  502  1963
4 4
 2 
A  d  50 2  1963.49 mm 2]
4 4
(ii) Consider transverse (or) Bending load
Bending load  F  3 kN  3  10 3 N
Bending moment  F  l  3  10 3  250  750  10 3 Nm m
Bending lo ad induc esbending stress,
My [PSG D.B Pg.No.7.1] d 50

b   y   25 mm
I 2 2
 d4
I
64

I 50 4  306.79  10 3 mm 4
64
at (A) 750  10 3  25
btensile  
306.79  10 3
  61.115 N/mm 2 tensile
at (B) bcomp.   61.115 N/mm 2 comp
Total stress  x   t   b
at (A)  x  t  bt
  7.639  61.115   68.75 N/mm 2
at (B)  x  t  bc
  7.693   61.115   53.422 N/mm 2
(iii) Consider torsion

Twisting moment T  1 kN  m  1000  1000 Nmm
T  50
 [PSG D.B Pg.No.7.1] r  25 mm
J r 2
Tr  4
xy    J d
J 32
10 6  25 
 J  50 4
3 32
613.59  10
xy  40.74 N/mm 2 J  613.59  103 m m4
At (A) At (B)
x   68.75 N/mm 2  x   53.476 N/mm 2
y  0 y  0
xy   40.74 N /m m2 xy   40.74 N /m m2
At (A)


2
x   y   x  y  2
1  Max. normal stress      xy
2  2 
[PSG D.B. Pg.No.7.2]


2
68.75  68.75  2
   2   40.74 
2  
 34.375  53.30
  87.675 N/mm 2


2
x   y   x  y  2
 2  Min. norma l stress      xy
2  2 
 34.375  53.30
  18.925 N/mm 2
 1  2
Max. Shear stress  maxat A 
2
87.675   18.925 

2
[ max ]at A   53.3 N/mm 2
At (B)


2
x   y   x  y  2
1  Max. normal stress      xy
2  2 


2
 53.476   53.476  2
     40.74    26.738  48.730
2  2 
  21.992 N/m m2 te nsile
2  M in. normal stress   26.738  48.73
  75.468 N/m m2 comp. 
1   2
Max. Shear stress  m axat B 
2
21.992   75.468 

2
[ max ]at B   48.73 N/m m2

Problem 1.11: For the stress state given, find the principal normal and shear stresses and
determine the angle from the x-axis to 1. Draw the stress element and label all details.
x  16 MPa  16 N /m m2
y  9 MPa  9 N/mm 2
xy  5 MPa  5 N/mm 2
where 1  Angle from  1 to x  axis
2  Angle from  2 to x  axis
y =9M P a 2xy
tan 21 
y x =5M P a x  y
25 10
   1.428
x y =5M P a 16  9 7

2 1  tan  11.428
x x =16 M P a
55
1   27.5
2
 2  90  27.5  117.5 
Fig. 1.22. Max. principal stress (or) Max. normal

y stress


2
 x  y   x  y  2
 1      xy [Refer PSG D.B Pg.No.7.2]
2  2 


2
16  9  16  9  2 2

2
 
2
  5  12.5  6.1032  18.60 N/mm
 


2
 x  y  x   y  2
Min. principal stress (or) Min. normal stress  2      xy
2  2 
 12.5  6.1032  6.3968 N/mm 2

Since  1 and  2 are  ve,  Consider 3 into account.
3  0
1   3 18.6  0
Max. shear stress  max  
2 2
max  9.3 N/mm 2
Problem 1.12: Determine the required thickness of the steel bracket at section A-A. When
loaded as shown in Fig. 1.23 in order to limit the tensile stress to 60 MN/m2.
(Oct-96-MU, Apr 2007-AU)
Solution
At section A-A imagine two forces F 1 and F 2 equal to F
i.e., F 1  F 2  F  4500 N.
e= 50 45 00 N
t
The force F and F 1 constitute couple F  e. The
50
effect of couple produces bending, which induces
bending stress.
10 0
My M  F  e  4500  50 N.mm A A
b  50
I
4500  50  25 50
 y  25 mm
1 2 t
 t  50 3
25 50 e F = 45 00 N
540 1
 N  mm 2 I  t  50 3
t 12
The force F 2 produces a direct tensile load which

induces direct tensile stress. A C F1 A
F2
P F2 4500 90
t     [A  50  t] Fe
A A 50  t t C=
540 90 630
Total stress  total   b  t   
t t t
630 A
ie x  A
t F2
Fig. 1.23.
y  0; xy  0;  1  60 N/mm 2 (given) (since it is tensile)


2
 x  y  x   y 
1      2xy
2  2 
(Refer PSG D.B Pg No.7.2)


2
630  630 
   2t   60
2t  
630 630
  60
2t 2t
630
t  10.5 mm.
60
Thickness of steel bracket  t  10.5 m m
Problem 1.13: Determine the maximum shear stress in the menber loaded shown in Fig.
1.24. (Madras University, Apr - May 2005 - AU)
Assume point (C) and image F 1 and F 2 two equal and opposite force i.e.,
F 1  F 2  F  500 N.
The force F and F 1 produces couple, the effect of couple produces twisting, which
induces torsional shear stress.
Tr
s 
J
5000 500  50
s  T  5000  500 Nmm

 100 4
32
 xy r  50 mm
 4 
s  xy  12.73 N  mm 2 J d   100 4
32 32
The force F 2 produces bending, which induces bendings stress
My M  F 2  250 500m m

b  5000 N
I
5000  250  50  5000  250 Nm m 100m m


100 4 250
64
 12.73 N/mm 2 y
d 100
  50 mm
2 2
 4 
I d  100 4 mm 4
64 64 e
C F1 F = 500 0 N
x  b  12.73 N/m m2; y  0
F2
2
xy  12.73 N/m m
 1  Max. principal stress (Refer PSG DB Pg.No.7.2)


2
x   y   x  y  2 C C=F.e
     xy
2  2 
F2 250


2
12.73  12.73  2
   2   12.73 
2  
Fig. 1.24.
 6.365  14.23   20.595 N /mm 2


2
x   y   x  y  2
2  Min. principal stress      xy
2  2 
 6.365  14.23   7.865 N/mm 2
 1  2
Max. Shear stress  max 
2
20.595   7.865 
  14.23 N /mm 2.
2
Problem 1.14: Stresses in a wheel hub are found to be 40 N/mm2 and 50 N/mm2 tension
at a point as shown in the Fig 1.25. Calculate the max. shear stress at the point.
Given data:
x  40 N/mm 2;  y  50 N/mm 2; z  0 since  3  0; xy  0
Max. principal stress

y
x


2
x   y   x  y  2
1      xy
2  2 


2
40  50  40  50 
     45  5  50 N/mm 2 Fig. 1.25.
2  2 
Min. principal stress

 2  45  5  40 N/mm 2
Since 1 and 2 are  ve, Consider 3 into account.  3  0
1   3 50  0
 Max. shear stress  max    25 N/mm 2
2 2
Problem 1.15: A 50 mm diameter rod is subjected to a 10 kN force and a torsional

moment of 100 N-m as shown in the Fig. 1.26(a). Determine the maximum tensile and
maximum shear stress at point (A).
Solution
Assume point ‘C’ and imagine two equal and
opposite forces
F 1 and F 2 i.e., F 1  F 2  F  10,000 N
The force F and F 1 constitute a couple. The

couple produces bending, which induces bending stress.
 At (A) the bending stress is tensile.

y
b  M  M  10,000  25 N  mm A
I 5 0
10,000  25  25 50
b  y  25 mm T
 2
 50 4 1 0 0N -m
64
 20.37 N/mm 2 
I 50 4
64
The remaining force F 2 produces a direct
tensile stress.
F2 10,000
t    5.0929 N/mm 2
A 
50 2
4
total stress  x   b  t  20.37  5.09 B

25
(a) F
 25.46 N/mm 2 1 0 ,0 0 0 N
The torsional moment induces torsional

shear stress.
Tr T  100 Nm A
xy 
J T = 100 N -m
100  1000 25  100  1000 Nmm 3
= 100 x 10 N -m m

613592.3
 4.07 N /mm 2  4
J d
32

  50 4  6135923 mm 4
32
50
r  25 mm F2
2
C B
e = 25


2
 x  y  x   y  (b) F1 F
2 1 0,00 0 N
1      xy  y  0
2  2 


2
25.46  25.46  2
   2   4.07
2  
 12.73  13.36  26.09 N/mm 2
 2  12.73  13.36
  0.63 N/mm 2
1   2 Fxe
Max. shear stress  max  F2
2 C
B
26.09   0.63 (c) 25

2 Fig. 1.26.
max  13.36 N/mm2
Problem 1.16: Determine the maximum principal stress, min. principal stress and max.
shear stress at the centre of the crank shaft bearing for the load as shown in the Fig. 1.27.
The force 10 kN is acting perpendicular to the crank pin and this force induces
bending stress and torsional shear stress at the axis of the crank shaft.
P  10 kN  10  10 3N
Bending moment M  10  10 3  100 Nmm
Twisting moment T  10  10 3  120  10 4 Nmm
My  4
Bending stress  b  I d
I 64
10 6  30 
 x  b    60 4  636.17  10 3 mm4
64
636.17  10 3
 47.15 N/mm 2 y
60
 30 mm
2
Tr
Shear stress  xy 
J
120  10 4  30 d 60
 r   30 mm
2 2
1.27  10 6
10K N
C rank pin 40
120
C rank
S haft
100 Fig. 1.27.
A
 28.34 N/mm 2  4 
J d   60 4
32 32
y  0  1.27  10 6mm 4


2
 x  y  x   y  2
Max. principal stress  1      xy
2  2 


2
47.15  47.15  2
   2   28.34 
2  
 23.575  36.863
 60.4 N/mm 2


2
x   y   x  y 
Minimum principal stress   2      xy 2
2  2 
 2  23.575  36.863
  13.25 N/mm 2
 1  2 60.4   13.25 
Max. shear stress  max  
2 2
max  36.825 N/mm2
Problem 1.17: Determine the maximum normal and max. shear stresses at section A-A
as shown in the Fig. 1.28.
30 FV
F = 10K N 30
o
30
FH
150 150
A
80 80 A
65 25 Fig.1.28. 65 25
The load F is resolved into vertical and horizontal components. F V and F H .
F  10 kN  10  10 3N
F V  Vertical load  F  sin   10,000  sin 30
 5,000 N
F H  Horizontal load  F  cos   10,000  cos 30  8660.25 N
Both vertical and horizontal loads produces bending moments (i.e., vertical
bending moment and horizontal bending moment.)
Therefore, it is necessary to find resultant bending moment.
Vertical bending moment  BM V  F V30  25  65  5000 120  600  10 3Nmm
Horizontal bending moment
 BM H  F H 30  25  65  8660.25  120  1.039  10 6Nmm
Resulting bending moment  BM R  

 2H
BM v2  BM
BMR  
600  10 32  1.039  10 62  1.199  10 6Nmm
This resultant bending moment induces bending stress b
BMR y 80
Bending stress  b  y  40 mm
I 2
1.199  10 6  40 
b   x  I  80 4
64
2.01  10 6
b  x  23.85 N/mm2  2.01  10 6m m4
And also, the horizontal load induces torsional shear stress.
Tr T  Twisting moment due to horizontal load.

 Torsional shear stress  xy 
J  F H  150
1.29  10 6  40  8660.25  150  1.29  10 6 Nmm

xy 
4.02  10 6 80
r  40 mm
2
xy  12.83 N/mm2 y  0  4 
J d   80 4  4.02  10 6 mm 4
32 32


2
 x  y  x   y  2
Max. principal stress  1      xy
2  2 


2
23.85  23.85  2
   2   12.83   11.925  17.517
2  
1  29.442 N/mm2


2
x   y   x  y  2
Min. principal stress   2      xy  11.925  17.517
2  2 
 2   5.592 N/mm 2
 1  2 29.442   5.592 
Max. shear stress at A-A  [ max ]AA  
2 2
[ max ]AA  17.517 N/mm2

Problem 1.18 : A wall bracket is loaded as shown in the Fig. 29 (a) The cross-section
of the bracket is rectangular having b  3t. Determine the dimensions of the cross-section
of the bracket if the permissible stress is limited to 28 N/mm2.
(Apr 99 - Madras University, Oct - 2006 - AU)
Mark the angle with respect to x-axis. i.e., 30 with x-axis.
Resolve the force F  5 kN into horizontal and vertical components
Horizontal component of F  F H  F  cos 30  5  10 3  cos 30  4330.12 N
Vertical component of F  F V  F  sin 30  50  10 3  sin 30  2500 N.
Consider a point ‘C’.

At ‘C’ imagine two forces F H & F H equal and opposite forces with magnitude
1 2
of F H ; i.e., F H  F H  F H  4330.12 N
1 2
1. The force F V induces bending stress.
My M  F V  120
b 
I
 2500  120  300  10 3Nm m
1
300  10 3  3t  12 b 3t
 y  But b  3t
4 2 2
27 t  2
200  103 1 1
b  N/mm2 I t b3  t 3t3
3 12 12
1
t
2. The force F H and F H constitute a couple the effect of couple produces bending.
2
The couple induces bending stress.
My
b  M  F H  cos 30  60
2 I
259.8  10 3 
3t  5  10 3cos 30   60  259.8  10 3Nmm
2 b 3t
 y  But b  3t
1
 27  t4 2 2
12
1 1
I t b3  t 3t3
173.2  103 12 12
b  N/mm2
2
t3
3. The force F H (tensile) induces direct tensile stress.

1
FH 5  10 3cos 30 4330.12 1443.37

1
t    
A bt 3t t t2
120
o
60 F
60 5K N
C b
b
t
t (a)
FH
o
o
(5.cos30 )
30
F
120 5K N
o 60
F V (5Sin30 )
A
FH1 b
C F H2
B t
(b)
120 C =F H 1 x60
o
F V (5sin 30 )
A
FH2
FH1
(c) Fig.1.29.
B
At - A
Total stress  x   b  b   t
1 2
200  10 3 173.2  10 3 1443.37

 3
 3

t t t2
373.2  10 3 1443.37
 3

t t2
y  0; xy  0;
x   1  28 N/mm 2 Given
373.2  10 3 1443.37
 3
  28.
t t2
Calculate ‘t’ by trail and error method
Let t  10
L.H.S. 373.2  14.43  387.63
L.H.S.  R.H.S.
t  15
L.H.S. 110.57  6.41  116.98
L.H.S.  R.H.S.
t  20
L.H.S. 46.65  3.60  50.25
L.H.S.  R.H.S.
t  25
L.H.S. 23.88  2.309  26.18
L.H.S.  R.H.S.
Therefore, take thickness t  25 mm
and b  3  t  3  25  75 mm.
Problem 1.19: Determine the

maximum shear stress and the m
principal stress for the member shown l 2= 5 m F  50m m
1 2 V1
in Fig. 1.30 (a). FH1

Introduce equal and opposite
FH2
vertical forces F v1 and
F v2 F v1  F v2  F v perpendicular to F V2
the axis of the circular bar and equal l1=

and opposite horizontal forces F H1 500 m m
and F H2 F H1  F H2  F H , along the F H= F V=
Fig.1.30(a) 100 0N 200 0N
axis. This does not disturb the
equilibrium.
Effects of various loads (Fig. 1.30 (b))

F v and F v2 constitute a couple F v l1
and twist the circular bar. F v1 bends the BM H
circular bar in the vertical plane. F H and 1
FH
F H2 constitute a couple F H l1 and bends F V1
the circular bar in the horizontal plane.
T
F H1 gives tensile load to the circular bar.
Twisting moment,
T  F v l1  2000  500  10  10 5 Nmm

Fig.1.30(b)
Shear stress,
16T 16  10  10 5
   40.7 N/mm 2
 d3   50 3
Bending moment (vertical)  BM v  F v1 l2
 2000  125  25  10 4 Nmm
Bending moment (horizontal)  BM H  F H l1
 1000  500  50  10 4 Nmm

Bending moment (resultant)  

 BM 2V  BM 2H
BM R  
 25  10 42  50  10 42  55.9  10 4 Nmm
32BM R 32  55.9  10 4
Bending stress b  3
 3
 45.6 N/mm 2
d   50
F H1
Tensile stress due to F H1 
 d2/4
1000
t  2
 0.509 N/mm 2
  50 /4
T  b   t  45.6  0.509  46.1 N/mm 2


 T  2
Maximum shear stress  max    
 2 


2
 46.1  2 2
  2   40.7   46.8 N/mm
 


T  T  2
Maximum normal stress  1     
2  2 


2
46.1  46.1  2 2
   2   40.7   69.8 N/mm
2  
Problem 1.20: An unknown weight falls through 10 mm on to a collar rigidly attached

to the lower end of a vertical bar 3 m long and 600 mm2 cross section. The maximum
instantaneous extension is 2 mm. What is the corresponding stress and the value of the
weight. Take E  200 kN/mm2. (M.U. Nov.93)
Refer Fig. 1.31
1. Equate the energy of impact to the strain energy of the bar and determine W .
1
W h    P
2 ...(1)
  instantaneous extension  2 mm
 AE W
P  equivalent static load 
L L = 3000m m 2
A =6 00m m
E  2  10 5 N/mm 2 h= 10m m
2  600  2  10 5
P  80,000 N
3000
Now, using (1) solve for W . Fig.1.31.
1
W 10  2   80,000  2
2
W  6666.7 N
P 80,000
2. Instantaneous stress  inst    133.3 N/mm 2
A 600
Problem 1.21: An unknown weight falls through 10 mm on to a collar rigidly attached

to the lower end of a vertical bar 3 m long and 600 mm2 cross-section. The maximum
instantaneous extension is 2 mm. What is the corresponding stress and the value of the
weight; Take E  200 kN/mm2. (Nov-93, MU, Apr 2004- AU)
Given data:
h  10 mm ; l  3 m  3000 mm ; A  600 mm 2;   2 mm l;
E  200 kN/mm 2  200  10 3  2  10 5 N/mm 2
Solution
 stress
Young’s modulus  E  
e strain
  l  2
Strain     6.66  10  4
l  l  3000
Instantaneous stress   E  e  2  10 5  6.66  10  4  133.33 N/mm 2
P
But 
A
Instantaneous static load P    A  133.33  600  80  10 3N

1
P  Wh  
2
1
 80  10 3  2  W10  2
2
80  10 3
W  6666.66 N
12
W  6.666 kN.
Problem 1.22: An I-section beam of depth 250 mm is supported at two points 4 m apart.
It is loaded by a weight 4 kN falling through a height h and striking the beam at mid
span. Moment of inertia of the section is 8  107mm4. Modulus of Elasticity is
210 kN/mm2. Determine the permissible value of h if the stress is limited to
120 N/mm2. (Nov 94-MU, Apr 2008-AU)
Solution
d 250
depth  d  250, mm ; y    125 mm ; l  4 m  4,000 mm
2 2
W  4 kN  4  10 3 N ; I  8  10 7mm 4 ; E  210 kN/mm 2  210  10 3N/mm 2
Instantaneous stress    120 N/mm 2
W
h
d epth =
2 5 0m m
l Fig. 1.32.
My  M I 
Instantaneous stress     Z where Z  (From PSG D.B Pg.No.7.1)
I  y 
Pl
But Max. BM  M  (for a simply supported beam load acting at centre)
4
P l
y
4
 (From PSG D.B Pg. No.6.5)
I
  I  4 120  8  10 7  4
Instantaneous static load P    76.8  10 3N
ly 4000  125
Instantaneous deflection,  for a simply supported beam with a concentrated centre

load.
P  l3
 [From PSG DB P.No. 6.5.]
48EI
76.8  10 3  4000 3

48  210  10 3  8  10 7
Instantaneous deflection   6.095 mm
We know that
1
P  Wh  
2
1
 76.8  10 3  6.095  4  10 3h  6.095 
2
h  58.514  6.095 mm
h  52.419 mm.
Problem 1.23: A weight of 6000 N falls through a distance ‘h’ at the middle of a beam
of span 4.5 m. The end connections of the beam may be considered as simply supported.
Determine the value of h, such that the maximum induced stress in the beam does not
exceed 160 N/mm2. The modulus of section of the beam  2  10 4m3, second moment of
area  1  10 5m4. (Oct-98 - MU, Nov 2007 - AU)
Given data:
W  6000 N ; l  4.5 m  4500 mm; Z  2  10  4m 3  2  10  4  1000 3  200  10 3mm 3
I  1  10  5m 4  1  10  5  1000 4  10 7 mm 4.
Let M  Max. BM for a simply supported beam, concentrated load acting at the centre.
P  l P  4500
Max. BM  M   (From PSG D.B Pg.No.6.5)
4 4
P  4500
4 M
160  3
bending stress  
200  10 z
P  28444.44 N
Pl3 28.44  10 3  4500 3

Instantaneous deflection,   
48EI 48  210  10 3  10 7
 25.71 mm E is not given Assume

E  120  10 2N/mm 2
(From PSG D.B Pg. No.6.5)
1
P  Wh  
2
1
 28.44  10 3  25.71  6000 h  25.71 
2
h  60.93  25.71  35.22 mm
h  35.22 mm
Problem 1.24: A cantilever shaft of 60 mm diameter and 0.3 m length in subjected to

following load (a) point load of 5 kN at free end (b) Axial load of 20 kN and (c) Torque
of 1 kN-m as shown in Fig. 1.33. Determine the stresses at A and B. (April 2005 - A.U)
F 20,000  4
1. Axial stress due to 20 kN a    7.07 N/mm 2
A   60 2
Bending stress due to the tip load 5 kN,
32  M 32  5000  300
bt  bc  3
  70.7 N/mm 2
d   60 3
Sheat stress due to torque 1 kN-m.
16T 16  1,000,000
 3
  23.6 N/mm 2
d   60 3
2. At A state of stress is depicted in Fig. 4.26 (c)
Total normal stress  T   bt   a  70.7  7.07  77.8 N/mm 2
  23.6 N/mm 2


2
 x  y  x   y  2
1, 2      xy
2  2 

 

2 2
T  T  2 77.8  77.8  2
        2   23.6  38.9  45.5
2  2  2  
5kN
A
50m m 20kN
1kN -m
B
0.3m
(a)
A a T ensile b t  Shear S tress

T ensile
bending stress
B b c C om pressive
bending stress
(b)
y =0 y =0
9xy 9xy
x x = T = b t + a x = T x = T = b t + a
y =0 y =0
z =0 At A z =0 At B
(c) Fig.1.33. (d)
1  84.4 N/mm 2 2   6.6 N/mm 2
 1  2 84.4    6.6
max    45.5 N/mm 2
2 2
3. At B state of stress is depicted in Fig. 4.26 (d)
T   bc   a   70.7  7.07   63.6 N/mm 2
  23.6 N/mm 2

 

2 2
T  T  2  63.6   63.6  2
1.2           23.6
2  2  2  2 
 1  7.8 N/mm 2 ; 2   71.4 N/mm 2
1   2 7.8    71.4
max    39.6 N/mm 2
2 2
Problem 1.25: Calculate the strain energy stored per unit volume, i.e., resilience is
increased for the same maximum stress by turning down the shank of the bolt to the core
diameter of the thread. Take E  2.1  105 N/mm2.
1. Calculation of stresses in the shank and in the threaded portion
 d2c
  16.6 2
A t  Area of the core section    216.4 mm 2
4 4
ls lt
Load
Stress in the threaded portion  80m m 40m m
Area
16.6
mm
mm
20
20000
1   92.42 N/mm 2
216.4 F ig.1.34.
  d2   20 2
A s  Area of the shank section    314.2 mm 2
4 4
20000
s  Stress in the shank section   63.65 N/mm 2
314.2
2. Strain energy calculation
2
U  volume
2E
2t A t lt 2s A s ls 92.42 2  216.4  40 63.65 2  314.2  80

U   
2E 2E 2  2.1  10 5 2  2.1  10 5
 176.05  242.46  418.5 Nmm
3. Strain energy after the shank is turned to the core diameter

   t  92.42 N/mm 2
 2t 92.42 2  216.4  40  80

U  A t lt  ls   528.11 Nmm
2E 2  2.1  10 5
1.8 COMBINED STRESSES DUE TO ECCENTRIC LOADING

Frames of punching
machines, hydraulic riveter,
 
clamps etc. are subjected to
eccentric loading. Ct Cc
e e
In Fig. 1.35, the loading is
F F F1 F F
eccentric. In Fig. 1.35, equal and
opposite forces F 1  F 2  F are
m F2 n C
introduced along the axis of the
member. This result in a direct
force F and a couple C  Fe, acting
on the member as shown in Fig. (a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig.1.35. A xial and Eccentric Loading.
1.35. The stress distribution are
shown in Fig. 1.36. F
C
Stresses on section m  n
m n
At m, tensile stress
FeC t F (d)
m  
I A
c = C om pressive Stress
At n, compressive stress
FeC c F Bending stress bt
n   bc = Bending stress
I A ten sile
Fig. 1.36. Com pressive
Problem 1.26: Determine the required thickness of the steel bracket at section X  X when
loaded as shown in Fig. 1.37. The permissible tensile stress is 100 MN/m2.
F =500 0N F =500 0N
50m m
e A
T hickness,t
b F =500 0N
50m m
x B x
x x
(a) (b) F =500 0N
C om pressive
stress
bt = Ten sile
due to
2 stress due to
bending 1 bending
bc
C =F e F
x x
B t = Ten sile
stress
(c) due to direct
loadin g
Fig.1.37. (d)
Solution
This is a problem in eccentric loading.
Along the axis, two equal and opposite forces F are introduced (Fig. 1.37). The
upward F at A and downward F at B constitute a couple C  Fe . Therefore, at B, we
have the upward F and a couple C . This equivalent loading is depicted in Fig. 1.37c.
Induced bending stress due to the couple

Fe
b 
Z
Fe  5000  50  250,000 Nmm

1 2 1
Z tb   t  50 2  416.7 t
6 6
250,000 600
  N/mm 2
416.7 t t
Direct tensile stress due to F

F 5000 100
t    N/mm 2
bt 50  t t
The stress distribution is shown in Fig. 1.37 (d)

Maximum stress is on side 1
T1  bt  t (both are tensile)
600 100 700

  
t t t
700
 | t|  100 N/mm 2
t
t  7 mm, take t  8 mm
Note: Stress on side 2
 600 100
12    bc (compressive stress)   t     62.5 N/mm 2
8 8
Problem 1.27: A wall bracket shown in Fig. 1.38 is subjected to a pull of 5 kN at 60
to the vertical. The cross section of the bracket is rectangular having b  3t. Determine the
dimensions of the cross section of the bracket if the permissible stress is limited to
28 N/mm2. (M.U Apr 92)
120 o
F H =5sin6 0
F o
5k N F V =5cos60
60
t A
b
F H1 F H2
B
(a) (b)
Fig.1.38.
1. Refer to Fig. 1.38 (b)

F is resolved into F H and F V
F V bends the bracket and bending stresses are induced across AB .
Introduce equal and opposite forces F H1 and F H2 F H1  F H2  F H  along the axis.

F H and F H2 constitute a couple inducing bending stresses. F H1 induces uniform tensile
stress across the section.
2. Direct tensile stress

FH 4330 1443.3 F H  5000 sin 60   4330 N
1   
bt 3t 2
t 2
F V  5000 cos 60   2500 N
b  3t
3. Bending stress due to F V (at (A & B )
M 300,000 200,000 M  F V  120  250  120

2   
1
tb 2 1
t 3t 2 t3  300,000 Nmm
6 6
4. Bending stress due to couple FH  60
Couple  C  4330  60  259,800 Nmm

C 259,800 173,200
2   
1
t b2
1
t 3t2 t3
6 6
5. Total normal stress at A - Tensile stress

1443.2 200000 173200
   1  2   3  2
 3

t t t3
373200 1443.3
 3

t t2
6. Now   []
373200 1443.3
i.e 3
  []  28 N/mm 2
t t2
t is evaluated by trial and error method
trail 1: If t  20 mm, we get   50.25 N/mm 2  28 N/mm 2

N  N 
trail 2: If t  25 mm , we get   26.18  []   28
2 
mm  mm 2 
Hence, it is safer to take

t  25 mm and
b  3  25  75 mm
DESIGN OF CURVED BEAMS
1.9 DESIGN OF CURVED BEAMS

In case of curved beam, the neutral axis is curved during the unloading
condition. The stress distribution in a curved beam is determined by the following
assumptions.
1. The material is homogeneous.
2. Plane sections perpendicular to the axis of the beam must be plane after
bending.
3. The modulus of elasticity is same in both tension and compression.
In curved beams, the neutral axis and centroidal axis are not coinciding, but
the neutral axis is shifted towards the centre of curvature. The distribution of stress
in curved beams is hyperbolic. The various notations used in the diagram are,
ho
R Mb
C e hi
A
rn
N A
Mb +
ro ri
Fig.1.39. C urved beam s.

C urved bea m
ro  Radius of outer fiber

ri  Radius of inner fiber
h Depth of cross-section
ho  Distance from neutral axis to outer fibre

hi  Distance from neutral axis to inner fiber
rn  Radius of neutral axis
R Radius of centroidal
e Distance from centroidal axis to neutral axis  R  rn
Let M b  bending moment
Refer PSG Design databook page No. 6.2
Mb  y
The bending stress  b  kg f/cm 2
a  e rn  y
where, a  area of cross-section cm 2
y  distance of fibre from neutral axis, cm.

Note: y is positive when measured towards centre of curvature, y is negative when
measured from Neutral axis away from the centre of curvature.
The bending stress at outer fibre
M b  ho
b 
max a e ro
The bending stress at inner fibre
M b hi
b 
max a e ri
For different cross-sections of curved beams, the equations to find rn (radius of

neutral axis) and R (radius of centroidal axis) from centre of curvature, are given in
PSG design databook page No. 6.3.
The general cross-section of curved beams are circular, rectangular, I-section,

T-section, Trapezoidal and hollow rectangular.
Problem 1.28: A crane hook shown in the diagram having trapezoidal cross-section is
made of plain carbon steel. Take yield strength of the material as 350 N/mm2 and factor
of safety as 3.5. Determine the load carrying capacity of the crane hook.
150
40 80
R 50
P1
A A S ection at A .A
P a nd P 2 indu ce s ben ding stress,
P2 P 1 induces d irect tensile stress.
P Fig.1.40.
P and P 2 induces bending stress
P 1 induces direct tensile stress
Given Data:
(i) Design Stress
y  350 N/mm 2 ; FOS  3.5
350
Design stress   100 N/mm 2
3.5
(ii) Find rn and R
Refer PSG Design Databook, Page No. 6.3
For a trapezoidal cross-section, find rn and R values
1
b  b0 h
2 i
rn 
 b i ro  b0 ri   r0 
  ln    bi  b0
 h  r
 i 
From the given diagram,
b0  40 mm ; b i  80 mm ; h  150 mm
ri  50 mm ; r0  h  ri  150  50  200 mm
1
80  40 150
2
Radius of neutral axis  rn 
 80  200  40  50   200 

150
 ln    80  40
   50 
9000
  100.7 mm
93.33  1.3862   40
h bi  2 b 0
Radius of centroidal axis  R  ri 
3 bi  b0
150 80  2  40

 50   116.66 mm
3 80  40
hi  rn  ri  100.7  50  50.7 mm
1
Area of cross-section  a   h  b i  b 0
2
1
  150 80  40  9000 mm 2
2
e  R  rn  116.66  100.7  15.96 mm
Bending moment due to Load P M b  P  R
 116.66  R N  mm
Where P is load carrying capacity of crane hook.
M b hi
Bending stress at inner fiber b 
inner a  e  ri
116.66 P  50.7


9000  15.96  50
 8.235  10  4  P N/mm 2 (1)
In addition to bending stress, direct tensile stress is also acting at section

AA
P P
t  
A 9000 (2)
P
Total resultant stress   b  t  8.235  10  4 P 
inner 9000 (3)
But, the total resultant must be equal to design stress
P
 8.235  10  4 P   100
9000
8.235  10  4 P  1.11  10  4 P  100
 P  Load  107 kN
Problem 1.29 A C  frame subjected to a force of 12 kN is shown in the Fig 1.41. It is

made of grey cast iron with an ultimate stress of 300 N/mm2 and a factor of safety as 2.5;
Determine the dimensions of the Cross-section of the frame.
Given data:
Load P  12 kN  12  10 3 N ; b  5t
where t  thickness
Solution
Cross-sectional area  a  b  t  5t  t  5t2
e  8t
Direct tensile stress at

3
P 12  10
X  X  t  
a 5t2 (1)
Bending moment at point on X  X axis

 M  P  e  12  10 3  8t
3
M 12  10  8t
Bending stress   b  
Z 1
t b2
6
12  10 3  8t . . I 1 2 
  . Z  y  6 tb PSG D.B Pg. No  6.1 
1 
 t  5t2 
6
23040

t2 (2)
12  10 3 23040
Total stress  t  b  2

5t t2
25440
 N/mm 2
t2 (3)
300
But the design stress   120 N/mm 2
2.5 (4)
Equate (3) and (4) equations
25440
 120
t2
 t  14.56 mm
Problem 1.30: A crane hook carries a load of 20 kN as shown in the Fig 1.42(a). The
section at X  X is rectangular whose horizontal side is 100 mm and depth 20 mm. Find
the stress in the inner and outer fibres at given section.
Given:
W  20 kN  20  10 3 N
ri  50 mm
r0  150 mm
b  20 mm ; h  100 mm
a  b  h  20  100
 2000 mm 2 R
Solution X X 50
CA  Central Axis
150
NA  Neutral Axis
Refer data book, P. No. 6.3 Fig.1.42 (a) 20 K N

h 100
rn  20
 r0 
ln   ho S ection at X X
r hi
 i  C entre
of
100 C N curvature
  91.07 mm
150
ln
50
A A ri
h 100
R  ri   50   50  50  100 mm e rn
2 2
e  Distance between centroidal axis and

R
neutral axis  R  rn
ro
 100  91.07 Fig .1.42 (b)
e  8.93 mm
Distance between the load and the centroidal axis R  100 mm
Therefore the bending moment about centroidal axis  M b  20  10 3  100
 2  10 6 N  mm
At section X  X, the beam is subjected to bending moment, and direct tensile
stress.
3
P 20  10
t    10 N/mm 2
a 100  20
Maximum stress at outer fibre h 0  r0  r n
M b  h0  150  91.07
b 
max a  e  r0  58.93 mm
2  10 6  58.93
b   42 N/mm 2 compression 
max 2000  8.93  150
h i  r n  ri
Maximum stress at inner fibre  91.07  50
m b hi  41.07 mm
b 
max a e ri
2  10 6  41.07

2000  8.93  50
 92 N/mm 2 tensile
Resultant stress at the inside fibre

  t   b  inside
max
 10  92  102 N/mm 2 tensile
Resultant stress at the outside fibre
  t   b  outside
max
 10  42   32 N/mm 2 Compression 
Problem 1.31: A C clamp is subjected to a maximum load of W, as shown in the Fig

1.43 If the maximum tensile stress in the clamp is limited to 140 N/mm2, find the value
of W (Anna University Dec’ 2012 - ME504)
Give:
t  140 N/mm 2
max
ro
ri  25 mm X X h ri
r0  25  22  3 t1
C
P O N
W
 50 mm
50
b 1  19 mm 25 t
t1  3 mm ho
A
A
t  3 mm e
hi
ri  25 mm 3 19 rn
22
r0  25  25  50 mm 3 R
Section at X-X Fig.1.43.
h  25
Solution
Cross sectional area at XX  a  19  3  22  3
 123 mm 2
Refer data book, P. No. 6.3

b1  t t1  t  h
Radius of curvature of the NA  rn 
 ri  t1   r0 
b 1  t ln    t  ln  
ri r
   i 
19  3 3  3  25

 25  3   50 
19  3 ln    3 ln  
 25   25 
 31.64 mm
1 2 1
h t  t21 b1  t
2 2
Radius of curvature of the centroidal axis  R  ri 
ht  b1  t t
1 1
252 3  3 2 19  3
2 2
 25 
25  3  19  3 3
 33.2 mm
e  R  rn  33.2  31.64  1.56 mm
Distance between load and the centroidal axis.
x  50  R  50  33.2  83.2 mm
 B  M  about centroidal axis  M b  W  x
 W  83.2 N mm
At section X  X, the beam is subjected to BM and direct tensile stress.
W
Therefore direct tensile stress  t 
a
W

123
 0.008 W N/mm 2
hi  rn  ri  31.64  25  6.64 mm
M b  hi
Maximum stress inside  b 
a  e  ri
W  83.2  6.64
 b   0.115 W N/mm 2
123  1.56  25
Resultant stress at the inside fibre
  t  b
 0.008 W  0.115 W
 0.123 W N/mm 2
Equate to maximum tensile stress 140 N/mm 2
  [t]   [ t]
140  0.123 W
140
W  1138 N
0.123
M b  h0
Maximum stress at outer fibre   b 
max a  e r0
h0  r0  rn  50  31.64  18.36 mm
18.36
 b   83.2 W 
 max
outer 123  1.56  50
 0.16 W N/mm 2
Resultant stress  t  b
max
 0.008 W  0.16 W
  0.152 W N/mm 2
 0.152 W N/mm 2 compressive
The stress at the outer fibre is larger than the inner fibre, but this stress is
compressive. Therefore consider maximum tensile stress at inner fibre and
W  1138 N
Problem 1.32: Determine the cross section of the C - frame shown in Fig. 1.44 (a) to
withstand a maximum load of 50 kN. Permissible stress in tension is 125 N/mm2. Find
also the stresses at X  X. Assume h  2b.
50 50
x x
x x
F1
h
A 50kN A F=50kN
b
F2
75 75
(a) Fig.1.44. (b)
1. Refer to Fig. 1.44 b. Equal and opposite forces F 1 and F 2 F 1  F 2  F are

introduced along the centre line of the vertical section. F and F 1 introduce a couple
which induces bending stress in the section. F 2 induces uniformly distributed tensile
stress across the section.
On X  X, F induces bending stress.
2. Bending stress due to couple, F  75
F  150 50,000  75 5,625,000

b  2
 2
 3
N/mm 2 [h  2b]
1/6 bh 1/6 b 2b b
Point A is subjected to maximum tensile bending stress.
3. Tensile stress due to F2
F2 50,000 25,000
t    N/mm 2
bh b  2b b2
4. Determination of sectional dimensions

5,65,000 25,000
Total stress at A  A  b   t  3

b b2
5,625,000 25,000
3
  [] [ 125 N/mm 2], for safety.
b b2
The above equation is solved by trial and error method.
For b  30 mm,  A  236 N/mm 2
For b  38 mm,  A  119.8 N/mm 2  125 N/mm 2. So
this is satisfactory,
b  38 mm, h  2  38  76 mm
5. Stress at X  X
BM 50000  50
b  2
 2
 68.34 N/mm 2
1/6 b h 1/6  38  76
Problem 1.33: A. C-clamp as shown in Fig 1.45 carries a load 50 kN. The cross section
of the clamp at X-X is rectangular having width equal to twice thickness. Clamp is made
up of steel with allowable stress of 150 MPa. Find the dimensions. Also determine the
stresses at section Y-Y and Z-Z.
Given:
P  50 kN  50  10 3 N Y Z
o
[] 150 MPa  150 N/mm 2 45
Thickness at XX  t
Y
Width at XX  b  2t
Solution: P
X X 40
Z P
(i) Cross Section at X  X b
Area of cross section A  b  t  2t  t t
A  2t2
Dirert tensile stress at X-X

Fig.1.45. 140 m m
3
P 50  10 25  10 3
t    N/mm 2
A 2t 2
t 2
Bending moment at X-X due to Load P .
M  P  e  50  10 3  140  7  10 6 Nmm
2
1 2 t 2t 4t3
Section Modulus Z  tb    b  2t
6 6 6
6
M 7  10 10.5  10 6
Bending stress at XX  b    N/mm 2
Z 4t36 t 3
25  10 3 10.5  10 6
Maximum Stress    t   b    []
t2 t3
25  10 3 10.5  10 6
  . 150

t2 t3
On solving we get t  42.5 mm
So width b  2t  2  42.5  85 mm
(ii) Stresses at Y-Y

Average A  b sec 45  t  85  sec 45  42.5  85  1.414  42.5  5108 mm 2
Load Component perpendicular to section  P cos 45
 50  10 3  cos 45
 35.355 kN
Load component parallel to section  P sin 45  50  10 3  0.707  35.355 kN
35.355  10 3
Tensile stress over section  t   6.92 MPa
5108
35.355  10 3
Uniform Shear stress   6.92 MPa
5108
t b sec 452 42.5  85  1.414 2

Section Modulus at Y  Y    1.023  10 5 mm 3
6 6
Bending Moment due to load (P)

M  50  10 3  140  7  10 6 Nmm
M 7  10 6
Bending Stress  b    68.42 MPa
Z 1.023  10 5
Maximum Tensile stress at inner corner
 max t  b   t  68.42  6.92  75.35 MPa
Maximum compressive stress at outer corner
c   b    68.42  6.92  61.5 MPa
Stress at Section Z-Z

Bending Moment at Z-Z  M b  50  10 3  40  2  10 6 Nmm
2
tb 2 42.5  85
Section Modulus Z   5.117  10 4 mm 2
6 6
M 2  10 6
Bending Stress b    39.08 MPa
Z 5.117  10 4
Maximum Shear Stress (transverse)
max  1.5  Average Shear Stress
P 50  10 3
 1.5   1.5   20.76 MPa
bt 85  42.5
1.10 DESIGN PRINCIPLES (Data Book Page No. 1.9, 1.10 & 7.3)
After calculating the maximum induced stresses in the machine component by
using design principles, calculate the final dimensions of the component.
The design principles are based on the failure modes of the component.
1.10.1 Common modes of failure:

(a) Components made of ductile materials fail by - yielding.
 Therefore, the design criteria of component is based on yield stress.
(b) Components made of brittle materials fail by - fracture.
Fracture may be due to (1) Ultimate strength (2) Fatigue load (3) Impact load.
 Therefore, the design criteria of the component is based on ultimate stress.

1.10.2 Factor of Safety (FOS)

To avoid failure of machine components, the induced maximum stress must be
less than the permissible value of stress. (Allowable stress)
Static Loading
Yield stress
Permissible stress or design stress  (For Ductile material)
FOS
Yield stress y

(or) FOS 
Permissible stress or design stress
Ultimate stress
Permissible stress (or) Design stress  For Brittle material
FOS
u
FOS 
Design stress
1.10.3 In General (the Factor of Safety)
Ductile Brittle Brittle
1. Static load  1.5 - 2 3 to 4 4.5 - 6
2. Variable load
(a) Repeated  3 6 9
(b) Reversed  4 8 12
3. Heavy shock  5 10 15
1.10.4 Failure Theories: (D.B. P.No.7.3)

A machine member is subjected to combined loading, i.e., bending and torsion.
It is not possible to decide which combination of normal stress (bending stress due
to bending or shear stress due to torsion) causes the failure of the member.
In order to predict the failure under combined loads, failure theories are used.
1. Max. principal (or) Normal stress theory (or) Max. stress theory (or)
RANKINE’S THEORY:
According to this theory, the failure occurs whenever the maximum principal
stress induced in the machine component becomes equal to the strength.
1 o r  2 or 3 (which ever is max.)  y. for design,,

y
1 or  2 or 3 
n
where n  Factor of safety.
This theory is best suited for brittle u
material. 1 or  2 or 3  (for Brittle material)
n
2. Max. shear stress theory (or) Max. shear theory (or) GUEST’S THEORY
According to this theory, failure occurs whenever max. shear stress induced in
the component becomes equal to the max. shear stress in a tension of test specimen.
When the specimen begins to yield,
1   2 or 2  3 or 3   1  y For Design

whichever is max. y
1   2 or 2  3 or 3   1 
n
(Whichever is max.)
 1  2 For Design,,
But max 
2 y
2 y
y  
FOS 2  FOS 
Failure occurs when: max  y
1   2 y

2 2
1   2 y 1 y
  i.e., 1  2 
2 FO S 2 FOS
Note: If 1 and 2 are both  ve, For Design
then  1   3  y y
1   3 
FOS
3. Max. Strain theory: (ST. VENANT’S THEORY)

According to this theory, failure occurs whenever the max. strain in the
component becomes equals to the strain in the tension test specimen when yielding
begins.
 1   2  3 or 2    3  1 or  3    1  2   y

whichever is max.

  Poisson’s ratio
For Design,
1  2   3 or 2   3  1  y
whichever is max  
or 3   1   2 FOS

4. Max. Strain energy theory.
According to this theory, failure occurs when strain energy stored per unit
volume of the stressed element becomes equal to the strain energy stored per unit
volume in the tension test specimen at the yield point.
21   22  23  2  12   23   31   2y
2
 y 
For Design,   21  22 23
 2  12   23   31   
 n 
5. Distortion energy theory: (OCTAHEDRAL THEORY)
According to this theory, failure occurs when the strain energy of distortion per
unit volume of the component becomes equal to the strain energy of distortion per
unit volume of the tension test specimen.
21   22  23   12   23   31   2y
For Design,
2
 y 
21
  22 23
  12   23   31   
 n 
Problem 1.34: The force action on a bolt consists of two components - an axial pull of
12 kN and a transverse shear force of 5 kN. The bolt is made of C 30 steel and factor of
safety = 2. Determine the required diameter of the bolt using various theories of failure.
(Take   Poisson’s ratio  0.25) (Apr.’97 MU)
Given:
Axial pull  P  12 kN  12  10 3N
Shear force  F  5 kN  5  10 3N
Solution:
P Where A cross section
(a) The axial pull induces direct tensile stress   t 
A  2
3 area of the bolt  d
12  10 15278.87 4 c
t  
 2
dc d2c Where dc  core dia. of the
4 bolt.
(b) The shear force induces direct shear stress
shear force
xy 
shear area
5  10 3 6366.19
xy  
 2 d2c
dc
4
15278.87 6366.19
x   t  ; y  0; xy 
d2c d2c


2
x   y   x  y  2
1,  2      xy [PSG DB Pg No.72]
2  2 


2 2
15278.87  15278.87   6366.19 
     
2d 2c 2
2d c d2c
   
7639.435 9944.31
 
d2c d2c
17583.74
1  N/mm 2
d2c
2304.87
2   N/mm 2
d2c
From databook, page No. 1.9 for C 30 steel.
Yield stress   y  30 kgf/mm 2
yield  300 N/mm 2
FOS  2 Given
1. Max. stress theory (or) Rankine’s theory
whichever is  y
1 or  2 or 3  Where d  Nominal diameter of the bolt (or)
max. n
bolt diameter
y
1 
n
17583.74 300

d2c 2
dc  10.82 mm
dc
Bolt dia  d   12.88 mm
0.84
Refer Data book, page No.5.42 select M14 bolt
2. Max. shear theory (or) Max. shear stress theory

Since both  1 and  2 are +ve
Since  z  0,   3  0
y
1   3 
n
17583.74 300 dc 10.82

 d 
d2c 2 0.84 0.84
 dc  10.82 mm  12.88 mm
Refer Data Book, Page No.5.42, select M14
3. Max. strain theory

  0.25
1   2   3 or 2   3  1 or 3   1   2   y


Whichever is max.  n
17583.74 0.25  2304.87  300

 
d2c d2c 2
dc 11.00
dc  11.00 mm ; d    13.09 mm Refer Data Book P.No.5.42 Select
0.84 0.84
M14 bolt
4. Max. strain energy theory

2
 y 
21   22  23  2  12   23   31   
 n 
2 2 2
 17583.74    2304.87   17583.74    2304.87   300 
 2   2   2  0.25  2  2  2 
dc d d d   
   c   c  c
dc 11.04
dc  11.04 mm ; d  ;d  13.148 mm Refer Data Book, P.No.5.42 select
0.84 0.84
M14 bolt;
Problem 1.35: The stresses induced at a critical point in a machine component made of
C45 steel are as follows : x  120 N/mm2, y  50 N/mm2
Calculate the factor of safety by (a) maximum normal stress theory (b) maximum shear
stress theory (c) distortion energy theory. (Oct. 1997, MU, Nov/Dec - 2009 AU)
Solution
Given data:
x  120 N/mm 2
y  50 N/mm 2
Material C 45 steel
From PSG Databook, refer page No. 1.9 for C45 steel,
yield stress   y  36 kg f/mm 2
y  360 N/mm 2 ; xy  0



2
x   y   x  y  2
Maximum principal stress   1      xy
2  2 


2
120  50  120  50 
    0
2  2 
 85  35
 120 N/mm 2


2
 x  y  x   y  2
Minimum principal stress  2      xy
2  2 
 85  35
 50 N/mm 2
Let ‘n’ is the factor of safety.
Refer PSG databook, Page No. 7.3 - Failure Theories.
(a) Maximum normal stress (or) Maximum stress theory

1 or  2 or 3 (whichever is max)  y
For design,
y
1 or  2 or 3 (whichever is maximum) 
n
Since  1 is max.,
y
1 
n
360
120 
n
360
Factor of safety n  3
120
(b) Maximum shear stress theory

1   2 or 2   3 or 3   1 whichever is maximum  y
For design,
y
1   2 or 2   3 or 3   1 whichever is max. 
n
Since  1 and  2 values are positive.
y
  1  3  ( 3  0 )
n
y
1 
n
360
120 
n
360
Factor of safety  n  3
120
(c) Distortion energy theory
21   22  23   13   23   31   2y
For design,
2
 y 
21   22  23   12   23   31   
 n 
2
2 2  360 
120  50  120  50   
 n 
2
 360 
10900   
 n 
360 1
 10900  2  104.403
n
360
 n  Factor of safety   3.448
104.403
Therefore select factor of safety as 3.448, according to Distortion energy theory.
Factor of safety  n  3.448

Problem 1.36: A steel member is subjected to 3-dimensional stress system and the
resulting principal stresses are 120 N/mm2 tension, 80 N/mm2 and 40 N/mm2 compression.
If the proportional limit of the material in simple tension is 280 N/mm2 and its poisson’s
ratio is 0.3; Determine factor of safety according to (a) maximum principal stress theory;
(b) maximum principal strain theory; (c) maximum shear stress theory.
(Apr. 1998- Madras University, Oct 2006 - AU)
Solution
Given data
Maximum principal stress   1  120 N /mm 2
Minimum principal stress   2   80 N/mm 2
Intermediate principal stress   3   40 N/mm 2
Proportional limit in simple tension   y  280 N/mm 2
Poisson ratio  0.3
Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.3 - Failure theories.
(a) Maximum principal stress theory (or) Maximum stress theory

1 or  2 or 3 (whichever is max.)  y
For design,
y y 280
1 or  2 or 3 (whichever is max.)  ;  1  ; 120 
n n n
280
n  factor of safety 
120
n  2.333
(b) Maximum principal strain theory (or) Maximum strain theory

1   2   3 or 2   3   1 or 3   1   2 whichever is max.   y
For design,
y
1   2   3 or 2   3   1 or 3   1   2 whichever is max. 
n
1   2   3  120  0.3 80   40  120  12  132
2   3   1   80  0.3 40  120   80  48   32
3   1   2   40  0.3120   80   40  60   100
  1    2  3 is maximum
y 280
  1    2  3  ; 132 
n n
 n  factor of safety  2.1212
(c) Maximum shear stress theory (or) Maximum shear theory

For design,
y
1   2 or 2   3 or 3   1 whichever is maximum 
n
1  2 is maximum
y
  1  2 
n
280 280
120   80   200 
n n
280
n  factor of safety   1.4
200
Therefore, select factor of safety as 2.333, according to maximum principal stress

theory.
Problem 1.37 : A bolt is subjected to a tensile load of 25 kN and to a shear load of 10
kN. Determine the diameter of the bolt according to
(a) maximum principal stress theory
(b) maximum principal strain theory
(c) maximum shear stress theory
Factor of safety  2.5
Yield point stress in simple tension  300 N/mm2
Poisson ratio  0.25 (Apr. 2006 - AU, Oct - 98- Madras)
Solution
Given data:
Tensile load  P  25 kN  25  10 3N
Shear load  F  10 kN  10  10 3N
Yield stress  y  300 N/mm 2
Poisson ratio    0.25
Let dc  core diameter of the bolt in mm.
Consider the tensile load P

The tensile load induces direct stress t
P  2
t  [Area of bolt  Abolt  d ]
Ab 4 c
25  103

/4 d2c
31.8  10 3
Direct stress  t   x  ; y  0
d2c
Consider the shear load F

The shear load induces shear stress 
Shear loa d

Ab
10  10 3

 2
d
4 c
12.73  10 3
Shear stress   xy 
d2c
Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.2

 
 
1
Maximum principal stress  1    x  y 
2 
 2 2 
 x  y  4 xy 

(PSG DB Pg.No.72)
 


 3  31.8  10 3 2  12.73  10 3 2 
1  31.8  10 
     4  
2 d2c d2c d2c 
     
3
1  31.8  10 40.73  10 3 
  
2 d2c d2c
 
36.265  10 3
1  2
N/mm 2
dc
1
Minimum principal stress  2     y     x  y2  4 2xy 

2 x 
3
1  31.8  10 40.73  10 3 
   
2
 d2c d2c 
4.465  10 3
 N/mm 2
d2c
Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.3 - Failure theories.
(a) Maximum principal stress theory (or) Maximum stress theory

1 or  2 or 3 (whichever is maximum)   y
For design,
y
1 or  2 or 3 (whichever is maximum) 
n
y dc
1  Bolt diameter  d 
n 0.84
36.265  10 3 300 17.38
   20.69 mm
0.84
d2c 2.5
Core dia. of bolt  dc  17.38 m m

From PSG Databook, Page No. 5.42

Select standard bolt size, Select M24 bolt
(b) Maximum principal strain theory (or) Maximum strain theory

1   2   3 o r 2   3  1 or 3   1   2 whichever is max.   y
For design, 1   2   3
 y 
2   3   1 (whichever is max.)   
 n 
3   1   2
36.265  10 3   4.465  10 3   37.3812  10 3 

1   2   3   0.25    is max.
d2c  d2c   d2c 
37.3812  10 3 300 dc
  Bolt diameter  d 
d2c 2.5 0.84
Core dia. of bolt dc  17.64 mm 17.64

  21.01 mm
0.84
From PSG Databook, Page No. 5.42,
Select standard bolt size Select M24 bolt
(c) Maximum shear stress theory

For design,
y
1   2 or 2   3 or 3   1 (whichever is maximum) 
n
1   2 is maximum
dc
36.265  10 3 4.465  10 3 300 Bolt diameter  d 
  0.84
d2c d2c 2.5
18.42
40.73  10 3  2.5 
d2c  0.84
300
 21.932 mm
dc  18.42 mm

Select standard bolt size, Select M24 bolt
Problem 1.38: A 50 mm diameter shaft is loaded statically in pure torque at a shear

stress of 70 N/mm2. If the yield point is 435 N/mm2. Find the factor of safety using
maximum shear stress theory. (Apr - May -2002 - AU)
Given:
d  diameter of shaft  50 mm
xy she ar stress  70 N/mm 2
 y  yield point stress  435 N/m m2
Refer Page No. 7.2
x  0 ; y  0
Solution
1
Maximum principal stress  1     y   x   y2  4 2xy 

2 x 
 1   70 N/mm 2
1
Minimum principal stress 2    y   x  y2  4 2xy 

2 x 
2   70 N/mm 2
Refer Page No. 7.3 - Failure theories.
Let n is the factor of safety.
Maximum shear stress theory

y
1   2 or 2  3 or 3   1 whichever is maximum 
n
For design,
y
1   2 or 2  3 or 3   1 whichever is maximum 
n
y
 1   2 
n
435
70   70 
n
435
n  factor of safety  ; n  3.107
140
Problem 1.39: The resulting principal stresses on a C15 steel member when subjected to
a 3-dimensional stress system are 100 N/mm2 in tension, 60 N/mm2 and 20 N/mm2 in
compression. Determine the factor of safety according to
(a) Maximum principal stress theory
(b) Maximum shear stress theory
Assume proportional stress limit of the material in tension and poisson’s ratio.
(Apr.1999 - MU)
Given data
Material given C15 steel
The yield stress for C15 steel  y  24 kg f/mm 2
 240 N/mm 2
From PSG Databook, Page No. 1.1,
Take, Poisson ratio for steel    0.3
Maximum principal stress   1  100 N /mm 2
Minimum principal stress   2   60 N/mm2
Intermediate principal stress   3   20 N/mm2
Let n  Factor of safety
Solution
From PSG Databook, Page No. 7.3 - Failure theories.
(a) Maximum principal stress theory (or) Max. stress theory

1 or  2 or 3 (whichever is max.)  y
For design,
y
1 or  2 or 3 (whichever is max.) 
n
y
1 is max.  
n
240
100 
n
240
 F actor of safety  n   2.4
100
(b) Maximum shear stress theory (or) Max. shear theory

1   2 or 2   3 o r 3   1 (whichever is max.)   y
For design,
y
1   2 or 2   3 o r 3   1 (whichever is max.) 
n
y
1   2 is max. 
n
y
 1  2  100   60  160 
n
240
 n  Factor of safety   1.5
160
Select factor of safety  n  2.4 , according to maximum principal stress theory.

Problem 1.40: A cantilever of span 500 mm carries a vertical downward load of 6 kN
at free end. Assume yield value of 350 MPa. and factor of safety of 3. Find the economical
section for the cantilever among
(a) Circular cross-section of diameter ‘d’
h
(b) Rectangular section of depth ‘n’ and width ‘t’ with 2
t
(c) I-section of depth 7t and flange width 5t where t is thickness. Specify the dimension
and cross-sectional area. (Apr. 2001 MU)
Given data:
Length of the span  l  500 mm
Vertical downward load acting at free end P  6 kN  6  10 3 N
Yield stress   y  350 MPa  350 N/mm 2
Factor of safety  n  3
The load P induces bending stress  b.
Yield stress 350

The max. bending stress   b  
Factor of safety 3
3
 b  116.6666 N /mm 2 6x10 N
Solution
d
According to theory of simply bending
500
Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.1,
Fig. 1.46(a)
Mb b
 where M b  bending moment  P  l
I y
Let d  diameter of the bar  6  10 3  500 Nmm
6  10 3  500 116.6666 I  area moment of inertia.

 4 d  4
d  d mm 4
64 2 64
64  6  10 3  500 y  distance from neutral axis to the
d3 
  116.6666  2 extreme outer layer.
d  63.98 mm d
 mm
2
3
6x10
Take d  diameter of shaft = 64 mm.
(b) Rectangular section of depth ‘h’

and width ‘t’ h
h
Given  2 or h  2t
t
From PSG Databook, Page No. 7.1. 500 t

Fig. 1.46(b)
Mb b where M b  bending moment  P  l


I y
Let h  depth  6  10 3  500 Nmm
t  thickness I  area moment of inertia.
3 1
6  10  500 116.6666   t  h3
 12
0.6666 t4 t
6  10 3  500 
1
 t  2t3
t3  12
0.6666  116.6666
t  33.78 mm  0.6666 t4mm 4
h
y mm
2
2t
 t
2
Take t  thickness of beam = 34 mm
and h  depth o f beam  2  t  2  34  68 mm

3
6x10 N
t  34 mm
h  68 mm
t 7t
(c) I-section of depth 7t and flange

width 5t, where ‘ t ’ is thickness.
From PSG Databook, Page No. 7.1, 500 b = 5t
Fig. 1.46(c)
Mb b where M b  bending moment  P  l


I y
[depth  7t  6  10 3  500 Nmm
Flange width  5t I  Area moment of inertia
(refer P. No. 6.1)
t  thickness] 3 3 3
bh3 b 1h1 bh  b 1 h1
  
12 12 12
6  10 3  500 116.6666 (Consider as a hollow rectangle)

101.25 t4 3.5 t
6  10 3  500  3.5 h  7t; h1  5t, b  5t; b 1  4t;

t3 
101.25  116.6666
t  9.6149 mm 5 t7t3  4t5 t3
I
12
Take t  thickness  10 mm 1715t4  500t4 1215 4
  t
12 12
depth  7t  7  10  70 mm  101.25t4 mm 4
width  5t  5  10 h 7t
y   3.5t
2 2
 50 mm
To find, most economical cross-section.
(a) Circular cross-section

d  diameter  64 m m
 2 
Cross-sectional area  d  64 2  3216.99 m m2
4 4
(b) Rectangular cross-section

h  68 mm; t  34 mm
Cross-sectional area  h  t  68  34  2312 mm 2
(c) I-section
t  10 m m; h  depth  70 mm ; b  width  50 mm
Consider I-section as a hollow rectangular
with b, h are the dimensions of outer rectangular.
t  10 m m ; b1, h1 are the dimensions of inner rectangle.

b  50 m m ; b1  b  t  40 mm
h  70 mm ; h1  h  2t  50 mm
Cross-sectional area of I-section  bh  b 1h1
 50  70  40  50
 3500  2000   1500 mm2

Therefore, the economical cross-section is I-section with dimensions of

Width  50 mm
Depth  70 mm
Thickness  10 mm
Problem 1.41: A cantilever of span 750 mm carries an uniformly distributed load of 10
kN/m. The yield value of material of cantilever is 375 MPa. Factor of safety is 3. Find
economical section of cantilever among
h
(b) Rectangular cross-section of depth ‘n’ and width ‘t’ with 2
t
(c) I-section of total depth 7t and width 5t where ‘t’ is thickness.
Find the dimension and cross sectional area of the economic section.
(Oct. - 2001 -MU, Nov - 2010 - AU)
Given data:
Length of the span  l  750 mm
Uniformly distributed load  w  10 kN /m  10 N/mm
Yield stress  y  375 MPa  375 N/mm 2
Factor of safety n3
The uniformly distributed load induces bending stress  b
Yie ld stress 375

The maximum bending stress  [ b ]  
F actor of safety 3
[ b ]  125 N/mm 2
Solution
10N /m m
According to theory of simple bending.
Refer Databook, Page No. 7.1 d
750
Fig. 1.47(a)
Mb b where M b  bending moment in N-mm


I y Refer databook, Page No. 6.4. Cantilever
carrying UDL
2.8125  10 6 125 w  L2
 M max    Mb
 4 d 2
d
64 2  ve sign indicates,  ve B.M.
64  2.8125  10 6 wL 2
d3   Mb 
  125  2 2
d  61.19 mm 10  750 2

2
Take d  diameter of shaft = 62 mm  2.8125  10 6Nm
 4
I  area moment of inertia.  d mm4
64
y  distance from Neutral axis to the extreme
outer layer.
d 10 N /m m
mm
2
(b) Rectangular section of depth ‘h’ and

width ‘t’
h
h
Given  2 or h  2t
t
From Databook, Page No. 7.1 750 t

Fig. 1.47(b)
Mb b

I y where M b  Max. bending moment.
Let h  depth  2.8125  10 6Nmm
t  thickness (similar to previous step.)
2.8125  10 6 125 I  area moment of inertia 

1
t  h3
4
 12
0.6666 t t
2.8125  10 6 
1
t  2t3  0.6666 t4 mm 4
t3  12
125  0.6666
t  32.3175 mm  0.6666t4 mm 4
Take t  thickness of beam = 34 mm h 2t

y   t mm
2 2
and h  depth of beam
10 N /m m
 2  t 2  34  68 mm
h  68 mm
t  34 mm 7t
(c) I-section of total depth 7t and width

5t
5t where ‘t’ is thickness.
750
From Databook, Page No. 7.1 Fig. 1.47(c)
Mb b where M b  bending moment


I y  2.8125  10 6Nmm
2.8125  10 6 125 (similar to previous step)

4

101.25 t 3.5t
2.8125  10 6  3.5 I  area moment of inertia

t3 
101.25  125 (refer Page No. 6.1)
t  9.196 mm bh3  b 1h31

12
Take t  thickness  10 mm b  5t; h  7t
depth  h  7t  7  10  70 m m b1  4t; h1  5t
width  b  5t  5  10  50 m m 5t7t3  4t5t3 1215 4

I  t
12 12
h 7t
y   3.5 t
2 2
To find, most economical cross-section
(a) Circular cross-section

d  diameter  62 mm
 2 
 Crosssectional area  d  62 2
4 4
 3019.07 mm 2
(b) Rectangular cross-section

h  68 mm and t  34 mm
 Crosss ectio nal area  h  t  68  34
 2312 mm 2
(c) I-section
t  10 mm b1  4  t  4  10  40 mm
h  depth  70 mm h1  5t  5  10  50 mm
b  width  50 mm
Cross-sectional area  bh  b1h1
 50  70   40  50  1500 m m2
Therefore, the economical cross-section is I-section with dimensions of
Width  50 mm; depth  70 mm; thickness  10 mm
Problem 1.42: Determine the wall thickness of a cylindrical vessel closed at both ends
from the following data:
Internal pressure  20 N/mm2
Internal diameter  300 mm
Allowable tensile stress  120 N/mm2
Use the (a) max. shear stress theory
(b) max. distortion theory and
(c) max. strain theory. (Apr. 2000, MU)
Given data:
Internal pressure  p  20 N/mm 2
Internal diameter  D  300 mm
Allowable tensile stress or Design stress
 [  y ]  120 N/mm 2
Solution
The wall of the closed cylinder is subjected to the following stresses
1. Circumfrential stress (along xaxis)

2. Longitudinal stress (along yaxis)
Let t  wall thickness of cylinder
p  D 20  300 3000
Circumfrential stress   
2t 2t t
3000
 x  ... (1)
t
p  D 20  300 1500
Longitudinal stress   
4t 4t t
1500
  y  ... (2)
t
3000 1500
x  ; y  ; z  0; xy  0
t t


2
x  y   x  y  2
Maximum principal stress   1      xy
2  2 


2
3000 1500  3000 1500 
   
t t  t t 
    0
2

2 
2250 750
 
t t
3000
 1 
t


2
x   y  x   y 
Minimum principal stress  2      xy2
2  2 
2250 750 1500

  
t t t
1500
 2 
t

(a) According to maximum shear stress theory

1   2 or 2   3 o r 3  1 (whichever is maximum)  y
Since  1 and  2 values are positive,
 Max. stress  1  120 ;  1  3  [ y] But 3  0
 3000 
Consider  3 into account,   0   120
 t 
3000
t  25 m m
120
Thickness of wall  t  25 mm
(b) Maximum distortion theory
21   22  23   12   23   31  [  y ]2 3  0
2 2
 3000   1500   3000   1500  2
 t    t    t   t   120
      
9  10 6 2.25  10 6 4.5  10 6
2
 2
 2
 14.4  10 3
t t t
1.6875  10 6
2
 14.4  10 3
t
6.75  10 6
 t2 
14.4  10 3
t  21.65 mm
Take thickness of wall  22 mm
(c) Maximum strain theory
21   22  23  2  12   23   31  [  y ]2
  Poisson’s ratio (Refer PSG Data book Page No. 1); Take   0.3
3  0
2 2
 3000   1500   3000 1500  2
 t    t   2  0.3  t  t   120
     
9  10 6 2.25  10 3 2.7  10 6
2
 2
 2
 14.4  10 3
t t t
8.55  10 6
 14.4  10 3
t2
8.55  10 6
t2 
14.4  10 3
t  24.36 mm  25 mm
Consider the wall thickness  t  25 mm , according to maximum shear stress

theory and maximum strain theory
Problem 1.43: A flat bar 32 mm wide and 12 mm thick is loaded by a steady tensile
load of 85 kN. The material is mild steel with yield point stress of 315 N/mm2. Find the
factor of safety based on the yield point. (Oct. 2000, MU)
Given data
Width of the flat bar  W  32 mm ; Thickness of flat bar  t  12 mm
Steady tensile load  P  85 kN  85  10 3N ; Yield stress   y  315 N/mm 2
y 315  Load

Design stress (or) Permissible stress   
n  n  Area
315  384
n  Factor of safety   1.423 Cross Sectional Area  32  12
85  10 3
 n  1.423  384 mm 2
Problem 1.44: A shaft is subjected to a twisting moment of 5 kNm and a bending moment
of 2 kNm. If the material has yield strength of 300 MPa and safety factor of 2.5, find the
diameter of shaft using
(a) Maximum Normal Stress theory
(b) Maximum Shear Stress theory
(c) Distortion energy theory. (JNTU Dec 2011, Set 3))
Given:
T  5 kNm  5  10 3 Nm ; M  2 kNm  2  10 3 Nm ; y  300 MPa  300  10 6 N /m2,

FOS  2.5
Solution


2
 
Principal Stress 1, 2      2
2 2
32 M 16  16  5  10 3 80000
Bending Stress   ,    
 d3  d3  d3  d3
32  2  10 3 64000
 3

d  d3
(i) Maximum Normal stress theory

y
According to this theory  1 
FOS
2 2


64000  64000   80000  300  10 6
   3 
 3 

 d3  d   d 
2.5
64000 102450 300  10 6

 
 d3  d3 2.5
d  0.0762 m or 76 mm say 80 mm
(ii) Maximum Shear stress theory

y
According to this theory,  1  2 
FOS
   

 

2 2
   
  2     2  300  10 6
2         
 2  2 2   2.5


2
 2 300  10 6
2     
2  2.5
2  102450 300  10 6

 d3 2.5
d  0.0816 m or 81.6 mm say 82 mm
(iii) Distortion Energy Theory

2
 y 
According to this theory  21  22   1 2   
 FOS 


2
  2
Let  A,  2     B.
2  
2
2 2
 y 
 [A  B]  [A  B]  [A  B A  B ]   
 FOS 
2
2
 y 
2
We get A  3B   
 FOS 
2 2 2
 64000   102450   300  10 6 
 3 
 3  3 
  
2.5
 d   d   
Solving above we get d  0.0681 m or 68 mm, say 70 mm.
 Maximum diameter of shaft d  82 mm
Problem 1.45: A rod made of aluminium alloy E  72 GPa has length of 500 mm and
diameter 10 mm. What are its tensile stiffness and flexibility. (JNTU, Dec 2011, Set 2)
Given:
E  72 GPa  72  103 N/mm 2, d  10 mm , l  500 mm
Solution:
 d2   10 2
Area (A)    78.54 mm 2
4 4
3
AE 78.54  72  10
Stiffness (k)    11309.76 N/mm
l 500
1 1
Flexibility    8.84  10  5 mm/N .
k 11309.76
1.10.5 FATIGUE FAILURE

It has been observed that the materials fail under fluctuating stresses, at a
stress magnitude which is lower than the ultimate strength of the material.
Sometimes, the magnitude is even smaller than the yield strength.
1.10.6 DEFINITION OF FATIGUE

The decreased resistance of the material to fluctuating stresses is called
‘FATIGUE’.
The fatigue failure begins with a crack at some point in the materials. The
crack is more likely to occur in the following regions:
1. Regions of discontinuity (such as oil holes, key ways, screw threads, etc.)
2. Regions of irregularities in machining operations. (such as scratches on the
surface)
3. Internal cracks due to defects in materials. (such as blow holes in the castings)
These regions are subjected to stress concentration due to the crack. The crack
spreads due to the fluctuating stresses, until the cross-section of the component is so
reduced that the remaining portion is subjected to sudden fracture.
1.11 STRESS CONCENTRATION

Elementary equations for stresses,
P
Tensile stress  t 
A
My
Bending stress b 
I
Tr
Shear stress 
J
The above equations are based on assumptions, that there are no dis-continuities
in the cross-section of the component.
A plate, with a small circular hole subjected to tensile stress is shown in Fig.
1.48.
It is observed from the nature of stress distribution at the section passing

through the hole, that there is a sudden rise in the magnitude of stresses in the
neighbourhood of the hole.
t =P/A
t =P/A
P = tensile force
A =A rea of plate
t
Fig. 1.48. Stress C oncentration.
The localised stresses in the neighbourhood of the hole are far greater than the
stresses obtained by the elementary equations.
1.11.1 DEFINITION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION

It is defined as the localisation of high stresses due to irregularities (or) abrupt
changes of the cross-section.
Theore tical stress
Hi ghest value of actual stress near discontinuity
concentration  K t 
Nominal stress obtained b y elementary
factor
equations for min. crosssection
 max Max
 or
o o
max  max. stress; max  Max. shear stress
o  N ominal stress; o  Nominal shear stres s
 o and o are the stresses calculated by the elementary equations for

minimum cross-section.
 The values of Kt depends upon the geometry of the component. (from
Databook P.No. 7.9 to 7.16)
1.11.2 NOMINAL STRESS o CROSS SECTION
P
o 
W  d t
P W d P
t
(a)
r
P
o 
dt
P D d P
t
(b)
(pla te s ub jec te d to tensile force)
r
P
o  P
 2 d
4d  P
  (c) (te n sile fo rce )
r
Mb  y
o 
I D d Mb
d Mb
y ( M b = b e n din g m om en t)
2
(d)
 4
I d
64
r
Mt
Mt
D d
Mt  r
o  (e) ( M t = tw istin g m om ent)
J
Fig. 1.49.
1.11.3 STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

The stress concentration factors are determined by two methods.
1. Mathematical analysis based on the theory of elasticity.

2. Experimental methods like photo-elasticity.
There are limitations for the techniques of the theory of elasticity. For more
complex shapes, the stress concentration factors are determined by photos-elasticity.
The chart represents stress concentration factors for different geometric shapes
and conditions of loading. PSG databook - 7.9 to 7.16.
Example: P.No. 7.10
Rectangular plate with a transverse hole loaded in tension or compression.
max o  Nominal stress; where t  Plate thickness

Kt  ... (1)
o
P
o  ... (2)
W  a t
(P.No.7.10)
Calculate a/W ratio; From chart, corresponding to the value of a/W ratio, take
the value of Kt (stress concentration factor). Substitute the value of Kt and  o in
equation (1) and find the maximum stress.
 The effect of stress concentration depends upon the material of the component.
 Under static loads, ductile materials are not affected by stress concentration.
 Therefore, stress concentration factors are not used for ductile materials under
static loading.
 The effect is more severe in case of brittle materials, due to their inability to
plastic deformation.
 Stress concentration factors are used for components made up of brittle
materials subjected to static loads.
 When the load is fluctuating, the endurance strength of the ductile material
is greatly reduced due to stress concentration.
1.11.4 REDUCTION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION EFFECTS

In many cases, it is not possible to avoid the discontinuities or abrupt changes
of the cross-section. However, it is possible for the designer to reduce the severity of
(a ) O rigin al N otch (c) R em oval of u nd esired m a terial
(b) M ultiple N otch es (d ) D rilled h oles

Fig.1.50.
stress concentration by selecting the correct geometric shape. The original component
with a V-notch is shown in Fig. 1.50. It is obtained that a single notch results in a
high degree of stress concentration.
The severity of stress concentration is reduced by using the principle of
minimisation of the material.
There are three methods for achieving this effect:
(i) Use of multiple notches.

(ii) Removal of undesired material.
(iii) Drilling additional holes.
Problem 1.46 : Determine the maximum stress produced in a rectangular plate 50 mm
wide, 8 mm thick with a central hole of 10 mm diameter. It is loaded in an axial tension
of 1 kN. (Oct.2006 - AU, Oct 1999,
MU)
h
Given data:
Width  W  50 m m
P W
Thickness  h  8 mm a P
Dia. of centre hole  a  10 mm
Axial tension  P  1 kN  1  10 3N Fig. 1.51.

 max
Stress concentration  K t  To find Kt
0
K t  Stress concentration Refer databook Page No. 7.1
max  Maximum stress  N/mm 2
0  Nominal stress a 10
  0.2
W 50
P a
 Corresponding to the value of  0.2, take the
W  a h W
value of K t which is equal to 2.5.
1  10 3
  3.125 N/mm 2
50  10 8
 max 2.5
 Kt  ,
0
2.5  3.125  max, Kt

0.2
The maximum stress  max  7.8125 N /mm 2 Fig. 1.51(a)
a/w
Problem 1.47: A flat plate is subjected to a tensile force of 5 kN as shown in the Fig
1.52. Take FOS  2.5; ultimate stress  200 N/mm2. Calculate the plate thickness.
(JNTU, Dec 2011, Set 1)
A
5R
1 5
B
5K N
5K N 45 30
B
5R
A Fig.1.52 (a)
Given:
Flat plate, tensile force P  5 kN  5  10 3 N, FOS  2.5 ; u  200 N/mm 2
The stresses are critical at two sections,

1. Section at the fillet A-A
2. Section at the hole B-B
1. SECTION - A-A (FILLET SECTION)

D  45 ; d  30
r= 5
Fillet radius r  5
D 45 5K N D = 45 d=30 5K N
  1.5
d 30
Fig.1.52 (b)
r 5
  0.167
d 30
max [From PSG databook, Pg No.7.9]

Kt 
o
max  Kt  o K t  1.8
1.8  5  10 3 o  Nominal stress


30  t P 5  10 3
o 
dt 30  t
 300  2

t  N/mm  1
 
2. SECTION - B-B: (Hole section) (From PSG DB Pg.No.7.10)
P W  30 mm
o 
W  a t
5  10 3 a  15 mm

30  15 t
t  thicknes s
a 15
  0.5
W 30
a
at  0.5 take K t value, K t  2.16
W
max  Kt   o
5000
 2.16 
15  t
720
max N/mm 2 ... (2)
t
From (1) and (2) it is seen that maximum stress is induced at the hole section.
Equating permissible stress to equation (2)
720 200  u 
i.e.,   
t FOS  FOS 
700 200

t 2.5
700  2.5
or t  8.75 mm
200
 t  8.75 mm Take t  9 mm
Problem 1.48: A stepped shaft has maximum dia = 45 mm, minimum dia. = 30 mm,
fillet radius = 6 mm. If the shaft is subjected to an axial load of 10 kN, find the maximum
stress induced.
Solution A
r
Given Stepped Shaft
D  45 mm ; d  30 mm P d P
D
r  6 mm ;
P  10 kN  10  10 3 N Fig .1.53. A
The maximum stress occurs at fillet cross-section at A-A
D 45
  1.5
d 30 (From PSG DB. Pg.No. 7.11)
r 6
  0.2
d 30
K t from Graph,
Kt
K t  1.45 D /d=1.5
3
P 10  10
Nominal stress  o   0.2
A 
302 r/d
4 Fig.1.53(a)
o  14.147 N  m m2
max
Kt 
o
K t  o  m ax
max  Max. stress  1.45  14.147  20.513 N/mm 2
max 20.513 N/mm 2
Problem 1.49: A stepped shaft has maximum dia = 50 mm, minimum dia. = 25 mm,
fillet radius 5 mm. If the shaft is subjected to a twisting moment of 1500 N-m, find the
maximum stress induced.
A
Given:
Stepped shaft: D  50 mm
Mt 50 =2 5 Mt
d  25 mm
Fillet radius r  5 mm
T  M t  1500 Nmm
A Fig.1.54.
Calculate Max. shear stress.

Mt  r
o  Kt
J
D /d=2
(Refer PSG DB Pg.No.7.1)
 4
J d
32 0.2
r/d
D 50
 2
d 25
r 5 1
   0.2
d 25 5
Kt  1.35 (From PSG DB Pg.No.7.14)
max
Kt 
o
where r  minimum shaft diameter
Mt  r d 25
o  Nominal shear stress    12.5 mm
J 2 2
1500  12.5
  0.488 N  mm2
 4
 25
32
max
 Kt 
o
max  1.35  0.4889  0.66 N  mm2
Problem 1.50: A Non-rotating shaft supporting a load of 2.5 kN is shown in the Fig
1.55. The material of the shaft is brittle, with an ultimate tensile strength of
300 N/mm2. Calculate the dia. of the shaft. Take FOS  3.
2.5K N
The stresses are critical at 0.1d
1. fillet
2. at the centre of the span d 1.1d d
1. At fillet
r 0.1 d
  0.1 300
d d 350 350
[from databook P.No. 7.11.]
2.5K N
D 1.1d 1250 N 500 500 1250 N
  1.1 Fig.1.55.
d d
K t  1.47 from Graph
d
1250  350 
My 2 4.4563  10 6
o   
I  4 d3
d
64 (From PSC DB Pg.No.7.1)
1.47  4.4563  10 6 6.55  10 6

max  kt   0  3
 3
N  mm 2 ... (1)
d d
2. At centre:
The beam is subjected to max. bending moment at centre.
d Simply supported beam, concentrated load acting at

625  10 3 
My 2 its centre, Max. B.M.
b  
I  4 3
d PL 2.5  10  1000
64 M   625  10 3 N  mm 2
4 4
(From PSG DB Pg.No.6.5)
6.366  10 6
b  N/mm 2  2
d3
From equations (1) and (2)
The stress is max. at the fillet section.
 Equating it with permissible stress,
u 300
Permissible stress    100 N/mm 2
FOS 3
6.5508  10 6
 100 
d3
dia. of shaft d  40.31 mm.
Take d  42 mm
D
Problem 1.51: Calculate the dimension of a stepped cylinder with  1.5 and the ratio
d
of fillet radius to the dia. ‘d’ as 0.25, when the cylinder is subjected to a BM of
 1500 Nmm; Material for the cylinder is C 15 steel. (Oct.-98 MU)
r D /d
D d Kt
M M
Fig.1.56.
r/d
Given: Stepped cylinder
max D
Kt   1.5
o d
max  Kto r
 0.25
d
My From PSG D.B Pg. No. 7.14 , Kt  1.25
120  1.25 
I
d My
1500  bnominal 
2 I
 1.25 
 4
d
64
1.25  15 W  32 For C15 materials
d3 
  120 Take y  (value from databook) P.No.1.9
d  5.419 mm  240 N/m m2; Assume FOS  2
D  1.5d  1.5  5.419 y 240
max    120 N/mm 2
 8.128 mm . F OS 2
Problem 1.52: What maximum axial force can be applied on a plate of width 50 mm
and thickness 10 mm with a central hole of 10 mm diameter without exceeding the yield
point stress of 62.5 MPa across its width. [Oct - 2000 - MU, Nov - 2006
P w a P 2.5
Kt
Fig.1.57. h
0.2
a/w
AU]
Given data
Let P  Maximum axial force
Width  w  50 mm
Thickness  h  10 mm
Central hole diameter  a  10 mm
Stress  62.5 MPa
 62.5 N/mm 2
Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.10. To find Kt
max
Stress concentration  Kt 
0
K t  stress concentration
max  maximum stress
 62.5 M Pa  62.5 N/mm 2
0  nominal stress in N/m m2
P P
 
w  a h 50  10 10
P
 N/mm 2
400
max a 10
Kt    0.2
0 w 50
62.5 a
2.5  Corresponding to the value of  0.2, take the value of
P w
400 K t. It’s value is 2.5.
Max. axial P  10000 N
Force  P  10 kN
Problem 1.53: Taking stress concentration into account, find the maximum stress induced
when a tensile load of 20 kN is applied to
(a) a rectangular plate of 80 mm wide and 12 mm thick with a transverse hole of 16 mm
diameter.
(b) a stepped shaft of diameter 60 mm and 30 mm with a fillet radius of 6 mm.
(Apr 2001-MU)
Given data
Tensile load  P  20 kN  20  10 3N
(a) A rectangular plate of 80 mm wide and 12 mm thick with a transverse hole of

diameter 16 mm.
 max w  w idth  80 mm
Kt  ... (1) based on net section.
nom h  thickness  12 m m
a  hole diam eter  16 mm
Finite width-plate with a transverse hole.
Refer Graph P. No. 7.10
a 16  max  maximum stress
  0.2
w 80
K t  stress concentration
From Graph, P
But, nom 
w  a h
a Substitute the values in above
for  0.2, the value of K t  2.5
w eq. (1)
 max
Kt 
P
w  a h
max 2.5
2.5  3
20  10
80  16  12
Kt
Maximum stress  max  65.104 N/mm2 0.2 a/w
(b) a stepped shaft of diameter 60 mm and 30 mm with a fillet radius of

6 mm.
Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.11.
D  60 mm
d  30 mm
r  6 mm
Shaft with a shoulder fillet in tension. D 60

 2
d 30
Refer Graph r 6 1
   0.2
d 30 5
From Graph,
r D
for  0.2 and 2
d d
D /d
1.5 the value of K t  1.5
P
nom  nominal stress 
A
Kt
 2
0.2 r/d A d (Consider smaller diameter)
4
 max 
Kt  302  706.858 mm2
 nom 4
 max 20  10 3
1.5  nom   28.294 N/m m2
28.294 706.858
Maximum stress   max  42.4413 N/mm2

FLUCTUATING STRESSES: Variable stresses
1.12 DESIGN FOR VARIABLE LOADING

In many applications, the components are subjected to forces, which are not static,
but vary in magnitude with respect to time. The stresses induced due to such forces are
called as ‘FLUCTUATING STRESSES’, 80% of the failures of mechanical components are
due to fatigue resulting from fluctuating stresses.
In order to design a member for variable loading, the stress variation with time
should be either known or approximated.
1.12.1 Classification
Variable stresses are classified as (a) completely reversed (b) repeated
(c) fluctuating and (d) alternating, as shown in Fig. 1.58.
max  min
Average (mean) stress m 
2
 max   min
Variable (amplitude) stress  a 
2
max and  min should be used with proper sign.
Examples of machine elements that are subjected to variable stresses
Type (a) Shafts carrying pulleys - completely reversed

(b) Gears, chain - Repeated
(c) Vehicle springs, Engine valve springs - Fluctuating
(d) IC Engine connecting rods - Alternating
(+ )
m  Mean stress
m a x = a max   min

2
0
tim e a  Amplitude of s tress
m in = a max   min
(a ) R eversed S tress 
(-) 2
min  0
(+ )
 m  a
m in = a
Mean stress
0  Am plitude stress
tim e
(b ) R ep eated S tress m in = O  max 
(-)
 
 2 
(+ )
a
a
m a x m e an
m in
0
(-) tim e
(c) Flu ctu atin g S tress
(+ )
0
m
(d ) A ltern atin g
(-)
F ig .1 .58 . F lu c tu a tin g S tress
1.12.2 ENDURANCE LIMIT: (DB Page No.1.42)

 1  Endurance limit stress
 1  Endurance limit stress in shear
A Fatigue or Endurance limit for a material is defined as the maximum value

of completely reversing stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited
number of cycles without fatigue failure.
 It is considered as a criterion of failure under fluctuating stresses.

 In laboratory, the endurance limit is determined by means of a rotating beam
machine.
 The test specimen is of standard size and has a highly polished surface. It
is rotated by an electric motor and the number of revolutions before the
appearance of the first fatigue crack are recorded on a revolution counter.
Self-aligning ball bearings are used to ensure that only radial loads are applied
to the specimen. The test specimen is subjected to pure bending moment and the
magnitude of bending stress is adjusted by means of weights.
To determine the endurance limit stress of a material, a large number of tests

are carried out.
x failure points
x
x
x
x
x
log 1 0 f
S te el
Log 1 0 -1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Fig.1.59. Log 1 0 N
Each test consists of applying a constant bending load and the no. of revolutions
(or) stress cycles before the appearance of first fatigue crack are measured.
During first test, the bending stress is kept slightly less than the ultimate tensile
strength of material.
Then in the 2nd test, the stress is slightly reduced. The procedure is then
continued for a large no. of tests. The results of these tests are plotted by means of
S-N curve.
S-N curve is a graphical representation of maximum applied stress (f) versus

no. of stress cycles (N) before the fatigue failure on log-log paper as shown in Fig.
1.59.
Each test gives one failure point on the S-N curve. These points are scattered
on diagram, and an average curve is drawn through the points.
The magnitude of this stress is called the endurance strength.
The endurance strength is not exactly a property of the material, (like ultimate
and yield strengths). It is effected by the size and shape of a the component, surface
finish, temperature, etc.
When laboratory-data regarding the endurance strength of the material is not

available, the following procedure is adopted.
For steel, Approximate estimation
1  0.5fut fut  Ultimate strength
For cast iron and cast steels  1  0.4fut
Endurance Limit  1  1 KaKbK cKd
K a  surface finish factor where

K b  size factor K f  1  qK t  1
K c  reliability factor q  notch sensitivity
1 K t  stress concentration factor
K d  modifying factor 
Kf
1.12.3 SODERBERG AND GOODMAN DIAGRAMS

When a component is subjected to fluctuating stresses, the stresses are resolved into
two parts.
 max  min
(a) Mean stress  m 
2
(b) Stress amplitude (or) Variable stress (or) Amplitude stress

 max  min
a 
2
In the Fig 1.60, the mean stress is plotted on abscissa, with tensile stresses to
the right of the origin and compressive stresses to its left.
a
ordinate
-1 failure
points
x
x
x x
x x Soderbe rg Line
x x
Go odm an
x x Lin e
m u y O y u t m
Com pression Fig.1.60. Tension (abscissa)
The stress amplitude is plotted on the ordinate

 When a  0; then load is purely static, the criteria of failure is ut or y
(plotted on abscissa).
 When  m  0; then the stress is completely reversing and the criteria of
failure is endurance strength   1 (plotted on ordinate).
 When component is subjected to both the types of stress m and  a the
actual failure occurs at different scattered points as shown in Fig. 1.60.
 A straight line joining   1 on the ordinate to  ut on the abscissa is called
the Goodman line.
 A straight line joining  1 on the ordinate to  y on the abscissa is called

Soderberg line.
 The Goodman line is safe from design consideration.
 The Soderberg line is more conservative.
 Refer PSG D.B.Pg.No. 7.4 & 7.6
Experiments are
conducted to determine the + + ++ ++ + + -1
+ +
limiting value of variable + + + + + + + + + + Gerber parabola
+ + + + + +
stress  a for different + Goodm an Lin e
Alternating +
Stress  a
values of mean stress  m
+ Soderb erg Line
7
for a life of more than 10 +
+
cycles. The relation between
variable stress and mean
stress is shown in Fig. 1.61. O y u
C om pression T ension M ean stress m
Through the scatter of
test data, a parabola known Fig.1.61. Failure as a Function of M ean Stress m
as Gerber parabola is and Alternating Stress a
drawn.
2
 
  m  
a   1  1    

  u  

is the equation defining Gerber parabola.
Goodman and Soderberg lines are applicable to fluctuating torsional, axial and
bending stresses.
From Fig. 1.61, it has to be observed that failure is not influenced by

compressive mean stress but only by tensile mean stress.
1.12.4 GOODMAN METHOD FOR COMBINATION OF STRESSES

A Goodman line is used when the design is based on ultimate strength and may
be used for ductile or brittle materials. Consider triangle COD and triangle PQD from
Fig. 1.62
PQ QD O D  O Q
 
CO OD OD
 u  a
a    m
e n ’s
e ss
 n  -1 A

li n t r e
li n m a
 1   u 
od
fe
    -1/n C
Sa
Go
 n   n 
Simplifying we get
1 m a P
 
n  u  1 R
-1/FO S
when Kf is considered, (fatigue a
stress concentration factor)
D B
1 m a O u /n u m
  Kf Q
n u  1 m
u /FO S Fig.1.62.
1 m a
o r   Kf
n u  1 ABC
A = load correction factor ; B = size factor ; C = surface finish factor.

Note: If values of A,, B,, C are not given take unity (ie. A  B  C  1
1  m a 
 Kt    for brittle materials (notch sensitivity negligible)
n
 u
  1 
 m a  [Note: Since many machine parts are
 Kt   
  1 subjected to fatigue loads,
 u 
Amplitude stress max  min 1 m a
    Kf (Refer PSG D.B Pg.No.7.6)]
or  a  n u  1
 2
V ariable stress 
Mean stre ss  max  min

or   m 
2
Average stress
1 m Kf   a
 
n y   1 A  B  C
A - load factor - depending on load  axial load  0.7
 bending load  1
 torsional load  0.6

B - Size factor - depending on  standard specimen
C - Surface finish factor - depending on  Mirror polished
 Polished
 Machined
Note: For solving problems, if the value of any of the above factors is not given, it
may be taken as unity.
a
-1 A
C So derb erg’ s line
m P S afe stre ss
-1 /n
a a
 y
O m Q D B m
y /n Fig.1.63.
1.12.5 SODERBERG METHOD FOR COMBINATION OF STRESSES:

(Ductile materials)
When the design is based on yield strength
Consider triangle COD and PQD
PQ QD OD  OQ
 
CO OD OD
 y   1  m 
a    m a  1 
n  n  y 
  
  1   y  n
     
 n   n 
a y  n  m  1 m 
   1   
  1  n  y  n n y
   
Simplify
1 m a a m 1
   
n y  1  1 y n
For machine components subjected to fatigue loading, the fatigue stress
concentration factor K f should be applied to only amplitude (or) variable load a.
1 m a Kf  1  qKt  1 (Refer PSG D.B Pg.No.7.6)

   Kf
n y  1 when q  0 , Kf  1
when q  1.0 , Kf  Kt
When K t is given and q  1 , then Kf  Kt
1.12.6 MODIFIED GOODMAN’S DIAGRAM

The components which are subjected to fluctuating stresses are designed by
constructing the modified Goodman’s diagram.
The problems are classified into two groups.
1. Components subjected to axial (or) bending stresses due to fluctuating force

(or) bending moment.
2. Components subjected to fluctuating torsional shear stresses.
Separate diagrams are used in these two cases.
The modified Goodman diagram for axial or bending stresses is shown in

Fig. 1.64.
 The yt is plotted on both the axes (abscissa and ordinate) and a line is
constructed to join these points to define failure by yielding.
 A line is constructed to join  1 on ordinate with ut on the abscissa, which

is the Goodman line.
a
y t E
Failure by yielding
a
-1 A

m
X
Go odm an line
fa
Fig.1.64.
B
 45 O
O fm y t C u t m
The point of intersection of these two lines is ‘B’.

The area OABC represents the region of safety for components subjected to
fluctuating loads.
While solving a problem a line OE with slope tan  is constructed.
a
tan  
m
a P a/ A Pa P a  amplitude of variable load.

 
m Pm/A Pm
P m  mean load.
fa fa, fm are the limiting values of stresses which are

Permissible stresses a 
FOS used to calculate the dimensions of the component.
fm
m 
FOS
1.12.7 Design Equations for Variable Loading

(a) Endurance limit of the machine member
 1 ABC
 1m 
Kf ...(1)
Where   1 = endurance limit of the specimen
A = load correction factor

= 1 for reversed bending
= 0.7 for reversed axial loading
= 0.6 for reversed torsion
B = size factor
= 0.85 for parts of size 12.5 mm to 50 mm
C = surface finish factor
= 0.9 for ground or cold rolled surface
= 0.7 to 0.85 for machined surface
= 0.3 to 0.7 for hot rolled surface
K f = fatigue stress concentration factor
Note: Factor A is used to modify the flexural endurance limit usable for torsion or
axial loading problems.
(b) Using Fig. 1.63, the following equations are obtained.
1 m a
  for ductile materials.
n  y  1m ...(2)
1 m a
  for ductile materials subjected to torsional loading.
n y  1m ...(3)
Similarly,
1 m a
 Kt  for brittle materials.
n  u  1m ...(4)
n  factor of safety
K t  theoretical stress concentration factor
 1m  endurance limit in reversed torsion
 1 BC

Kf
If  1 is not known, A   1 is used.
(c) Equivalent Static Stresses-Bending / Axial Loading
Eqn. (2) is multiplied by y on both sides.
y a   y
 m 
n   1m ...(5)
The RH side can be considered as an equivalent static stress and the LH side
is the permissible stress for a static loading problem. We may write.
y  a
eq   m 
  1  m ...(6)
y
For safety, eq  or eq  []
n
Where []  permissible tensile stress
Torsional Loading
a y
eq  m 
  1  m ...(7)
Design equation, eq  []
y
Where []  permissible shear stress 
n
If y is not available, take y  0.6 y.
Combined Loading (Bending and Torsion)


2
 eq   eq  2
1      eq
2  2  ...(8)
Design equation is,  1  [], based o n princ ipal stress theo ry.


2
  eq  2
max     eq  []
 2  ...(9)
Design equation is, max  [], based on shear stress theory,
0.5 y
Where [] 
n
1.12.8 Design for Finite Life

The fatigue strength for finite life is calculated by using the equation.
t  10 c Nb ...(10)
f  Fatigue strength for finite life
 0.8  2 
u
c  log  
  1 
1  0.8 u 
b lo g  
3  1
 
N  no. of cycles
1.12.9 Cumulative Fatigue Damage

Above Equations given are meant for designing components for infinite life. Some
missile and defence equipment parts are designed for finite life.
Refer to Fig. 1.65. The inclined portion of the S-N diagram is useful for
designing for finite life. If a component is subjected
to a stress 1, the life is N 1 cycles, a stress 2, the
life is N 2 cycles and so on. 1
If the component is subjected to intermittent 2
loads leading to stresses 1 for n1 cycles S

3
n1  N 1, 2 for n2 cycles n2  N 2, and so on, then

according to Miner’s rule, failure will occur if, 0
N 1N 2 N 3 N Fig.1.65.
n1 n2 n3 ni
   1
N1 N2 N3 Ni
Problem 1.54: A cantilever beam made of C 40 steel of circular cross-section as shown

in Fig 1.66, is subjected to a load which varies from  F to 3F; Determine the max. load,
that this member can withstand for indefinite. Take FOS  2; Kt  1.42; q  0.9.
u  550 N/mm 2; y  470 N /m m2;  1  275 N/mm 2
Size factor = 0.85; Surface finish factor = 0.89
By using
1. Goodman’s equation A
-F
2. Soderberg’s equation.
Given data
20 15
W min   F
W max   3F
B +F
Fac to r o f safety = 2;
K t  1.42 ,  u  550 N /mm2 Fig.1.66. 125 +3 F
q  0.9 ,  y  470 N/mm 2
  1  275 N/mm 2
Size factor = C = 0.85
Surface finish factor = B = 0.89
Assume load factor A = 1 (since it is not given)
The beam is subjected to reversed bending load.
Since at A, the cross-section changes, therefore find bending moment at A-B.
Max. bending moment  M max  W max  125  3F  125 Nmm
M max
max  Max. bending stress 
Z
 3 
Z  Section modulus  d   153  331.33 mm 3
32 32
3F  125
max  [Max. bending moment  W max  125  3 F  125 ]
331.33
max  1.1316 F N/mm2
Min. bending moment  M min  W min  125   F  125 Nmm
M min
min  Min. bending stress 
Z
 F   125  F  125
 
331.33 331.33
 min   0.3772 F N/mm2
max  min
mean  Mean stress 
2 (Refer PSG D.B Pg.No.7.6)
1.1316 F  0.3772F

2
mean  0.3772 F N/mm 2
max  min
amp  Amplitude stre ss 
2
1.1316 F   0.3772 F

2
 amp  0.7544F N/mm2
K f  1  qK t  1 q  0.9
 1  0.9 1.42  1 K t  1.42
 1.378
According to Goodman equation,
1 m a
  Kf
n u  1 ABC (Refer PSG D.B Pg No.7.6)
1 0.3772F 1.378 0.7544  F

 
2 550 275  1  0.89  0.85
1
 6.858  10  4F  4.9969  10  3F
2
1
 5.6827  10  3  F 
2
F  87.98 N
According to Soderberg equation,
1 m a
  Kf
n y 1 AB C
1 0.3772 F 1.378 0.7544  F

 
2 470 275  1  0.89  0.85
 8.0255  10 4F  4.9960  10  3F
1
 5.799  10  3F
2
 F  86.22 N
Taking larger value,
According to Goodman’s equation
The Max. value of F  87.98N.
Problem 1.55: A spherical pressure vessel with 500 mm inner diameter is welded from
steel plates. Plates are made of cold drawn steel. u  440 N/mm2; y  242 N/mm2. The
vessel is subjected to internal pressure which varies from 0 to 6 N/mm2. Take factor of
safety = 3.5. Calculate the plate-thickness.
The internal pressure induces circumfrential stress on the plate
The pressure varies from 0 to 6 N/mm 2

PD
Circumfrential stress  C 
4t
Pmax  D
C max  Ma x. circumfre ntial stress 
4t
6  500 750
 
4t t
P min  D
C min  Min. circumfrential stress  0
4t
 y  yield stress
Since  C min  0 , the type of stress is repeated.  2
  242 N  mm
Let Kf  1 i.e., Kt  1
 C max 750 1  375 

mean  amp     N/ m m 2
2 t 2  t 
1 m a  1  0.5 u
  Kf
n y  1
1 375  375  (It is repeated compressive stress)
 
3.5 t  242  t  220 
1

1.549 1.704
  0.5  440  220 N  mm2
3.5 t t
1 3.2535

3.5 t
 t  3.2535  3.5
t  11.38 mm
To find endurance strength for finite life.

Refer PSG DB P.No. 1.42
0.09
 10 6 
f   1  
 N 
N - the required life in cycles.

Example: Calculate fatigue strength ‘f’ of the steel shaft for a life of 105 cycles.
 1  120 N/mm2
0.09
 10 6 
f   1  120  5 
 10 
 147.63 N/mm 2
In Soderberg’s equation, use  f instead of  1.
Problem 1.56: A circular cross section C 45 steel member is subjected to an axial load
that varies from  1000 N to  2500 N and to a torsional moment that varies from 0 to
 500 N - m. Assume a factor of safety of 1.5 and a stress concentration factor of 1.5;
Calculate the required diameter of the member for indefinite life.
(Apr. 96-MU, Apr.-May - 2008 - AU)
Given Data
axial load Torsional moment
Max. load   2500 N Max. twisting moment   500 Nm   500  10 3Nmm
Min. load   1000 N Min. twisting moment  0
Factor of safety  1.5 ; Stress concentration factor Kt  1.5 ; For C 45 material,

from P.No. 1.9
u  630  710 N/mm 2; y  360 N/mm 2;
Take u  650 N/mm 2
From P.No. 1.42; endurance limit   1  0.36 u (for axial load - Reversed)
 0.36  650  234 N/mm 2
Repeated - endurance limit in shear  o  0.3u for twisting moment Repeated
 195 N/mm 2
Consider axial load

P max  Max. lo ad   2500 N ; P min  Min. load   1000 N
P max 2500
Max. stress   where d  diameter of shaft.
A  2
d
4
3183.09
max  
d2
P min 1000
Min. stress 
4  2
d
4
1273.23
min  
d2
3183.09  1273.23 
2

max   min d d2 954.93
Mean stress  m   
2 2 d2
3183.09  1273.23 
2

 max  min d d2 2228.16
Stress amplitude   a   
2 2 d2
From databook, Page No. 7.6
Combined stresses
y  a  y
 eq   m  Kf
n  1
2228.16 Let  q  1
2
 360
954.93 d
 eq  2
 1.5
d 234
6096.83 K f  1  qK t  1
 eq  2
... (1)
d
 1  11.5  1  1.5
Consider twisting moment (Repeated load)
Max. twisting moment  T max   500  10 3N mm
Min. twisting moment  T min  0

Tr T  500  10 3Nmm

Max. shear stress  max 
J
d d
500  10 3  r
2 2
max 
 4
d
32
2.546  106  4
 J d
32
d3
Min. Shear stress  min  0
max  min
Mean shear stress  mean  m 
2
2.546  10 6 1.2732  10 6
 
2d3 d3
max  min 2.546  10 6

Amplitude of shear stress  a  
2 2 d3
1.2732  10 6

d3
. .
Note: For repeated load mean  amp   . Min. stress  0
from databook, P.No. 7.6
y a  y y
eq   m  K f  y 
n o 2
360
  180 N/mm 2
2
1.2732  10 6 1.2732  106  180

eq   1.5
d3 d3195
1.2732  10 6 1.1752  10 6
 
d3 d3
2.4484  10 6
 ... (2)
d3


2 2
1  eq   eq 
    
n
 y   y 


2 2
1  6096.83   2.4484  10 6 
  2    3 
1.5
 d  360   d  180 
Squaring on both sides
2 2
 6096.83   2.4484  10 6 
0.444   2    3 
 d  360   d  180 
286.81 185.02  106

0.444  
d4 d6
The abo ve equatio n c an be so lved by trial & erro r metho d to find ‘d’
Trail 1: Put d  30 mm RHS  3.45  10  4  0.2537  0.25407

RHS < LHS
Trail 2: Put d  25 mm RHS  7.34  10  4  0.7578  0.2540
RHS > LHS
Trail 3: Put d  27 mm RHS  5.3968  10  4  0.4775  0.4781
RHS > LHS
Trail 4: Put d  27.5 mm RHS  5.014  10  4  0.4277  0.4282
RHS ~
 LHS (RHS is approximately equal to LHS)
 Take d  diameter of shaft  27.5 mm
Problem 1.57: A 30 mm diameter machined steel cantilever 250 mm. Long is loaded on
the end with a force that varies from 270 N down to 400 N up. Also there is an axial
force at the free end that varies from  500 N to  600 N. There is a 6 mm. fillet where
the member is connected to the support which causes a stress concentration factor of 1.32;
The notch sensitivity may be taken as 0.9; If the material has an ultimate strength of 550
MPa, an endurance limit of 240 KPa, and yield strength of 415 MPa. Calculate the design
factor N. (Oct-96 MU, Apr - May - 2007 - AU)
Given Data
dia. of bar  d  30 mm
K t  1.32
q  0.9
 u  550 MP a  550 N/mm 2
 y  415 MP a  415 N/mm 2
endurance limit   1  240 MPa  240 N/mm 2
Consider axial load: (Reversed load)

Max. load   600 N W max
Min. load   500 N W min
W max  W min 600  500

Mean load  W mean    50 N
2 2
W max  W min 600   500 

Amplitude of load  W amp    550 N
2 2
W mean  2
Mean stress  mean  A d
A 4
50 
   30 2
706.85 4
 0.0707 N/mm 2  706.85 mm 2
W amp
Amplitude of stress  amp   a 
A
550
  0.7781 N /m m2
706.85
From databook,
According to Soderberg’s equation Page No. (7.6).
1 m a
  Kf
n y 1
y y   a
 m  Kf
n 1
y K f  1  qK t  1
Let  eq  equivalent stress
n 1
y 1.288  415  0.7781  1  0.91.32  1

 0.0707 
n 240
eq  1.8036 N/mm 2 ... (1)  1.288

1
Consider bending load: (Reversed load)

W max  M ax. load   270 N  as  ve
W min  Min. load   400 N  as  ve
W max  W min 270   400 130

Mean load W mean      65 N
2 2 2
Mean bending moment  M mean   65  250   16250 Nmm
W max  Wmin 270   400

Amplitude load  W amp    335 N
2 2
Amplitude bending moment   335  250   83750 N m m
M amp  83750 Nmm
M mean
Mean bending stress  mean 
Z
 3 
Z d   30 3  2650.71 mm 3
32 32
16250
m ean     6.1304 N /mm 2
2650.71
M am p
Amplitude bending stress   amp 
Z
83750
a    31.595 N /mm 2
2650.71
According to Soderberg equation,
1 m a
  Kf
n y  1
y a   y
(or)   eq  m  Kf
n 2  1
1.288 415 31.595 

eq   6.1304    64.2370 N/mm 2
2 240
Total equivalent stress  eq  eq  eq

1 2
 1.8036  64.2376  64.0412 N/mm 2
y
but  eq 
n
y 415
 n  Facto r of safety  
eq 64.0412
 Factor of safety (or) Design factor  n  6.28
Problem 1.58: A transmission shaft made of C 45 steel is subjected to a fluctuating torque

which varies from  100 N-m to  500 N-m. Also a fluctuating bending moment acts on
the shaft that varies from  500 N-m to  500 N-m. Let the stress concentration factor be
2; The shaft is machined, for a factor of safety of 1.5; Determine the required shaft size.
(Apr-97-MU, Oct- Nov- 2005 - AU)
Material C 45.
From PSG databook; Page No. 1.9 y  360 N/mm 2
u  630  710 N/mm 2
Select u  700 N/m m2
FO S  1.5 given
Torque - (Reversed)   1  endurance limit in shear  0.22 u
 0.22  700
 1  154 N/mm 2
Bending moment (Reversed)    1  endurance limit  0.46 u
 0.46  700
 322 N/mm 2
Let d  diameter of the shaft
 3  I   4
Z  section modulus  d  Z  y  ; I  64 d
32  
 4 d
J  polar moment of inertia  d y
32 2
Considering Twisting moment: (Reversed)

Max. torque  T max   500 Nm
Min. torque  T min   100 Nm
T max  Tmin 500  100

Mean torque  T mean    200 Nm  200  10 3 N  mm
2 2
d
T mean  r 200  103 
2
Mean shear stress  mean  
J  4
d
32
1018.59
m  3
 103 N/mm2
d
Tmax  Tmin 500   100

Amplitude torque  T amp    300 Nm  300  10 3 N  mm
2 2
d
Tamp  r 300  10 3 
2
Amplitude shear stress  amp  
J  4
d
32
1527.88
a  3
 10 3 N/mm2
d
From PSG Databook P.No. (7.6)

y a y K f  1  q K t  1
eq   m  K f
n  1
assume q  0.9
 1527.88  10 3  K t  2 given
   180
y 1018.59   10 3  d3 
eq    1.9 Kf  1  0.9 2  1  1.9
n d3 154
y 360
4411.67  10 3 y    180 N /mm 2
eq  1 2 2
d3
Considering bending moment: (Reversed)

Max. bending moment  M max   500 Nm
Min. bending moment  M min   500 Nm
M max  M min
Mean bending moment  M mean 
2
500  500
 0
2
M mean 0
Mean bending stress  mean   0
2 2
M max  M min
Amplitude bending moment  M amp 
2
500   500 
  500 Nm  500  10 3 N  mm
2
M amp 500  10 3 5092.95  10 3

Amplitude bending stress   amp   
Z  3 d3
d
32
From PSG Databook, P.No. (7.6)
5092.95
 10 3  360
y a   y d 3
eq   m  K f  0  1.9
n  1 322
10818.56
eq   10 3 ... (II)
d3


2 2
1  eq   eq 
    
n
 y   y 
n  FOS  1.5
Substitute the values of  eq and eq in the above equation


2 2
1  10818.56  10 3   4411.67  10 3 
     
1.5
 d3  360   d3  180 


 

903.09  10 6
d6

600.70  106
d6

1503.79  10 6
d6
Squaring on both sides
1503.79  10 6
0.444 
d6
1503.79  10 6
d6   3.3869  10 9
0.444
 d  shaft diameter  38.752 mm
From R20 series, Page No. (7.20) Shaft diameter d  40 mm
 d  40 mm
Problem 1.59: A pulley is keyed to a shaft midway between two anti-friction bearings.
The bending moment at the pulley varies from  170 N-m to  510 N-m as the torsional
moment in the shaft varies from 55 N-m to 165 N-m. The frequency of the variation of
the loads is the same as the shaft speed. Determine the required diameter of the shaft for
an indefinite life. (Apr 98 - MU, Apr - May - 2009 - AU)
Given Data
To ‘FIND DIAMETER’
510
1. Variable bending moment. (Reversed)
O
Max. BM   510 Nm   510  10 3Nmm
170
(R eversed)
Min. BM   170 Nm   170  10 3Nmm
2. Variable twisting moment. (Fluctuating)
Max. twisting moment   165 Nm   165  10 3N mm
Min. twisting moment   55 Nm   55  10 3N mm
Since material of the shaft is not given,
Select any material C 40, C 45 or C 50 (From page No. 1.10)
Let, the material for the shaft as C 40
From Page No. 1.9  u  580  680 N/mm 2; y  330 N/mm 2

165
Take u  600 N/mm 2
Endurance limit: bending (Reversed) Refer Page No. 1.42 55
 1  0.46 u  0.46  600  276 N/mm 2
u 600
Endurance in shear (for fluctuating stress)  1    300 N/mm2
2 2
Consider reversed bending moment:
From Page No. 7.6
1 m a
d
  Kf  510  10 3 
n y  1 BM  y 2
max  
I  4
Let K f  1 d
6
 y  a   y 5.19  10 6
eq     m  Kf 
n   1 d4
 max   min
m  m ean stress 
2
d
 170  10 3 
B.M  y 2 1.7316  10 6
min   
I  4 d3
d
64
5.19  10 6 1.7316  10 6

2 d3 2d3 3.46  10 6
m   3
 1.7292  10 6
2 2d
 max   min
a  amp. stress 
2
5.19  10 6 1.73  10 6

2d3 2d3 6.92  10 6
  3
 3.46  10 6
2 2d
1.7292  10 6 3.46  10 6  330

eq  1
d3 d3  276
4.136  10 6
eq  1
d3
Consider fluctuating twisting moment

from Page No. 7.6
1 m u y u  y
  Kf eq   m  K f
n y  1 n  1
d
Tmaxr 165  10 3 
2
max   Tmax  165  10 3Nm m
J  4
d
32
840.33  10 3

d3
d
55  10 3 
Tm in  r 2 280.11  10 3
min    Tmin  55  10 3 Nmm
J  4 d3
d
32
max  min
m  me an shear stress 
2
840.33  10 3 280.11  10 3

d3 d3 560.22  10 3
 
2 d3
max  min
a  A mp. shear stress 
2
840.33  10 3 280.11  10 3

d3 d3

2
280.11  10 3

d3
a  y 600
 1   300 N/mm 2
eq  m  K f 2
 1
y 330
560.22  10 3 280.11  103  165 y  
 1 2 2
d3 d3 300
 165 N/mm 2
0.7142  106
eq  ... (2)
d3
for, Combined stresses, from Page No. 7.6


2 2
1   eq   eq 
    
n
 y   y 
Take n  Fa ctor of safety  2


2 2
1  4.136  10 6 1   0.7142  10 6 
      
2  d3 330

3
 d  165 
Squaring both sides,

6
1 157.08  10 18.735  106
 
4 d6 d6
6
1 175.8157  10

4 d6
d6  175.8157  10 6  4  703.428  10 6
1
d  703.42  10 6 6
diameter of the shaft d  29.82 mm
From R20 series, page no (7.20), shaft diameter = d = 30 mm
 d  30 mm
Problem 1.60: The bending stress in a machine part fluctuates between a tensile stress
of 280 N/mm2 and compressive stress of 140 N/mm2. What should be the min. ultimate
tensile strength to carry this fluctuation indefinitely according to (i) Goodman’s formula
and (ii) Soderberg’s formula. Take factor of safety = 1.75; Assume the yield point is never
likely to be less than 55% of the ultimate tensile strength or greater than 93% of it.
(Oct.’98 - MU)
Given data
Axial stress:
max  tensile stress   280 N/mm 2
max  compres sive stress   140 N/mm 2

Assume y  0.55 u and y  0.93 u
The stress load given is reversed stress:

max  min 280  140
Mean stress    70 N/mm 2
2 2
 max  min 280   140
Amplitude stress   amp    210 N/mm 2
2 2
Assume y  0.55 u to 0.93 u
y  0.6 u
Let K f  (fatigue stress concentration factor)  1
1. Goodman’s equation
1  m a 
 Kt   
n   1
 u 
From databook, P.No. 1.42
 1  endurance limit from databook,

t
 0.36u
1  m u 
 Kt   
n   1
 u 
1  70 210 
1 
1.75 u 0.36 u 
 
1 70 583.33 653.33
  
1.75 u u u
u  Min. ultimate stress  653.33  1.75  1143.33 N/m m2
2. Soderberg’s equation
1 m u
  Kf
n y  1
1 70  210 
 1
1.75 0.6u 0.36 u 
 
1 116.66 583.33 699.99
  
1.75 u u u
  u  M in. ultim ate stress  699.99  1.75  1224.98 N/mm 2
usoderberg   ugoodman
Goodman’s equation gives the minimum ultimate tensile strength.
Problem 1.61: A steel cantilever beam 300 mm long is subjected to a load at free end
that varies from  50 kN (upwards) to 150 kN (downwards). The diameters from the free
end are ‘d’ for 200 mm and 1.5 d for the remaining length, with a fillet radius of 0.2 d;
The factor of safety is 2. Notch sensitivity factor at the fillet is 0.9; Surface finish factor
is 0.8; Size factor is 0.85; Ultimate strength is 600 N/mm2 and yield strength is
380 N/mm2. Calculate the diameter at fillet section. (Apr. 2001 - MU)
Given data
Let d  diameter of the shaft
F 1  downward load
F 2  upward load
Factor of safety n2
N otch sensitivity factor  q  0.9
Surface finish factor  0.8
Size factor  0.85
Ultimate strength  u  600 N/mm 2
Yield strength   y  380 N/mm 2
Consider the loads F 1 and F 2: (Reversed loading)
F 1 and F 2 induces bending stress.
F max  F 1  maximum load   150 kN downwa rd   150  10 3N
F min  F 2  minimum load   50 kN upwards  50  10 3N
F max  F min 150  10 3   50  10 3

Mean load  Fmean  
2 2
F mean  50  10 3N
Mean bending moment  M mean  F mean  200
 50  10 3  200  10 6Nmm
Amplitude load (or)
F max  F min 150  10 3   50  10 3
Variable load  F amp  
2 2
F amp  100  10 3N
Amplitude or variable bending moment  M amp  F amp  200
 100  10 3  200
M amp  20  10 6N
M mean Z  Section modulus

Mean bending stress  mean   m 
Z
10 6  3
  d mm 3
 3 32
d
32
10.185  10 6 where d  dia. of the shaft
m 
d3
M amp
Amplitude bending stress   amp  a 
Z
20  10 6 203.718  106
 
 3 d3
d
32
203.718  106
a 
d3
According to Soderberg equation:
1 m a n  factor of safety
  Kf 
n y  1
To find Kf stress concentration factor m  mean stress - N/mm 2
K f  1  qK t  1 y  yield stress - N/mm 2
where K t  stress concentration K f  stress concentration factor
q  notch sensitivity factor  0.9 a  amplitude stress - N/mm 2
 1  endurance limit - N/mm 2

To find Kt for shaft with a shoulder fillet in bending.
Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.14,

D  1.5d; d  d; r  0.2d
D 1.5d r 0.2d
  1.5 ;   0.2
d d d d
r D
Corresponding to  0.2 and  1.5 read the value of K t.
d d
From Graph,
K t  Stress concentration = 1.32
Therefore, stress concentration factor  K f  1  qKt  1  1  0.91.32  1
K f  1.288
To find endurance limit  1
Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 1.42, for bending load and reversed cycle
Approximate value of endurance limit where u  ultimate stress
   1  0.46 u
b
 0.46  600  600 N/mm 2
 276 N/mm 2
Endurance limit   1    1b  Surface finish factor  Size factor
 276  0.8  0.85
 1  187.68 N/mm 2
1 m a n2
  Kf
n y  1
10.185  10 6 203.718  10 6 10.185  10 6

3 3
m  3
N/mm 2
1 d d d
  1.288
2 380 187.68
3
1 26.8026  10 1.398  10 6  y  380 N/mm 2
 
2 d3 d3
d3  2.8496  10 6 K f  1.288
 d  141.77 m m 203.718  106

a  3
N/mm 2
d
 1  187.68 N/mm 2
Diameter at fillet section  d  142 mm
Problem 1.62: A machine component is subjected to varying bending stress ranging from
300 N/mm2 tension to 200 N/mm2 compression. Determine the ultimate strength required
for the material using Soderberg, Goodman and Gerber relations.
Solution
In order to make a true comparison of the three formulae, it is necessary to
discard Kf, A, B and C from Soderberg formulae and take n  1 in both Soderberg and
Goodman formulae. The modified formulae are:
(Refer PSG D.B Pg No.7.6)
m a
 1 Soderb erg
y  1
...(1)
m a
 1 Goodman
u  1
...(2)
Gerber formula is
2
 
  m  
a    1  1    
  u  
  ...(3)
We know that
max  min 300    200 
m    50 N/mm2
2 2
max  min 300   200

a    250 N/mm 2
2 2
Using Eqn.1
50 200
 1
0.55  u 0.5 u
u  490.9 N/mm2
Assumptions y  0.55 u
 1  0.50  u
Using Eqn. 2
50 200
 1
 u 0.5 u
u  450 N /mm2
Using Eqn 3
2

 50 

200  0.5  u  1   
   
 u
i.e 2u  400 u  2500  0
400  
 
400 2  4  1  2500
u 
2
u  406.1 N/mm2
u Soderberg  u goodman  u Gerber.
Soderberg equation gives the safest design, because it demands the greatest
value for  u
Problem 1.63: A steel cantilever, shown in Fig. 1.68a is subjected to an axial load which
varies from 200 N compression to 500 N tension and also to a transverse load at its free
end which varies from 100 N upto 125 N down. Determine d assuming the following
values; n  2, y  330 N/mm2,  1  300 N/mm2, Kt bending  1.4, Kt axial  1.6, q  0.9,
B  0.85, C  0.9.
We need to evaluate the stresses for the section X-X.

125N
x
2d d 200N
500N
x
150m m 100N
200m m
(a)
125x150N m m
B en ding m om ent
500N
Axial force
F M
0
t 0 t
200N
100x150N m m
(b) Fig.1.68. (c)
1. Refer to Fig. 1.68b for the varying axial load

F max  F min 500   200
Fm    150 N
2 2
F max  F min 500   200

Fa    350 N
2 2
Fm 150  4 190.9
m  mean axial stress   
d  2
d 2
d2
 
 4 
Fa 350  4 445.6
a  variable axial stress  2
 2

d  d d2
 
 4 
y  a K fa
eq axial  m 
 1 ABC
K fa  fatigue stress concentration factor for axial loading.
 1  q K ta  1
q  no tc h sensitivity  0.9
K ta  theoretical stress concentration factor for axial loading  1.6
 1  0.9 1.6  1 A  0.7 for axial loading
190.9 330  445.6  1.54 B  0.85

 2
 2
d 300  d  0.7  0.85  0.9
C  0.9
190.9 1409.7
 2
   1  300 N/mm 2
d d2
1600.6  y  330 N/mm 2


d2
2. Refer to Fig. 1.68C for the varying bending moment

M max  125  150  18,750 Nmm
M min   100  150   15,000 Nmm
M max  M min 18,750   15,000 

Mm    1875 Nmm
2 2
M max  M min 18,750   15,000 

Ma    16,875 Nmm
2 2
32  M m  a  variable bending stress

m  mean b ending stress 
 d3 32  M a 32  16875
 3

32  1875 19,098.6 d  d3
  N/mm 2
 d3 d3 171,887.3
 3
N/mm 2
d
 y a K fb
eq bending  m 
 1 ABC
K fb  fatigue stress concentration factor for bending.
 1  q K tb  1
K tb  theoretical stress concentration factor for bending  1.4
 1  0.9 1.4  1  1.36

19,098.6 330  171,887.3  1.36

eq bending  3

d 300  d3  1  0.85  0.9
A  1 for bending
19098.6 336135.16 355,233.76

 3
 3

d d d3
3. eq axial and eq bending are normal stresses and they can be
algebrically added.
Total  eq axial  eq bending
1600.6 355,233.8
 2

d d3
Total  [] for safety.
y 330
[]    165 N/mm 2
n 2
1600.6 355,233.8
2
 3
 165 N/mm 2
d d
Solving by trial and error method, we get
d  13.2 mm. Take d  14 mm
Problem 1.64: A simple tension test and rotating beam test on a ductile material (C 45
annealed) gave the following results for a specimen of diameter 15 mm.
2 2 2
y  300 N/mm , u  500 N/mm and  1  200 N/mm . Determine the design stresses (mean
and variable) for the following working condition. Bolts in a cylinder cover where the load
is fluctuating due to gas pressure. The maximum load on bolt is 65 kN and the minimum
load is 35 kN. The bolts are hot rolled. The factor of safety may be taken as 2.
The Loading diagram is shown in Fig. 1.69a.
F max  F min 65  35
Fm    50 kN
2 2
F max  F min 65  35
Fa    15 kN
2 2
( -1 )m
60kN ( -1 )m
n
F a F ailu re Line
[ a ]
30kN O peratin g point
D esign L in e

0 t ( m ) ( y ) y
n
m
( m ) = P erm issible m ean stress
(a) (b)
( a ) = P erm issible variable stress
Fig. 1.69.
50,000 15,000
m  ,  d  diameter of bolts
  d2  a   d2 
   
 4   4 
m
From the above relations, we find  3 or m  3 a
a
y  y  a K f
 m 
n  1 ABC
The RH side is the equivalent static stress induc ed and the LH side is the
permissible stress. Therefo re w hen RH side is equal to LH side, m and  a can be
taken as the permissible values of mean and variable stresses.
y  y [a ] K f
 [ m] 
n  1 ABC
 1  200 N/mm 2 y  300 N/mm2
A  0.7 for axial loading B  0.85 assumed
C  0.7 assumed for hot rolled surface n2
K f  1.2 assumed
300 300  [a ]  1.2

 3 [a ]   7.32 [ a]
2 200  0.7  0.85  0.7
[ a]  20.48 N/mm2
[ m]  3 [a ]  3  20.48  61.46 N/mm2
The above solution can also be obtained graphically (Fig. 1.69). On the design
line the operating point is located by using.
[a ] 1
tan   
[m ] 3
Horizontal and vertical lines are drawn from the operating point and
[ a] and [m ] are measured off.
Problem 1.65: A component is subjected to various reversed bending stresses in the

following manner; 550 N/mm2 for 20% of the time, 450 N/mm2 for 30% of time, and
350 N/mm2 for 50% of time. Determine life of the part in cycles. The fatigue life of the
material of the component for various stresses are as follows: 550 N/mm2 for 20,000 cycles,
450 N/mm2 for 50,000 cycles and 350 N/mm2 for 350,000 cycles.
Solution
Life under combined loading is obtained using the relation.
1 2 3 1
  
N1 N2 N3 Nc
Where N c  life under combined loading
n1 n2 n3
1   0.2 ,  2   0.3 ,  3   0.5
Nc Nc Nc
N 1  20,000 cycles, N 2  50,000 cycles, N3  350,000 cycles
0.2 0.3 0.5 1

  
20,000 50,000 350,000 N c
i.e., N c  57377 cycles.
Problem 1.66: Calculate the fatigue strength of the steel shaft for a life of 200,000 cycles.
The ultimate strength and the endurance limit of the shaft material are 500 MPa and 150
MPa respectively.
Solution
f  10 c Nb ; u  500 N/mm 2 ;  1  150 N/mm 2

 0.8  2   0.8  5002 

u
c  log    lo g    3.028
  1   150 
1  0.8 u  1  0.8  500 

b lo g     log     0.142
3 3 150
  1   
N  200,000 cycles
f  103.028  200,000  0.142  188.48 N/mm 2
Problem 1.67: Calculate the life of a 18 mm diameter circular shaft subjected to a completely
reversed bending stress of magnitude 400 N/mm2. The material of the shaft is C 40.
Solution
1. If the induced stress is less than the endurance limit, the component will
have an infinite life. If the induced stress is greater than the endurance limit, the
component will have only a finite life.
2. Material Properties
For C 40, u  680 N/mm 2 from PSG DataBook 1.12 
 1  0.5  u  0.5  680  340 N/mm 2
3. The induced stress     1. Therefore, the shaft will have finite life.
4. To determine the number of cycles, the following equation is used.
 f  10 c Nb
1/b
 f 
The above equation is rewritten as N   c 
 10 
Put t  400 N/mm 2
 0.8  2   0.8  680 2 

u
c  log    lo g    2.94
  1   340 
1  0.8 u  1  0.8  680 

b lo g     lo g    0.068
3  1 3  340 
 
1
 400   0.068
N 2.94 
 93262.3 cycles
 10 
Problem 1.68: A circular cross section C 45 steel member is subjected to an axial load
that varies from  1000 N to  2500 N and to a torsional moment that varies from 0 to
 500 Nm. Assume a factor of safety of 1.5 and a stress concentration factor of 1.5.
Calculate the required diameter of the member for indefinite life.
(Apr 96 - MU, Oct - 2004 - AU)
1. For axial loading

F max  F min 2500   1000 
Fm    750 N
2 2
F max  F min 2500   1000 

Fa    1750 N
2 2
Fm 750  4 954.9
m    N/mm 2
 d /42
d 2
d2
Fa 1750  4 2228.2
a  2
 2
 2
N/mm 2
 d /4 d d
K t  1.5
2. Equivalent axial loading
 y a KF A  0.7 for axial loading
eq   m 
 1 ABC
B  0.85 assumed
954.9 360  2228.2  1.5 C  0.8 for machined surface
 2
 2
d 325  d  0.7  0.85  0.8
y  300 N/mm 2for C45 from DataB ook
873264

d2 u  650 N/mm 2
3. Torsional loading  1  0.5 u  0.5  650  325 N/mm 2

Tmax  Tmin 500  0
Tm    250 Nm  250,000 N/mm
2 2
Tmax  Tmin 500  0

Ta    250 Nm  250,000 N mm
2 2
16 Tm 16  250,000 1,273.239.5
m  3
 3
 3
N/mm 2
d d d
16 T a 16  250,000 1,273,239.5
a  3
 3
 N/mm 2
d d d3
4. Equivalent torsional loading

 y  a Kf
eq  m   K f  1.5 , y  0.6 y  0.6  360  216 N/mm2 , A  0.6
 1 ABC
1,273,239.5 216  1,273,239.5  1.5 4,384,322.4

 3
 3
 N /mm 2
d 325  d  0.6  0.85  0.8 d3
5. Maximum shear stress

 

2 2 2
 eq  2  8732.64   4.384.322.4 
max     eq   2 
 
 2   2d   d3 
6. Shaft diameter
0.5  y
For safety, max 
n n  1.5
2 2 2
 8732.64   4,384,322.4   0.5 y 
 2       
 2d   d3   n 
2
 0.5  360 
   14,400
 1.5 
This equatio n sho uld be so lved by trial and erro r metho d.
Fo r d  25 mm, LH side  78,783.3
For d  30 mm, LH side  26,391.5
For d  33 mm, LH side  14,900
For d  35 mm, LH side  10,469.4
Adopt d  35 mm
Problem 1.69: A circular bar of length 600 mm is supported at its ends. It is acted upon
by a concentrated cyclic load at its centre which varies from 20 kN to 50 kN. If the factor
of safety is 1.5, surface finish factor is 0.9 and the size effect is 0.85, find the diameter
of te bar. The ultimate strength of the bar is 650 N/mm2, yield strength is 500 N/mm2 and
endurance strength is 350 N/mm2 (April - 2005 - AU)
50kN
F
300 20 to 50kN
20kN
1=600m m 0
t
F ig.1.70
F max  F min 50  20
1. F m    35 kN
2 2
F max  F min 50  20
Fa    15 kN
2 2
Fml
2. Mean bending moment, M m  (for simply supported beam)
4
35,000  600
Mm   5.25  10 6 Nmm
4
Fal
Variable bending moment, M a 
4
15,000  600
Ma   2.25  10 6 Nmm
4
32  M m
3. Mean bending stress m 
 d3
32  5.25  106 53.48  106

m   N/mm2
 d3 d3
32  M a
Variable bending stress a 
 d3
32  2.25  106 22.92  106

a  3
 3
N/mm2
d d
4. Use Soderberg equation
 a Kt n  1.5
1 m
 
n  y  1 ABC A  1for bending
1 53.48  10 6 C  0.9

1.5 500  d3 B  0.85
22.92  10 6  1  u  650 N/mm 2


350  d3  1  0.85  0.9
 y  500 N/mm 2
3 3
1 107  10 85.6  10
 3
   1  350 N/mm 2
1.5 d d3
d  66.1 mm K f  1 ass umed
Take d  68 mm
Problem 1.70: Determine the thickness of a 120 mm wide plate for safe continuous
operation when it is subjected to a tensile load that has a maximum value of 250 kN and
a minimum value of 100 kN. Take  1  225 N/mm2, y  300 N/mm2, n  2, A  0.7,
B  0.85, C  0.8. Assume no notch (i.e, Kf  1
250kN
F
t
b
F F
100kN
(a)
0 t
Fig.1.71
(b)
1. Calculation of Fm , Fa
F max  250 kN, F min  100 kN
F max  F min 250  100

Fm    175 kN ;
2 2
F max  F min 250  100

Fa    75 kN
2 2
2. Calculation of m , a
Fm 175,000 1458.3
m   
bt 120  t t
Fa 75,000 625
a    b  120 mm
bt 120  t t
n2
3. Now, we use Soderberg relation Kf  1
1 m Kf a A  0.7
 
n  y  1 ABC
B  0.85
1 1458.3 1  625
  C  0.8
2 t  300 t  225  0.7  0.85  0.8
 y  300 N/mm 2
t  21.4 mm
  1  225 N/mm 2
Take t  22 mm
Problem 1.71: A steel bar is subjected to completely reversed stress cycles which vary
over a 20 second time period (Fig. 1.72a), in the following manner (a) Five cycles at
570 N/mm2 (b) Two cycles at 640 N/mm2 and (c) One at 750 N/mm2 There are eight stress
cycles with amplitude greater than the endurance limit in period of 20 seconds. The
corresponding lives for the above stress are 105, 3.8  104, and 1.6  104 cycles (Fig 1.72b).
Endurance limit of steel used is 430 N/mm2. Evaluate fatigue life.
Solution
1. If the completely reversed stress is 570 N/mm2, corresponding fatigue life is

105 cycles. Life consumed in a 20 second period  5 cycles.
n1  5 ; N1  10 5
Similarly n2  2 ; N 2  3.8  10 4
n3  1 ; N 3  1.6  10 4
2. Now, use Miner’s rule
n1 n2 n3
   1 for safety
N1 N2 N3
n1 n2 n3 5 2 1
   5
 4
  0.0001651
N1 N2 N3 10 3.8  10 1.6  10 4
0.0001651 corresponds to 20 seconds.
20  1
1 corresponds to seconds.
0.0001651
20  1
Or, hours  33.65 hour
0.0001651  60  60
Fatigue life = 33.65 hours
2
640 N/m m
700
570
2
Stress N /m m
285
0
-285
-570
-700
Represen tative 20 -sec test
(a) Stress - Tim e P lot
100 0
Reversed stress
850
(N /m m (log))
700
2
570
430
5
10
285
3 4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10 10
N (C ycles (log) )
Fig.1.72
(b) S-N Curve
Problem 1.72: A shaft is subjected to a bending moment varying from - 200 N.m to
500 N. m and a twisting moment varying from 50 N. m to 175 N.m. The material used
has Su  600 MPa, Se  300 MPa, Ka  0.76 ; Kb  0.85 ; Kc  0.897 ; Kt  1.85 and q  0.95 ;
Find the diameter of the shaft by Von Mises Hencky theory. Factor of safety is 1.5;
(Nov/Dec - 2003 - AU)
Given data:
M max  500 N. m  500  10 3 N. mm
M min  200 N. m   200  10 3 N. mm
Tmin   50 N. m   50  10 3 N. mm
Tmax   175 N. m  175  103 N. mm
Ultimate stress  600 MPa  600 N/mm 2;
Yield stress  300 MPa  300 N/mm 2;
K a  0.76 ; K b  0.85 ; K c  0.897 ; K t  1.85 and q  0.95
From databook, P. No. 7.6; Kf  fatigue stress concentration factor
 1  q Kt  1  1  0.95 1.85  1
kf  1.8075
Refer PSG Design databook, Page No. 7.6

2 2 1/2
  eq 

1   eq  
    
n  y
   4  
 (1)
y a y
Where eq   m  Kf
n  1
(2)
y a y
and eq   m  K f
n  1
(3)
Bending moment induces bending stress
M max 500  10 3 5092.95  10 3

max  b   
ma x Z  3 d2
d
32
M min  200  10 3  2037.18  103

min  b   
min Z  3 d3
d
32
 5092.95  10 3 2037.18  103 

  
max  min  d3 d3 
mean  m   
2  2 
1527.88  10 3
Mean stress  m  N/mm 2
d3
 5092.95  10 3 2037.18  10 3 
  
 max   min  d3 d3 
Amplitude streess  amp   a   
2  2 
3565.06  10 3
Amplitude stress   a  3
N /mm2
d
Refer PSG design databook, (Page No. 1.42)
  1  Endurance limit for bending reversed
 0.56  u  0.46  600  276 N/mm 2
(by considering Ka, Kb, Kc
 1  276  0.76  0.85  0.897  159.93 N/mm 2
Substitute all the values in equation (2)
 1527.88  3656.06  300   3

eq   3
 1.8075  3    10
 d  d  159.93 
13,615.37  10 3
eq  N /mm 2
d3
Similarly
Endurance limit stress in shear  1
Consider twisting moment as repeated cycle,
 1  0.3 u  0.3  600  180  K a  K b  K c
 180  0.76  0.85  0.897  104 N/mm 2
Twisting moment induces shear stress
d
50  10 3 
T min r 2 254.6  10 3
min    Where, r  radius of shaft
J  d3
 d4
32
Tmax  r d
max  
J 2
d
175  10 3 
2 891.26  10 3  4
  3
J d
 4 d 32
d
32
y 300
y    150 N /mm 2
2 2
max  min
m  mean 
2
891.26  10 3 254.6  10 3

d3 d3

2
572.93  10 3
Mean Torq ue  m 
d3
max  m in
Amplitude torque  a  m ax 
2
318.33  10 3

d3
substitute all the values in equation (3)

y a y
eq   m  K f
n  1
572.93  10 2  318.33  103  150 

eq   1.8075  
d2  d3  104 
1.402  10 6
eq  N/mm 2
d3
Substitute the value of eq and eq in equation (1)
2 2 1/2
  1.402  10 6  
1  13615  10 3  
    
1.5  d3  300 3
 d  150  
  
Solve the above equation, by trail and error method.
Trail (1)
Take d  20 mm
RHS  5.7744 and LHS  0.666
Since RHS  LHS , take next trail
Trail (2)
Take d  30 mm
RHS  1.78 and LHS  0.666
since RHS  LHS , take next trial
Trail (3)
Take d  40 mm
RHS  0.5241 and LHS  0.666
RHS  LHS , take another trail
Trail (4)
Take d  41 mm
RHS  0.67 and LHS  0.666
Since RHS is approximately equals to LHS ,

Therefore take d  41 mm ;
But according to R 20 series, Design databook, Page No. 7.21
Diameter of shaft  d  45 mm
Problem 1.73: A pulley is keyed to a shaft midway between two anti-friction bearings.
The bending moment at the pulley varies from – 170 N.m to 510 N.m as the torsional
moment in the shaft varies from 55 N.m to 165 N.m. The frequency of the variation of
the loads is the same as the shaft speed. The shaft is made of cold drawn steel having
an ultimate strength of 538 MPa and yield strength of 400 MPa. Determine the required
diameter for an indefinite life. The stress concentration factor for the key way in bending
and torsion may be taken as 1.6 and 1.3 respectively. Correction factors A  1 (for bending),
A  0.6 (for torsion), B  0.85, C  0.88, use a design factor, n  1.5;
(Anna Univ. May 2012, MEJ04, Anna Univ Dec 2012, MEJ04, Anna Univ. Apr - May - 2004)
Given data
Minimum bending moment  M b   170 N.m   170  10 3 N. mm

min 
Maximum bending moment  M b   510 N. m  510  10 3 N mm

max 
Minimum torsional moment  Tmin  55 N. m  55  10 3 N mm
Maximum torsional moment  Tmax  165 N. m  165  10 3 N mm
Ultimate strength  u  538 MPa  538 N/mm 2
Yield strength  y  400 MPa  400 N/mm 2
K t (bending)  1.6
K t (torsion)  1.3
A  1 for bending; A  0.6 for torsion; B  0.65 ; C  0.88 ; Factor of safety

 n  1.5
Endurance limit  1
For bending (Reversed)  0.46 u  0.46  538  247.48 N/mm 2

The endurance limit (bending)  1  247.48  A  B  C
 247.48  1  0.85  0.88
 185 N/mm 2
for torsion (or) twisting
 1  0.3  u  0.3  538  161.4
 161.4  0.6  0.85  0.88

A B C
 72.5 N/mm 2
Bending moment induces bending stress
Let d  diameter of shaft
M max 510  10 3
max  maximum bending stres s 
Z  3
d
32
5194.81  10 3

d3
M min  170  10 3
min  be nding stress  
Z  3
d
32
 1731.6  10 3

d3
5194.81  10 3 1731.6  10 3

max  min d3 d3
mean  Mean stress  m  
2 2
1731.6  10 3
m 
d3
5194.81  10 3 1731.6  10 3

 max   min d3 d3
amp  amplitude stress   a  
2 2
3463.20  10 3
a 
d3
Refer PSG design databook, Page No. 7.6.

2 2 1/2
 
1   eq   eq  
     ...(1)
n  y
   y  

y a  y
where,  eq   m  Kf ...(2)
n  1
y a y
and eq   m  K f ...(3)
n  1
K f  1  q Kt  1  1  1 1.6  1  take q  1
Kf  2.6
bending
y 400
Similarly, Kf  1  1 1.3  1  2.3 ; y  
Torsion 2 2
 200 N/mm 2
Substitute all the values in equation (2)
y a y
 eq   m  Kf
n  1
1731.6  10 3  3463.2  10 3  400 

eq   2.6  
d3  d3  185 
21200  10 3
eq  3
N/mm2
d
The torsional moment induces shear stress d

where r 
2
r
Maximum shear stress  max  Tmax   4
J J d
32
165  10 3 d
 
 4 2
d
32
840.33  10 3
Maxim um shear stress  max 
d3
3 3
r 55  10 d 280.11  10
Minimum shear stress  min  T min    
J  4 2 d3
d
32
 840.33  10 3 280.11  10 3 
  
max  min  d3 d3 
Mean shear stress   
2  2 
560.22  10 3
mean  m  N/mm 2
d3
 840.33  10 3 280.11  10 3 
  
m ax  min  d3 d3 
Amplitude shear stress   
2  2 
280.11  10 3
eq  3
N/mm 2
d
Substitute all the values in Equation (3)

y a y
eq   m  K f
n  1
560.22  10 3  280.11  103 

eq   2.3  
d3 3
 d  72.5 
2337.46  10 3
eq  3
N/mm2
d
Substitute the values of  eq and eq in equation (1).

2 2 1/2
 
1  21200  10 3   2337.46  10 3

    
1.5 
 d3  400   d3  200  
 
Solving both sides
2 2
 21200  10 3   2337.46  10 3 
0.44   3    
 d  400   d3  200 
2.809  10 9 0.1365  109

0.44  
d6 d6
d6  6.694  10 9
 d  43.41 mm
According to R 20 series, Refer Data book page no. 7.20,
The diameter of shaft  45 mm
Problem 1.74: A cantilever rod of circular section is subjected to a cyclic transverse load,
varying from – 100 N to  300 N as shown in Fig. Determine the diameter ‘d’ of the rod
by (a) Goodman method and (b) Soderberg, method using the following: size correction
factor = A = 0.85; Surface correction factor = B = 0.9 (Nov-Dec-2004 - AU)
Given data:
Factor of safety  2 ;
Theoretical stress concentration factor  1.4 ;
No tc h sensitivity fac to r  0.9 ;
Ultimate strength  550 MPa ; -100N

Yield strength ;
 320 MPa
1.5 d
Endurance strength  275 MPa ;

300 N
Size correction factor  0.85 ; 120
150
Surface correction factor  0.9 ;
Given data
Maximum load  W max   300 N 
Minimum load  W min   100 N 
K t  1.4 ; Factor of safety  n  2 ; Notch sensitivity factor  q  0.9 ;
Ultimate strength   u  550 MPa  550 N/mm 2 ;
Yield strength  y  320 MPa  320 N /mm 2 ;
Endurance strength   1  275 MPa  275 N/mm 2

Size correction factor  A  0.85 ; Surface correction factor  B  0.9 ;
W max  W min 300  100

Mean load  W mean    200 N
2 2
W max  W min 300  100

Amplitude load  W amp    100 N
2 2
Mean bending moment  M mean  W mean  length  200  150  30  10 3 N  mm
Amplitude bending moment  M amp  W amp  length
The transverse load induces bending stress
 mean
Mean bending stress mean  b 
mean Z
30  10 3 305.57  10 3
m   3
N/mm 2
 3 d
d
32
M amp
Amplitude bending stress  amp  b 
amp Z
15  10 3 152.78  10 3
a   3
N/mm 2
 3 d
d
32
(a) Goodman method:

Refer PSG design databook, Page No. 7.6
1  m a 
 Kt   
n 
 u
 1
 (1)
By considering size correction factor  A  0.87 and surface correction factor

 B  0.9 ;
The endurance strength   1  275  0.85  0.9
 210.37 N/mm 2
Substitute the values in equation (1)
1  305.57  10 3 152.78  10 3 
 1.4  3
 3 
2 d 210.37 
 d 550 
d  diameter of shaft  15.31 mm
(b) Soderberg method

Refer PSG design databook, Page No. 7.6
1 m a
  Kf
n y  1 .(2)
K f  1  q Kt  1  1  0.9 1.4  1
 1.36
Substitute the values in equation (2)
1 305.57  10
3
152.78  10 3
   1.36
2 d3  320 d3 210.37 
d  diameter of shaft  15.72 mm

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AIR WALK PUBLICATIONS

(Near All India Radio)

DESIGN OF MACHINE MEMBERS - I

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members

DESIGN OF CURVED BEAMS

FLUCTUATING STRESSES: Variable stresses

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings

2.5 Design of Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2

2.7 Design of Shaft Based on Torsional Rigidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7

2.9 Torque Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12

2.10 Introduciton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.79

2.10.3 Design procedure of key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.86

2.10.4 Effects of Keyways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.86

Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.86 to 2.89

2.11 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90

1. Rigid Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90

2. Flexible Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90

2.11.2 Features of shaft coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90

2.11.3 Box (or) Sleeve (or) Muff Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.91

Design procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.91

Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.95 to 2.100

2.11.4 Clamp (or) Compression (or) Split Sleeve Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.100

Design procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.101

2.11.5 Flange Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.103

Design of flange coupling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.104

2.11.6 Marine Type Flange Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.107

2.11.7 Flexible Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.108

Types of flexible couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.108

2.11.8 Bushed pin flexible coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.108

Design of Bushed - Pin Flexible Coupling: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.108

Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.111 to 2.130

2.11.9 Oldham’s Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.130

Universal or Hooke’s Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.131

Design of Universal coupling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.131

Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.132 to 2.133

2.12.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.134

Design of Temporary and Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners

3.1 Threaded Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1

Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20 to 3.22

3.3 Cotter Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.33

DESIGN OF RIVETED JOINTS

DESIGN OF WELDED JOINTS

Design of Energy Storing Elements – Springs and Flywheels

4.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1

4.4 Helical Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4

4.18 Leaf Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.93

4.19 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.118

Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine

1.0 DEFINITION OF DESIGN

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN PROCESS

Synth esis of M echa nism s

A n alysis and O ptim isation

D esign of elem en ts (size & stress)

E va luation and M odification

D eta iled D esign a nd D raw in gs

P rodu ction / P roduct

(i) Identification of need/design problem

(iii) Analysis and optimisation

(iv) Material selection

(v) Design of size and stresses of elements

(vi) Evaluation and modification