NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Destructive Testing is the testing of materials to detect internal and surface defects or
discontinuities by methods which damaging or destroying the material under test.

NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Non-destructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing, or evaluating
materials, components or assemblies for discontinuities, or differences in characteristics
without destroying the serviceability of the part or system. In other words, when the
inspection or test is completed the part can still be used.
In contrast to NDT, other tests are destructive in nature and are therefore done on a limited
number of samples ("lot sampling"), rather than on the materials, components or assemblies
actually being put into service.
These destructive tests are often used to determine the physical properties of materials such
as impact resistance, ductility, yield and ultimate tensile strength, fracture toughness and
fatigue strength, but discontinuities and differences in material characteristics are more
effectively found by NDT.
Today modern non-destructive tests are used in manufacturing, fabrication and in-
service inspections to ensure product integrity and reliability, to control manufacturing
processes, lower production costs and to maintain a uniform quality level. During
construction, NDT is used to ensure the quality of materials and joining processes during the
fabrication and erection phases, and in-service NDT inspections are used to ensure that the
products in use continue to have the integrity necessary to ensure their usefulness and the
safety of the public.
It should be noted that while the medical field uses many of the same processes, the
term "non-destructive testing" is generally not used to describe medical applications.

NDT Test Methods

Test method names often refer to the type of penetrating medium or the equipment
used to perform that test.
Current NDT methods are:
1. Acoustic Emission Testing (AE),
2. Electromagnetic Testing (ET),
3. Guided Wave Testing (GW),
 4. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR),
5. Laser Testing Methods (LM),
6. Leak Testing (LT),
7. Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL),
8. Microwave Testing,
9. Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT),
10. Magnetic Particle Testing (MT),
11. Neutron Radiographic Testing (NR),
12. Radiographic Testing (RT),
13. Thermal/Infrared Testing (IR),
14. Ultrasonic Testing (UT),
15. Vibration Analysis (VA) and
16. Visual Testing (VT).
The six most frequently used test methods are MT, PT, RT, UT, ET and VT. Each of these
test methods will be described here, followed by the other, less often used test methods.

NDT is used typically for the following reasons:

 Accident prevention and to reduce costs
 To improve product reliability

 To determine acceptance to a given requirement

 To give information on repair criteria.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DESTRUCTIVE AND NON DESTRUCTIVE

TEST:
Sl No NON DESTRUCTIVE TEST NON DESTRUCTIVE TEST

1 Used for finding out defects of materials Used for finding out the properties of the
materials.
2 Load is not applied on the material Load is applied on the material
3 No load applications, so no chance for Due to load application, material gets
material change damaged
4 No requirement of special equipments Special equipments are required
5 Non expensive Expensive
 6 Less skill Skill is required
7 Eg: dye penetrant test, ultrasonic, Eg: Tensile test, compression test,
radiography, etc. hardness test, etc.

What are Some Uses of NDE Methods?

• Flaw Detection and Evaluation
• Leak Detection
• Location Determination
• Dimensional Measurements
• Structure and Microstructure Characterization
• Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
• Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements
• Material Sorting and Chemical Composition Determination

When are NDE Methods Used?

There are NDE applications at almost any stage in the production or life cycle of a
component.
– To assist in product development
– To screen or sort incoming materials
– To monitor, improve or control manufacturing processes
– To verify proper processing such as heat treating
– To verify proper assembly
– To inspect for in-service damage

DAC CURVE:
A Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) curve is used to plot the variation in amplitude
between reflectors of the same size at varying distances from the transducer.
Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) provides a means of establishing a graphic ‘reference
level sensitivity’ as a function of sweep distance on the A-scan display. The use of DAC
allows signals reflected from similar discontinuities to be evaluated where signal attenuation
as a function of depth may be correlated. In establishing the DAC curve, all A-scan echoes
are displayed at their non-electronically compensated height.
Construction of a DAC involves the use of reference standards which incorporate side drilled
holes (SDH), flat bottom holes (FBH), or notches whereby the reflectors are located at
varying depths. It is important to recognize regardless of the type of reflector that is used in
constructing the DAC, the size and shape of the reflector must be constant over the sound
path distance. Commercially available reference standards for constructing DAC include
ASTM Distance/Area Amplitude and ASTM E1158 Distance Amplitude blocks, NAVSHIPS
Test block, and ASME Basic Calibration Blocks.

DEFECTS during NDT TESTING:

Defect Analysis means identifying, locating, interpreting, evaluating and generating
corrective and preventive actions. Many a time evaluation of a defect means understanding
the defect and its cause and development of corrective and preventive actions. Defect analysis
may be used for controlling the defects.
The aim of non-destructive inspection is to determine if the object being inspected is
to be accepted or rejected. During the inspection, the inspector looks for discontinuities in the
object and identifies their nature and size. Then, those discontinuities are evaluated according
to an acceptance criterion to determine if they are considered to be defects (the presence of
defects mans that the object will be rejected). A Discontinuity is defined as an imperfection
or interruption in the normal physical characteristics or structure of an object (crack, porosity,
inhomogeneity, etc.).
On the other hand, a Defect is defined as a flaw or flaws that by nature or
accumulated effect render a part or product unable to meet minimum applicable acceptance
standards or specifications (defect designates rejectability). It should be clear that a
discontinuity is not necessarily a defect. Any imperfection that is found by the inspector is
called a discontinuity until it can be identified and evaluated as to the effect it will have on
the service of the part or to the requirements of the specification.
 A certain discontinuity may be considered to be a defect in some cases and not a
defect in some other cases because the definition of defect changes with the type of
component, its construction, its materials and the specifications or codes being used.
Cold Shut
Cold shut occurs usually during the casting of parts because of imperfect fusion between two
streams of molten metal that converged together. It could be on the surface or subsurface. It
could be attributed to sluggish molten metal, surging or interruption in pouring, or any factor
that prevents the fusion of two meeting streams.

Pipe
During solidification of molten material it shrinks causing an inverted-cone shaped cavity in
the top of the ingot. It could be on the surface or subsurface. If this defected region is not cut
out completely before further processing (rolling or forging) it will show up in the final
product as an elongated subsurface discontinuity. Also, pipe could occur during extrusion
when the oxidized surface of the billet flows inwards toward the center of the extruded bar.

Shrinkage Cavities
Shrinkage cavities are subsurface discontinuities that are found in casted parts. They are
caused by the lack of enough molten metal to fill the space created by shrinkage (similar to
pipe in an ingot).
Blowholes and Porosity
Blowholes and porosity are small rounded cavities found at the surface or near surface of
castings and they are caused by the entrapped gasses that could not escape during
solidification. Blowholes are caused by gases released from the mold itself (external gases)
while porosity is caused by gases entrapped in the molten material (internal gases). During
subsequent manufacturing operations these gas pockets get flattened or elongated or fused
shut.

What is the different between Defects or discontinuities?

Discontinuities: Any imperfection or interruption in the normal physical structure or
configuration of a product (cracks, laps, inclusion, etc). Discontinuity may or may not affect
the usefulness of the product
Defect: A discontinuity whose size, shape, orientation, location or properties makes it
detrimental to the useful service of the product in which it occurs or exceeds the accept/reject
criteria for the given design. Defect is a type of discontinuity.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF NDT METHOD:

When planning NDT testing one should take into account a number of factors such as:
1. requirements regarding reliable and safe operation,
2. quality assurance level achieved,
3. characteristics of welding processes, 'I properties of materials used,
4. feasibility of NDT methods available,
5. Economic criteria.
Each NDT method has its own set of advantages and disadvantages and, therefore, some are
better suited than others for a particular application. The NDT technician or engineer must
select the method that will detect the defect or make the measurement with the highest
sensitivity and reliability. The cost effectiveness of the technique must also be taken into
consideration. The following table provides some guidance in the selection of NDT methods
for common flaw detection and measurement applications.

SELECTION OF THE TESTING METHOD:

The selection of the NDT method is usually the concern of NDT laboratories, which know
the NDT methods and their feasibility in detecting defects. Regarding properties of materials
and characteristics of a welding process it should be first established what types of defects
may occur and where. It should also be established which part of a structure may incur the
highest stresses.

Types of inhomogeneity
Hot cracks, i.e. crystallization cracks, usually occur in the middle of the weld. Hotcracking
sensibility is found in alloys, alloyed steels and steels containing a higher level of impurities,
usually in welds of larger dimensions. Cold cracks occur mostly in the heat affected zone.
They occur in steels susceptible to through-hardening and hydrogen embrittlement.

Characteristics of testing methods

As to their ability of detecting various geometrical forms of defects, the NDT methods
applied in testing of welded joints differ one from the other very much, i.e. they complement
each other. In some cases they are interchangeable.
In testing of welded joints, it is radiographic methods which are most frequently used and
which permit a very reliable detection of three-dimensional discontinuities such as pores,
non-metallic inclusions, incomplete penetration and undercuts at the inaccessible root side.
The method seems to be less reliable in detecting planar, i.e. two-dimensional, defects such as
cracks.
The ultrasonic methods seem to be the most universally applicable. They may be applied to
all types of defects but they are comparatively complicated and sensitive to various
disturbances. They are less reliable, therefore, they are making themselves valued in welding
very slowly.
Simple and reliable methods are available for detection of cracks reaching the surface.
Magnetic methods are suitable for ferromagnetic materials, while penetrant methods are
suitable for all metals.
Too little attention is, however, paid to visual inspection which should be performed prior to
each NDT examination. The visual inspection provides basic information on the state of
welded joints and the structure concerned. This is a guideline for further examinations. Fig
schematically shows the application of various NDT methods in testing butt and fillet welds.
EXTENT OF TESTING
The extent of testing is a datum informing us what part of the total length of welded joints
and which locations is to be tested. The extent of testing is sometimes determined by the
client in the invitation to project tender, but most frequently by a designer taking into account
technical regulations in force and stresses calculated for individual welded joints.