&KDSWHU

$LUFUDIW 6WUXFWXUHV
# $TKGH *KUVQT[ QH #KTETCHV 5VTWEVWTGU
6JG JKUVQT[ QH CKTETCHV UVTWEVWTGU WPFGTNKGU VJG JKUVQT[ QH
CXKCVKQP KP IGPGTCN #FXCPEGU KP OCVGTKCNU CPF RTQEGUUGU
WUGF VQ EQPUVTWEV CKTETCHV JCXG NGF VQ VJGKT GXQNWVKQP HTQO
UKORNG YQQF VTWUU UVTWEVWTGU VQ VJG UNGGM CGTQF[PCOKE ƀ[KPI
OCEJKPGU QH VQFC[ %QODKPGF YKVJ EQPVKPWQWU RQYGTRNCPV
FGXGNQROGPV VJG UVTWEVWTGU QH őHN[KPI OCEJKPGUŒ JCXG
EJCPIGF UKIPKſECPVN[

6JG MG[ FKUEQXGT[ VJCV őNKHVŒ EQWNF DG ETGCVGF D[ RCUUKPI

CKT QXGT VJG VQR QH C EWTXGF UWTHCEG UGV VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH
ſZGF CPF TQVCT[ YKPI CKTETCHV KP OQVKQP )GQTIG %C[NG[
FGXGNQRGF CP GHſEKGPV ECODGTGF CKTHQKN KP VJG GCTN[ U CU
YGNN CU UWEEGUUHWN OCPPGF INKFGTU NCVGT KP VJCV EGPVWT[ *G
GUVCDNKUJGF VJG RTKPEKRNGU QH ƀKIJV KPENWFKPI VJG GZKUVGPEG QH
NKHV YGKIJV VJTWUV CPF FTCI +V YCU %C[NG[ YJQ ſTUV UVCEMGF
YKPIU CPF ETGCVGF C VTK YKPI INKFGT VJCV ƀGY C OCP KP
'CTNKGT %C[NG[ UVWFKGF VJG EGPVGT QH ITCXKV[ QH HN[KPI
OCEJKPGU CU YGNN CU VJG GHHGEVU QH YKPI FKJGFTCN (WTVJGTOQTG JG
RKQPGGTGF FKTGEVKQPCN EQPVTQN QH CKTETCHV D[ KPENWFKPI VJG
GCTNKGUV HQTO QH C TWFFGT QP JKU INKFGTU =(KIWTG ?

+P VJG NCVG U 1VVQ .KNKGPVJCN DWKNV WRQP %C[NG[ŏU

FKUEQXGTKGU *G OCPWHCEVWTGF CPF ƀGY JKU QYP INKFGTU
QP QXGT ƀKIJVU *KU YKNNQY CPF ENQVJ CKTETCHV JCF
YKPIU FGUKIPGF HTQO GZVGPUKXG UVWF[ QH VJG YKPIU QH DKTFU
.KNKGPVJCN CNUQ OCFG UVCPFCTF WUG QH XGTVKECN CPF JQTK\QPVCN
ſPU DGJKPF VJG YKPIU CPF RKNQV UVCVKQP #DQXG CNN .KNKGPVJCN
RTQXGF VJCV OCP EQWNF ƀ[ =(KIWTG ?

1EVCXG %JCPWVG C TGVKTGF TCKNTQCF CPF DTKFIG GPIKPGGT

YCU CEVKXG KP CXKCVKQP FWTKPI VJG U =(KIWTG ? *KU
KPVGTGUV YCU UQ ITGCV VJCV COQPI QVJGT VJKPIU JG RWDNKUJGF C
FGſPKVKXG YQTM ECNNGF ő2TQITGUU KP (N[KPI /CEJKPGU Œ 6JKU
YCU VJG EWNOKPCVKQP QH JKU GHHQTV VQ ICVJGT CPF UVWF[ CNN VJG

(KIWTG /CUVGT QH INKFKPI CPF YKPI UVWF[ 1VVQ .KNKGPVJCN VQR

CPF QPG QH JKU OQTG VJCP INKFGT HNKIJVU DQVVQO

KPHQTOCVKQP CXCKNCDNG QP CXKCVKQP 9KVJ VJG CUUKUVCPEG QH

(KIWTG )GQTIG %C[NG[ VJG HCVJGT QH CGTQPCWVKEU VQR CPF C
HN[KPI TGRNKEC QH JKU INKFGT DQVVQO
QVJGTU JG DWKNV INKFGTU UKOKNCT VQ .KNKGPVJCNŏU CPF VJGP JKU
QYP +P CFFKVKQP VQ JKU RWDNKECVKQP %JCPWVG CFXCPEGF CKTETCHV
UVTWEVWTG FGXGNQROGPV D[ DWKNFKPI C INKFGT YKVJ UVCEMGF YKPIU
KPEQTRQTCVKPI VJG WUG QH YKTGU CU YKPI UWRRQTVU
6JG YQTM QH CNN QH VJGUG OGP YCU MPQYP VQ VJG 9TKIJV
$TQVJGTU YJGP VJG[ DWKNV VJGKT UWEEGUUHWN RQYGTGF CKTRNCPG
KP 6JG ſTUV QH KVU MKPF VQ ECTT[ C OCP CNQHV VJG 9TKIJV
(N[GT JCF VJKP ENQVJ EQXGTGF YKPIU CVVCEJGF VQ YJCV YCU
RTKOCTKN[ VTWUU UVTWEVWTGU OCFG QH YQQF 6JG YKPIU EQPVCKPGF
HQTYCTF CPF TGCT URCTU CPF YGTG UWRRQTVGF YKVJ DQVJ UVTWVU
CPF YKTGU 5VCEMGF YKPIU VYQ UGVU YGTG CNUQ RCTV QH VJG
9TKIJV (N[GT =(KIWTG ?
 UVKNN UWRRQTVGF D[ YKTGU DWV C OCUV GZVGPFKPI CDQXG VJG
HWUGNCIG GPCDNGF VJG YKPIU VQ DG UWRRQTVGF HTQO CDQXG CU
YGNN CU WPFGTPGCVJ 6JKU OCFG RQUUKDNG VJG GZVGPFGF YKPI
NGPIVJ PGGFGF VQ NKHV CP CKTETCHV YKVJ C UKPING UGV QH YKPIU
$NGTKQV WUGF C 2TCVV VTWUU V[RG HWUGNCIG HTCOG =(KIWTG ?

(KIWTG 6JG YQTNFŏU HKTUV OQPQ YKPI D[ .QWKU $NGTKQV

(KIWTG 1EVCXG %JCPWVG ICVJGTGF CPF RWDNKUJGF CNN QH VJG /QTG RQYGTHWN GPIKPGU YGTG FGXGNQRGF CPF CKTHTCOG
CGTQPCWVKECN MPQYNGFIG MPQYP VQ FCVG KP VJG NCVG U /CP[ UVTWEVWTGU EJCPIGF VQ VCMG CFXCPVCIG QH VJG DGPGſVU #U
GCTN[ CXKCVQTU DGPGHKVGF HTQO VJKU MPQYNGFIG GCTN[ CU )GTOCP *WIQ ,WPMGTU YCU CDNG VQ DWKNF CP
CKTETCHV YKVJ OGVCN VTWUU EQPUVTWEVKQP CPF OGVCN UMKP FWG VQ VJG
2QYGTGF JGCXKGT VJCP CKT CXKCVKQP ITGY HTQO VJG 9TKIJV
CXCKNCDKNKV[ QH UVTQPIGT RQYGTRNCPVU VQ VJTWUV VJG RNCPG
FGUKIP +PXGPVQTU CPF ƀGFINKPI CXKCVQTU DGICP DWKNFKPI VJGKT
HQTYCTF CPF KPVQ VJG UM[ 6JG WUG QH OGVCN KPUVGCF QH YQQF
QYP CKTETCHV 'CTN[ QP OCP[ YGTG UKOKNCT VQ VJCV EQPUVTWEVGF
HQT VJG RTKOCT[ UVTWEVWTG GNKOKPCVGF VJG PGGF HQT GZVGTPCN
D[ VJG 9TKIJVU WUKPI YQQF CPF HCDTKE YKVJ YKTGU CPF UVTWVU
YKPI DTCEGU CPF YKTGU *KU , CNUQ JCF C UKPING UGV QH YKPIU
VQ UWRRQTV VJG YKPI UVTWEVWTG +P (TGPEJOCP .QWKU
C OQPQRNCPG KPUVGCF QH C UVCEMGF UGV =(KIWTG ?
$NGTKQV RTQFWEGF CP CKTETCHV YKVJ PQVCDNG FGUKIP FKHHGTGPEGU
*G DWKNV C UWEEGUUHWN OQPQ YKPI CKTETCHV 6JG YKPIU YGTG
(KIWTG 6JG 9TKIJV (N[GT YCU VJG HKTUV UWEEGUUHWN RQYGTGF CKTETCHV +V YCU OCFG RTKOCTKN[ QH YQQF CPF HCDTKE
(KIWTG 6JG ,WPMGT , CNN OGVCN EQPUVTWEVKQP KP

.GCFKPI WR VQ 9QTNF 9CT + 99+ UVTQPIGT GPIKPGU CNUQ

CNNQYGF FGUKIPGTU VQ FGXGNQR VJKEMGT YKPIU YKVJ UVTQPIGT
URCTU 9KTG YKPI DTCEKPI YCU PQ NQPIGT PGGFGF (NCVVGT NQYGT
YKPI UWTHCEGU QP JKIJ ECODGT YKPIU ETGCVGF OQTG NKHV 99+
GZRCPFGF VJG PGGF HQT NCTIG SWCPVKVKGU QH TGNKCDNG CKTETCHV
7UGF OQUVN[ HQT TGEQPPCKUUCPEG UVCEMGF YKPI VCKN FTCIIGTU
YKVJ YQQF CPF OGVCN VTWUU HTCOGU YKVJ OQUVN[ HCDTKE UMKP
FQOKPCVGF VJG YCTVKOG UM[ =(KIWTG ? 6JG 4GF $CTQPŏU
(QMMGT &4 YCU V[RKECN

(KIWTG 9QTNF 9CT + CKTETCHV YGTG V[RKECNN[ UVCEMGF YKPI HCDTKE

EQXGTGF CKTETCHV NKMG VJKU $TGIWGV EKTEC
+P VJG U VJG WUG QH OGVCN KP CKTETCHV EQPUVTWEVKQP
KPETGCUGF (WUGNCIGU CDNG VQ ECTT[ ECTIQ CPF RCUUGPIGTU
YGTG FGXGNQRGF 6JG GCTN[ ƀ[KPI DQCVU YKVJ VJGKT JWNN V[RG
EQPUVTWEVKQP HTQO VJG UJKRDWKNFKPI KPFWUVT[ RTQXKFGF VJG
DNWGRTKPVU HQT UGOKOQPQEQSWG EQPUVTWEVKQP QH HWUGNCIGU
=(KIWTG ? 6TWUU V[RG FGUKIPU HCFGF # VGPFGPE[ VQYCTF
ENGCPGT OQPQYKPI FGUKIPU RTGXCKNGF
+PVQ VJG U CNN OGVCN CKTETCHV CEEQORCPKGF PGY NKIJVGT CPF
OQTG RQYGTHWN GPIKPGU .CTIGT UGOKOQPQEQSWG HWUGNCIGU
YGTG EQORNKOGPVGF YKVJ UVTGUU UMKP YKPI FGUKIPU (GYGT
VTWUU CPF HCDTKE CKTETCHV YGTG DWKNV 9QTNF 9CT ++ 99++
DTQWIJV CDQWV C O[TKCF QH CKTETCHV FGUKIPU WUKPI CNN OGVCN
VGEJPQNQI[ &GGR HWGN ECTT[KPI YKPIU YGTG VJG PQTO DWV VJG
FGUKTG HQT JKIJGT ƀKIJV URGGFU RTQORVGF VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH
VJKP YKPIGF CKTETCHV KP YJKEJ HWGN YCU ECTTKGF KP VJG HWUGNCIG
6JG ſTUV EQORQUKVG UVTWEVWTG CKTETCHV VJG &G *CXKNNCPF
/QUSWKVQ WUGF C DCNUC YQQF UCPFYKEJ OCVGTKCN KP VJG
(KIWTG 6JG HN[KPI DQCV JWNN YCU CP GCTN[ UGOKOQPQEQSWG FGUKIP
NKMG VJKU %WTVKUU *5 .
EQPUVTWEVKQP QH VJG HWUGNCIG =(KIWTG ? 6JG ſDGTINCUU
TCFQOG YCU CNUQ FGXGNQRGF FWTKPI VJKU RGTKQF
#HVGT 99++ VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH VWTDKPG GPIKPGU NGF VQ
JKIJGT CNVKVWFG HNKIJV 6JG PGGF HQT RTGUUWTK\GF CKTETCHV
RGTXCFGF CXKCVKQP 5GOKOQPQEQSWG EQPUVTWEVKQP PGGFGF VQ
DG OCFG GXGP UVTQPIGT CU C TGUWNV 4GſPGOGPVU VQ VJG CNN
OGVCN UGOKOQPQEQSWG HWUGNCIG UVTWEVWTG YGTG OCFG VQ
KPETGCUG UVTGPIVJ CPF EQODCV OGVCN HCVKIWG ECWUGF D[ VJG
RTGUUWTK\CVKQP FGRTGUUWTK\CVKQP E[ENG 4QWPFGF YKPFQYU
CPF FQQT QRGPKPIU YGTG FGXGNQRGF VQ CXQKF YGCM CTGCU
YJGTG ETCEMU EQWNF HQTO +PVGITCNN[ OCEJKPGF EQRRGT
CNNQ[ CNWOKPWO UMKP TGUKUVGF ETCEMKPI CPF CNNQYGF VJKEMGT
UMKP CPF EQPVTQNNGF VCRGTKPI %JGOKECN OKNNKPI QH YKPI
UMKP UVTWEVWTGU RTQXKFGF ITGCV UVTGPIVJ CPF UOQQVJ JKIJ
RGTHQTOCPEG UWTHCEGU 8CTKCDNG EQPVQWT YKPIU DGECOG GCUKGT
(KIWTG 6JG &G*CXKNNCPF /QUSWKVQ VJG HKTUV CKTETCHV YKVJ HQCO
EQTG JQPG[EQOD KP VJG HWUGNCIG (KIWTG 6JG PGCTN[ CNN EQORQUKVG %GUUPC %KVCVKQP /WUVCPI
VQ EQPUVTWEV +PETGCUGU KP ƀKIJV URGGF CEEQORCP[KPI LGV VTCXGN XGT[ NKIJV LGV 8.,
DTQWIJV CDQWV VJG PGGF HQT VJKPPGT YKPIU 9KPI NQCFKPI CNUQ
)GPGTCN
KPETGCUGF ITGCVN[ /WNVKURCT CPF DQZ DGCO YKPI FGUKIPU YGTG
FGXGNQRGF KP TGURQPUG #P CKTETCHV KU C FGXKEG VJCV KU WUGF HQT QT KU KPVGPFGF VQ DG WUGF
HQT ƀKIJV KP VJG CKT /CLQT ECVGIQTKGU QH CKTETCHV CTG CKTRNCPG
+P VJG U GXGT NCTIGT CKTETCHV YGTG FGXGNQRGF VQ ECTT[ TQVQTETCHV INKFGT CPF NKIJVGT VJCP CKT XGJKENGU =(KIWTG ?
RCUUGPIGTU #U GPIKPG VGEJPQNQI[ KORTQXGF VJG LWODQ LGV 'CEJ QH VJGUG OC[ DG FKXKFGF HWTVJGT D[ OCLQT FKUVKPIWKUJKPI
YCU GPIKPGGTGF CPF DWKNV 5VKNN RTKOCTKN[ CNWOKPWO YKVJ C HGCVWTGU QH VJG CKTETCHV UWEJ CU CKTUJKRU CPF DCNNQQPU $QVJ
UGOKOQPQEQSWG HWUGNCIG VJG UJGGT UK\G QH VJG CKTNKPGTU QH CTG NKIJVGT VJCP CKT CKTETCHV DWV JCXG FKHHGTGPVKCVKPI HGCVWTGU
VJG FC[ KPKVKCVGF C UGCTEJ HQT NKIJVGT CPF UVTQPIGT OCVGTKCNU CPF CTG QRGTCVGF FKHHGTGPVN[
HTQO YJKEJ VQ DWKNF VJGO 6JG WUG QH JQPG[EQOD EQPUVTWEVGF
RCPGNU KP $QGKPIŏU CKTNKPG UGTKGU UCXGF YGKIJV YJKNG PQV 6JG EQPEGPVTCVKQP QH VJKU JCPFDQQM KU QP VJG CKTHTCOG QH
EQORTQOKUKPI UVTGPIVJ +PKVKCNN[ CNWOKPWO EQTG YKVJ CKTETCHV URGEKſECNN[ VJG HWUGNCIG DQQOU PCEGNNGU EQYNKPIU
CNWOKPWO QT ſDGTINCUU UMKP UCPFYKEJ RCPGNU YGTG WUGF QP HCKTKPIU CKTHQKN UWTHCEGU CPF NCPFKPI IGCT #NUQ KPENWFGF CTG
YKPI RCPGNU ƀKIJV EQPVTQN UWTHCEGU ECDKP ƀQQT DQCTFU CPF VJG XCTKQWU CEEGUUQTKGU CPF EQPVTQNU VJCV CEEQORCP[ VJGUG
QVJGT CRRNKECVKQPU UVTWEVWTGU 0QVG VJCV VJG TQVQTU QH C JGNKEQRVGT CTG EQPUKFGTGF
RCTV QH VJG CKTHTCOG UKPEG VJG[ CTG CEVWCNN[ TQVCVKPI YKPIU
# UVGCF[ KPETGCUG KP VJG WUG QH JQPG[EQOD CPF HQCO EQTG $[ EQPVTCUV RTQRGNNGTU CPF TQVCVKPI CKTHQKNU QH CP GPIKPG QP CP
UCPFYKEJ EQORQPGPVU CPF C YKFG XCTKGV[ QH EQORQUKVG CKTRNCPG CTG PQV EQPUKFGTGF RCTV QH VJG CKTHTCOG
OCVGTKCNU EJCTCEVGTK\GU VJG UVCVG QH CXKCVKQP UVTWEVWTGU HTQO
VJG U VQ VJG RTGUGPV #FXCPEGF VGEJPKSWGU CPF OCVGTKCN 6JG OQUV EQOOQP CKTETCHV KU VJG ſZGF YKPI CKTETCHV #U
EQODKPCVKQPU JCXG TGUWNVGF KP C ITCFWCN UJKHV HTQO CNWOKPWO VJG PCOG KORNKGU VJG YKPIU QP VJKU V[RG QH ƀ[KPI OCEJKPG
VQ ECTDQP ſDGT CPF QVJGT UVTQPI NKIJVYGKIJV OCVGTKCNU 6JGUG CTG CVVCEJGF VQ VJG HWUGNCIG CPF CTG PQV KPVGPFGF VQ OQXG
PGY OCVGTKCNU CTG GPIKPGGTGF VQ OGGV URGEKſE RGTHQTOCPEG KPFGRGPFGPVN[ KP C HCUJKQP VJCV TGUWNVU KP VJG ETGCVKQP QH NKHV
TGSWKTGOGPVU HQT XCTKQWU EQORQPGPVU QP VJG CKTETCHV /CP[ 1PG VYQ QT VJTGG UGVU QH YKPIU JCXG CNN DGGP UWEEGUUHWNN[
CKTHTCOG UVTWEVWTGU CTG OCFG QH OQTG VJCP RGTEGPV WVKNK\GF =(KIWTG ? 4QVCT[ YKPI CKTETCHV UWEJ CU
CFXCPEGF EQORQUKVGU YKVJ UQOG CKTHTCOGU CRRTQCEJKPI JGNKEQRVGTU CTG CNUQ YKFGURTGCF 6JKU JCPFDQQM FKUEWUUGU
RGTEGPV 6JG VGTO őXGT[ NKIJV LGVŒ 8., JCU EQOG VQ HGCVWTGU CPF OCKPVGPCPEG CURGEVU EQOOQP VQ DQVJ ſZGF
FGUETKDG C PGY IGPGTCVKQP QH LGV CKTETCHV OCFG CNOQUV GPVKTGN[ YKPI CPF TQVCT[ YKPI ECVGIQTKGU QH CKTETCHV #NUQ KP EGTVCKP
QH CFXCPEGF EQORQUKVG OCVGTKCNU =(KIWTG ? +V KU RQUUKDNG ECUGU GZRNCPCVKQPU HQEWU QP KPHQTOCVKQP URGEKſE VQ QPN[
VJCV PQPEQORQUKVG CNWOKPWO CKTETCHV UVTWEVWTGU YKNN DGEQOG QPG QT VJG QVJGT )NKFGT CKTHTCOGU CTG XGT[ UKOKNCT VQ ſZGF
QDUQNGVG CU FKF VJG OGVJQFU CPF OCVGTKCNU QH EQPUVTWEVKQP YKPI CKTETCHV 7PNGUU QVJGTYKUG PQVGF OCKPVGPCPEG RTCEVKEGU
WUGF D[ %C[NG[ .KNKGPVJCN CPF VJG 9TKIJV $TQVJGTU FGUETKDGF HQT ſZGF YKPI CKTETCHV CNUQ CRRN[ VQ INKFGTU 6JG
UCOG KU VTWG HQT NKIJVGT VJCP CKT CKTETCHV CNVJQWIJ VJQTQWIJ
(KIWTG 'ZCORNGU QH FKHHGTGPV ECVGIQTKGU QH CKTETCHV ENQEMYKUG HTQO VQR NGHV NKIJVGT VJCP CKT INKFGT TQVQTETCHV CPF CKTRNCPG

EQXGTCIG QH VJG WPKSWG CKTHTCOG UVTWEVWTGU CPF OCKPVGPCPEG

RTCEVKEGU HQT NKIJVGT VJCP CKT ƀ[KPI OCEJKPGU KU PQV KPENWFGF KP
VJKU JCPFDQQM

6JG CKTHTCOG QH C ſZGF YKPI CKTETCHV EQPUKUVU QH ſXG RTKPEKRCN

WPKVU VJG HWUGNCIG YKPIU UVCDKNK\GTU ƀKIJV EQPVTQN UWTHCEGU
CPF NCPFKPI IGCT =(KIWTG ? *GNKEQRVGT CKTHTCOGU EQPUKUV
QH VJG HWUGNCIG OCKP TQVQT CPF TGNCVGF IGCTDQZ VCKN TQVQT QP
JGNKEQRVGTU YKVJ C UKPING OCKP TQVQT CPF VJG NCPFKPI IGCT

#KTHTCOG UVTWEVWTCN EQORQPGPVU CTG EQPUVTWEVGF HTQO C YKFG

XCTKGV[ QH OCVGTKCNU 6JG GCTNKGUV CKTETCHV YGTG EQPUVTWEVGF
RTKOCTKN[ QH YQQF 5VGGN VWDKPI CPF VJG OQUV EQOOQP
OCVGTKCN CNWOKPWO HQNNQYGF /CP[ PGYN[ EGTVKſGF CKTETCHV
CTG DWKNV HTQO OQNFGF EQORQUKVG OCVGTKCNU UWEJ CU ECTDQP
ſDGT 5VTWEVWTCN OGODGTU QH CP CKTETCHVŏU HWUGNCIG KPENWFG
UVTKPIGTU NQPIGTQPU TKDU DWNMJGCFU CPF OQTG 6JG OCKP
UVTWEVWTCN OGODGT KP C YKPI KU ECNNGF VJG YKPI URCT

6JG UMKP QH CKTETCHV ECP CNUQ DG OCFG HTQO C XCTKGV[ QH

OCVGTKCNU TCPIKPI HTQO KORTGIPCVGF HCDTKE VQ RN[YQQF
CNWOKPWO QT EQORQUKVGU 7PFGT VJG UMKP CPF CVVCEJGF VQ
VJG UVTWEVWTCN HWUGNCIG CTG VJG OCP[ EQORQPGPVU VJCV UWRRQTV
CKTHTCOG HWPEVKQP 6JG GPVKTG CKTHTCOG CPF KVU EQORQPGPVU CTG
LQKPGF D[ TKXGVU DQNVU UETGYU CPF QVJGT HCUVGPGTU 9GNFKPI
CFJGUKXGU CPF URGEKCN DQPFKPI VGEJPKSWGU CTG CNUQ WUGF
/CLQT 5VTWEVWTCN 5VTGUUGU
#KTETCHV UVTWEVWTCN OGODGTU CTG FGUKIPGF VQ ECTT[ C NQCF QT
VQ TGUKUV UVTGUU +P FGUKIPKPI CP CKTETCHV GXGT[ USWCTG KPEJ QH
YKPI CPF HWUGNCIG GXGT[ TKD URCT CPF GXGP GCEJ OGVCN ſVVKPI
OWUV DG EQPUKFGTGF KP TGNCVKQP VQ VJG RJ[UKECN EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU
(KIWTG # OQPQRNCPG VQR DKRNCPG OKFFNG CPF VTK YKPI QH VJG OCVGTKCN QH YJKEJ KV KU OCFG 'XGT[ RCTV QH VJG CKTETCHV
CKTETCHV DQVVQO OWUV DG RNCPPGF VQ ECTT[ VJG NQCF VQ DG KORQUGF WRQP KV
 9KPIU
(NKIJV
EQPVTQNU

2QYGTRNCPV
5VCDKNK\GTU
(WUGNCIG

(NKIJV EQPVTQNU

.CPFKPI IGCT

(KIWTG 2TKPEKRCN CKTHTCOG WPKVU

6JG FGVGTOKPCVKQP QH UWEJ NQCFU KU ECNNGF UVTGUU CPCN[UKU #N VGPUKQP YJKEJ UVTGVEJGU VJG CKTETCHV 6JG VGPUKNG UVTGPIVJ QH C
VJQWIJ RNCPPKPI VJG FGUKIP KU PQV VJG HWPEVKQP QH VJG CKTETCHV OCVGTKCN KU OGCUWTGF KP RQWPFU RGT USWCTG KPEJ RUK CPF KU
VGEJPKEKCP KV KU PGXGTVJGNGUU KORQTVCPV VJCV VJG VGEJPKEKCP ECNEWNCVGF D[ FKXKFKPI VJG NQCF KP RQWPFU TGSWKTGF VQ RWNN VJG
WPFGTUVCPF CPF CRRTGEKCVG VJG UVTGUUGU KPX QNXGF KP QTFGT VQ OCVGTKCN CRCTV D[ KVU ETQUU UGEVKQPCN CTGC KP USWCTG KPEJGU
CXQKF EJCPIGU KP VJG QTKIKPCN FGUKIP VJTQWIJ KORTQRGT TGRCKTU
%QORTGUUKQP KU VJG UVTGUU VJCV TGUKUVU C ETWUJKPI HQTEG
6JG VGTO őUVTGUUŒ KU QHVGP WUGF KPVGTEJCPIGCDN[ YKVJ VJG =(KIWTG $? 6JG EQORTGUUKXG UVTGPIVJ QH C OCVGTKCN KU
YQTF őUVTCKP Œ 9JKNG TGNCVGF VJG[ CTG PQV VJG UCOG VJKPI CNUQ OGCUWTGF KP RUK %QORTGUUKQP KU VJG UVTGUU VJCV VGPFU VQ
'ZVGTPCN NQCFU QT HQTEGU ECWUG UVTGUU 5VTGUU KU C OCVGTKCNŏU UJQTVGP QT USWGG\G CKTETCHV RCTVU
KPVGTPCN TGUKUVCPEG QT EQWPVGTHQTEG VJCV QRRQUGU FGHQTOCVKQP
6JG FGITGG QH FGHQTOCVKQP QH C OCVGTKCN KU UVTCKP 9JGP C 6QTUKQP KU VJG UVTGUU VJCV RTQFWEGU VYKUVKPI =(KIWTG %?
OCVGTKCN KU UWDLGEVGF VQ C NQCF QT HQTEG VJCV OCVGTKCN KU 9JKNG OQXKPI VJG CKTETCHV HQTYCTF VJG GPIKPG CNUQ VGPFU VQ
FGHQTOGF TGICTFNGUU QH JQY UVTQPI VJG OCVGTKCN KU QT JQY VYKUV KV VQ QPG UKFG DWV QVJGT CKTETCHV EQORQPGPVU JQNF KV QP
NKIJV VJG NQCF KU EQWTUG 6JWU VQTUKQP KU ETGCVGF 6JG VQTUKQP UVTGPIVJ QH C
OCVGTKCN KU KVU TGUKUVCPEG VQ VYKUVKPI QT VQTSWG
6JGTG CTG ſXG OCLQT UVTGUUGU =(KIWTG ? VQ YJKEJ CNN
CKTETCHV CTG UWDLGEVGF 5JGCT KU VJG UVTGUU VJCV TGUKUVU VJG HQTEG VGPFKPI VQ ECWUG
Ŗ 6GPUKQP QPG NC[GT QH C OCVGTKCN VQ UNKFG QXGT CP CFLCEGPV NC[GT
=(KIWTG &? 6YQ TKXGVGF RNCVGU KP VGPUKQP UWDLGEV VJG
Ŗ %QORTGUUKQP TKXGVU VQ C UJGCTKPI HQTEG 7UWCNN[ VJG UJGCTKPI UVTGPIVJ QH
Ŗ 6QTUKQP C OCVGTKCN KU GKVJGT GSWCN VQ QT NGUU VJCP KVU VGPUKNG QT
Ŗ 5JGCT EQORTGUUKXG UVTGPIVJ #KTETCHV RCTVU GURGEKCNN[ UETGYU DQNVU
CPF TKXGVU CTG QHVGP UWDLGEV VQ C UJGCTKPI HQTEG
Ŗ $GPFKPI
$GPFKPI UVTGUU KU C EQODKPCVKQP QH EQORTGUUKQP CPF VGPUKQP
6GPUKQP KU VJG UVTGUU VJCV TGUKUVU C HQTEG VJCV VGPFU VQ RWNN 6JG TQF KP (KIWTG ' JCU DGGP UJQTVG PGF EQORTGUUGF QP
UQOGVJKPI CRCTV =(KIWTG #? 6JG GPIKPG RWNNU VJG CKTETCHV VJG KPUKFG QH VJG DGPF CPF UVTGVEJGF QP VJG QWVUKFG QH VJG DGPF
HQTYCTF DWV CKT TGUKUVCPEG VTKGU VQ JQNF KV DCEM 6JG TGUWNV KU
 A. Tension

B. Compression

C. Torsional D. Shear

Tension outside of bend

Bent structural member Shear along imaginary line (dotted)

Compression inside of bend

E. Bending (the combination stress)

(KIWTG 6JG HKXG UVTGUUGU VJCV OC[ CEV QP CP CKTETCHV CPF KVU RCTVU
# UKPING OGODGT QH VJG UVTWEVWTG OC[ DG UWDLGEVGF VQ C (KZGF 9KPI #KTETCHV
EQODKPCVKQP QH UVTGUUGU +P OQUV ECUGU VJG UVTWEVWTCN
(WUGNCIG
OGODGTU CTG FGUKIPGF VQ ECTT[ GPF NQCFU TCVJGT VJCP UKFG
6JG HWUGNCIG KU VJG OCKP UVTWEVWTG QT DQF[ QH VJG ſZGF YKPI
NQCFU 6JG[ CTG FGUKIPGF VQ DG UWDLGEVGF VQ VGPUKQP QT
CKTETCHV +V RTQXKFGU URCEG HQT ECTIQ EQPVTQNU CEEGUUQTKGU
EQORTGUUKQP TCVJGT VJCP DGPFKPI
RCUUGPIGTU CPF QVJGT GSWKROGPV +P UKPING GPIKPG CKTETCHV
VJG HWUGNCIG JQWUGU VJG RQYGTRNCPV +P OWNVKGPIKPG CKTETCHV
5VTGPIVJ QT TGUKUVCPEG VQ VJG GZVGTPCN NQCFU KORQUGF FWTKPI
VJG GPIKPGU OC[ DG GKVJGT KP VJG HWUGNCIG CVVCEJGF VQ VJG
QRGTCVKQP OC[ DG VJG RTKPEKRCN TGSWKTGOGPV KP EGTVCKP
HWUGNCIG QT UWURGPFGF HTQO VJG YKPI UVTWEVWTG 6JGTG CTG VYQ
UVTWEVWTGU *QYGXGT VJGTG CTG PWOGTQWU QVJGT EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU
IGPGTCN V[RGU QH HWUGNCIG EQPUVTWEVKQP VTWUU CPF OQPQEQSWG
KP CFFKVKQP VQ FGUKIPKPI VQ EQPVTQN VJG ſXG OCLQT UVTGUUGU VJCV
GPIKPGGTU OWUV EQPUKFGT (QT GZCORNG EQYNKPI HCKTKPIU CPF
UKOKNCT RCTVU OC[ PQV DG UWDLGEV VQ UKIPKſECPV NQCFU TGSWKTKPI C
6TWUU 6[RG
JKIJ FGITGG QH UVTGPIVJ *QYGXGT VJGUG RCTVU OWUV JCXG # VTWUU KU C TKIKF HTCOGYQTM OCFG WR QH OGODGTU UWEJ CU
UVTGCONKPGF UJCRGU VQ OGGV CGTQF[PCOKE TGSWKTGOGPVU UWEJ DGCOU UVTWVU CPF DCTU VQ TGUKUV FGHQTOCVKQP D[ CRRNKGF NQCFU
CU TGFWEKPI FTCI QT FKTGEVKPI CKTƀQY 6JG VTWUU HTCOGF HWUGNCIG KU IGPGTCNN[ EQXGTGF YKVJ HCDTKE
6JG VTWUU V[RG HWUGNCIG HTCOG KU WUWCNN[ EQPUVTWEVGF QH UVGGN
VWDKPI YGNFGF VQIGVJGT KP UWEJ C OCPPGT VJCV CNN OGODGTU Skin Former
QH VJG VTWUU ECP ECTT[ DQVJ VGPUKQP CPF EQORTGUUKQP NQCFU
=(KIWTG ? +P UQOG CKTETCHV RTKPEKRCNN[ VJG NKIJV UKPING
GPIKPG OQFGNU VTWUU HWUGNCIG HTCOGU OC[ DG EQPUVTWEVGF QH
CNWOKPWO CNNQ[ CPF OC[ DG TKXGVGF QT DQNVGF KPVQ QPG RKGEG
YKVJ ETQUU DTCEKPI CEJKGXGF D[ WUKPI UQNKF TQFU QT VWDGU

Longeron

Diagonal web members

Bulkhead

(KIWTG #P CKTHTCOG WUKPI OQPQEQSWG EQPUVTWEVKQP

FGUKIP DWV CFFKVKQPCNN[ VJG UMKP KU TGKPHQTEGF D[ NQPIKVWFKPCN
Vertical web members OGODGTU ECNNGF NQPIGTQPU .QPIGTQPU WUWCNN[ GZVGPF CETQUU
UGXGTCN HTCOG OGODGTU CPF JGNR VJG UMKP UWRRQTV RTKOCT[
DGPFKPI NQCFU 6JG[ CTG V[RKECNN[ OCFG QH CNWOKPWO CNNQ[
(KIWTG # VTWUU V[RG HWUGNCIG # 9CTTGP VTWUU WUGU OQUVN[
GKVJGT QH C UKPING RKGEG QT C DWKNV WR EQPUVTWEVKQP
FKCIQPCN DTCEKPI

/QPQEQSWG 6[RG
6JG OQPQEQSWG UKPING UJGNN HWUGNCIG TGNKGU NCTIGN[ QP VJG
UVTGPIVJ QH VJG UMKP QT EQXGTKPI VQ ECTT[ VJG RTKOCT[ NQCFU
6JG FGUKIP OC[ DG FKX KFGF KPVQ VYQ ENCUUGU
/QPQEQSWG
5GOKOQPQEQSWG
&KHHGTGPV RQTVKQPU QH VJG UCOG HWUGNCIG OC[ DGNQPI VQ GKVJGT
QH VJG VYQ ENCUUGU DWV OQUV OQFGTP CKTETCHV CTG EQPUKFGTGF
5VTKPIGTU CTG CNUQ WUGF KP VJG UGOKOQPQEQSWG HWUGNCIG 6JGUG
NQPIKVWFKPCN OGODGTU CTG V[RKECNN[ OQTG PWOGTQWU CPF NKIJVGT
KP YGKIJV VJCP VJG NQPIGTQPU 6JG[ EQOG KP C XCTKGV[ QH UJCRGU
CPF CTG WUWCNN[ OCFG HTQO UKPING RKGEG CNWOKPWO CNNQ[
GZVTWUKQPU QT HQTOGF CNWOKPWO 5VTKPIGTU JCXG UQOG TKIKFKV[
DWV CTG EJKGƀ[ WUGF HQT IKXKPI UJCRG CPF HQT CVVCEJOGPV QH
VJG UMKP 5VTKPIGTU CPF NQPIGTQPU VQIGVJGT RTGXGPV VGPUKQP CPF
EQORTGUUKQP HTQO DGPFKPI VJG HWUGNCIG =(KIWTG ?

VQ DG QH UGOKOQPQEQSWG V[RG EQPUVTWEVKQP Longeron Skin

6JG VTWG OQPQEQSWG EQPUVTWEVKQP WUGU HQTOGTU HTCOG

CUUGODNKGU CPF DWNMJGCFU VQ IKXG UJCRG VQ VJG HWUGNCIG
=(KIWTG ? 6JG JGCXKGUV QH VJGUG UVTWEVWTCN OGODGTU CTG
NQECVGF CV KPVGTXCNU VQ ECTT[ EQPEGPVTCVGF NQCFU CPF CV RQKPVU
YJGTG ſVVKPIU CTG WUGF VQ CVVCEJ QVJGT WPKVU UWEJ CU YKPIU
RQYGTRNCPVU CPF UVCDKNK\GTU 5KPEG PQ QVJGT DTCEKPI OGODGTU
CTG RTGUGPV VJG UMKP OWUV ECTT[ VJG RTKOCT[ UVTGUUGU CPF
MGGR VJG HWUGNCIG TKIKF 6JWU VJG DKIIGUV RTQDNGO KPXQNXGF
KP OQPQEQSWG EQPUVTWEVKQP KU OCKPVCKPKPI GPQWIJ UVTGPIVJ
YJKNG MGGRKPI VJG YGKIJV YKVJKP CNNQYCDNG NKOKVU

Stringer
5GOKOQPQEQSWG 6[RG
6Q QXGTEQOG VJG UVTGPIVJ YGKIJV RTQDNGO QH OQPQEQSWG Bulkhead
EQPUVTWEVKQP C OQFKHKECVKQP ECNNGF UGOK OQPQEQSWG
EQPUVTWEVKQP YCU FGXGN QRGF +V CNUQ EQPUKUVU QH HTCOG (KIWTG 6JG OQUV EQOOQP CKTHTCOG EQPUVTWEVKQP KU
CUUGODNKGU DWNMJGCFU CPF HQTOGTU CU WUGF KP VJG OQPQEQSWG UGOKOQPQEQSWG
1VJGT DTCEKPI DGVYGGP VJG NQPIGTQPU CPF UVTKPIGTU ECP CNUQ EQPUVTWEVKQP OC[ YKVJU VCPF EQPUKFGTCDNG FCOCIG CPF UVKNN
DG WUGF 1HVGP TGHGTTGF VQ CU YGD OGODGTU VJGUG CFFKVKQPCN DG UVTQPI GPQWIJ VQ JQNF VQIGVJGT
UWRRQTV RKGEGU OC[ DG KPUVCNNGF XGTVKECNN[ QT FKCIQPCNN[ +V
OWUV DG PQVGF VJCV OCPWHCEVWTGTU WUG FKHHGTGPV PQOGPENCVWTG (WUGNCIGU CTG IGPGTCNN[ EQPUVTWEVGF KP VYQ QT OQTG UGEVKQPU
VQ FGUETKDG UVTWEVWTCN OGODGTU (QT GZCORNG VJGTG KU QHVGP 1P UOCNN CKTETCHV VJG[ CTG IGPGTCNN[ OCFG KP VYQ QT VJTGG
NKVVNG FKHHGTGPEG DGVYGGP UQOG TKPIU HTCOGU CPF HQTOGTU UGEVKQPU YJKNG NCTIGT CKTETCHV OC[ DG OCFG WR QH CU OCP[ CU
1PG OCPWHCEVWTGT OC[ ECNN VJG UCOG V[RG QH DTCEG C TKPI QT C UKZ UGEVKQPU QT OQTG DGHQTG DGKPI CUUGODNGF
HTCOG /CPWHCEVWTGT KPUVTWEVKQPU CPF URGEKſECVKQPU HQT C
URGEKſE CKTETCHV CTG VJG DGUV IWKFGU 2TGUUWTK\CVKQP
/CP[ CKTETCHV CTG RTGUUWTK\GF 6JKU OGCPU VJCV CKT KU RWORGF
6JG UGOKOQPQEQSWG HWUGNCIG KU EQPUVTWEVGF RTKOCTKN[ QH KPVQ VJG ECDKP CHVGT VCMGQHH CPF C FKHHGTGPEG KP RTGUUWTG
CNNQ[U QH CNWOKPWO CPF OCIPGUKWO CNVJQWIJ UVGGN CPF DGVYGGP VJG CKT KPUKFG VJG ECDKP CPF VJG CKT QWVUKFG VJG ECDKP KU
VKVCPKWO CTG UQOGVKOGU HQWPF KP CTGCU QH JKIJ VGORGTCVWTGU GUVCDNKUJGF 6JKU FKHHGTGPVKCN KU TGIWNCVGF CPF OCKPVCKPGF +P
+PFKXKFWCNN[ PQ QPG QH VJG CHQTGOGPVKQPGF EQORQPGPVU KU VJKU OCPPGT GPQWIJ QZ[IGP KU OCFG CXCKNCDNG HQT RCUUGPIGTU
UVTQPI GPQWIJ VQ ECTT[ VJG NQCFU KORQUGF FWTKPI ƀKIJV CPF VQ DTGCVJG PQTOCNN[ CPF OQXG CTQWPF VJG ECDKP YKVJQWV
NCPFKPI $WV YJGP EQODKPGF VJQUG EQORQPGPVU HQTO C URGEKCN GSWKROGPV CV JKIJ CNVKVWFGU
UVTQPI TKIKF HTCOGYQTM 6JKU KU CEEQORNKUJGF YKVJ IWUUGVU
TKXGVU PWVU CPF DQNVU UETGYU CPF GXGP HTKEVKQP UVKT YGNFKPI 2TGUUWTK\CVKQP ECWUGU UKIPKHKECPV UVTGUU QP VJG HWUGNCIG
# IWUUGV KU C V[RG QH EQPPGEVKQP DTCEMGV VJCV CFFU UVTGPIVJ UVTWEVWTG CPF CFFU VQ VJG EQORNGZKV[ QH FGUKIP +P CFFKVKQP
=(KIWTG ? VQ YKVJUVCPFKPI VJG FKHHGTGPEG KP RTGUUWTG DGVYGGP VJG CKT
KPUKFG CPF QWVUKFG VJG ECDKP E[ENKPI HTQO WPRTGUUWTK\GF VQ
RTGUUWTK\GF CPF DCEM CICKP GCEJ ƀKIJV ECWUGU OGVCN HCVKIWG
6Q FGCN YKVJ VJGUG KORCEVU CPF VJG QVJGT UVTGUUGU QH ƀKIJV
PGCTN[ CNN RTGUUWTK\GF CKTETCHV CTG UGOKOQPQEQSWG KP FGUKIP
2TGUUWTK\GF HWUGNCIG UVTWEVWTGU WPFGTIQ GZVGPUKXG RGTKQFKE
KPURGEVKQPU VQ GPUWTG VJCV CP[ FCOCIG KU FKUEQXGTGF CPF
TGRCKTGF 4GRGCVGF YGCMPGUU QT HCKNWTG KP CP CTGC QH UVTWEVWTG
OC[ TGSWKTG VJCV UGEVKQP QH VJG HWUGNCIG DG OQFKſGF QT
TGFGUKIPGF

9KPIU
9KPI %QPſIWTCVKQPU
9KPIU CTG CKTHQKNU VJCV YJGP OQXGF TCRKFN[ VJTQWIJ VJG
CKT ETGCVG NKHV 6JG[ CTG DWKNV KP OCP[ UJCRGU CPF UK\GU
9KPI FGUKIP ECP XCT[ VQ RTQXKFG EGTVCKP FGUKTCDNG ƀKIJV
EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU %QPVTQN CV XCTKQWU QRGTCVKPI URGGFU VJG
(KIWTG )WUUGVU CTG WUGF VQ KPETGCUG UVTGPIVJ
COQWPV QH NKHV IGPGTCVGF DCNCPEG CPF UVCDKNKV[ CNN EJCPIG CU
VJG UJCRG QH VJG YKPI KU CNVGTGF $QVJ VJG NGCFKPI GFIG CPF
6Q UWOOCTK\G KP UGOKOQPQEQSWG HWUGNCIGU VJG UVTQPI VJG VTCKNKPI GFIG QH VJG YKPI OC[ DG UVTCKIJV QT EWTXGF QT
JGCX[ NQPIGTQPU JQNF VJG DWNMJGCFU CPF HQTOGTU CPF VJGUG KP QPG GFIG OC[ DG UVTCKIJV CPF VJG QVJGT EWTXGF 1PG QT DQVJ
VWTP JQNF VJG UVTKPIGTU DTCEGU YGD OGODGTU GVE #NN CTG GFIGU OC[ DG VCRGTGF UQ VJCV VJG YKPI KU PCTTQYGT CV VJG VKR
FGUKIPGF VQ DG CVVCEJGF VQIGVJGT CPF VQ VJG UMKP VQ CEJKGXG VJCP CV VJG TQQV YJGTG KV LQKPU VJG HWUGNCIG 6JG YKPI VKR OC[
VJG HWNN UVTGPIVJ DGPGſVU QH UGOKOQPQEQSWG FGUKIP +V KU DG USWCTG TQWPFGF QT GXGP RQKPVGF (KIWTG UJQYU C
KORQTVCPV VQ TGEQIPK\G VJCV VJG OGVCN UMKP QT EQXGTKPI ECTTKGU PWODGT QH V[RKECN YKPI NGCFKPI CPF VTCKNKPI GFIG UJCRGU
RCTV QH VJG NQCF 6JG HWUGNCIG UMKP VJKEMPGUU ECP XCT[ YKVJ VJG
NQCF ECTTKGF CPF VJG UVTGUUGU UWUVCKPGF CV C RCTVKEWNCT NQECVKQP 6JG YKPIU QH CP CKTETCHV ECP DG CVVCEJGF VQ VJG HWUGNCIG CV
VJG VQR OKF HWUGNCIG QT CV VJG DQVVQO 6JG[ OC[ GZVGPF
6JG CFXCPVCIGU QH VJG UGOKOQPQEQSWG HWUGNCIG CTG OCP[ RGTRGPFKEWNCT VQ VJG JQTK\QPVCN RNCKP QH VJG HWUGNCIG QT ECP
6JG DWNMJGCFU HTCOGU UVTKPIGTU CPF NQPIGTQPU HCEKNKVCVG VJG CPING WR QT FQYP UNKIJVN[ 6JKU CPING KU MPQYP CU VJG YKPI
FGUKIP CPF EQPUVTWEVKQP QH C UVTGCONKPGF HWUGNCIG VJCV KU DQVJ FKJGFTCN 6JG FKJGFTCN CPING CHHGEVU VJG NCVGTCN UVCDKNKV[ QH
TKIKF CPF UVTQPI 5RTGCFKPI NQCFU COQPI VJGUG UVTWEVWTGU CPF VJG CKTETCHV (KIWTG UJQYU UQOG EQOOQP YKPI CVVCEJ
VJG UMKP OGCPU PQ UKPING RKGEG KU HCKNWTG ETKVKECN 6JKU OGCPU RQKPVU CPF FKJGFTCN CPING
VJCV C UGOKOQPQEQSWG HWUGNCIG DGECWUG QH KVU UVTGUUGF UMKP
 Tapered leading edge, Tapered leading and Delta wing
straight trailing edge trailing edges

Straight leading and Straight leading edge,

Sweptback wings tapered trailing edge
trailing edges

(KIWTG 8CTKQWU YKPI FGUKIP UJCRGU [KGNF FKHHGTGPV RGTHQTOCPEG

9KPI 5VTWEVWTG
6JG YKPIU QH CP CKTETCHV CTG FGUKIPGF VQ NKHV KV KPVQ VJG CKT
6JGKT RCTVKEWNCT FGUKIP HQT CP[ IKXGP CKTETCHV FGRGPFU QP C
PWODGT QH HCEVQTU UWEJ CU UK\G YGKIJV WUG QH VJG CKTETCHV
Low wing Dihedral FGUKTGF URGGF KP ƀKIJV CPF CV NCPFKPI CPF FGUKTGF TCVG QH
ENKOD 6JG YKPIU QH CKTETCHV CTG FGUKIPCVGF NGHV CPF TKIJV
EQTTGURQPFKPI VQ VJG NGHV CPF TKIJV UKFGU QH VJG QRGTCVQT YJGP
UGCVGF KP VJG EQEMRKV =(KIWTG ?
High wing Mid wing
1HVGP YKPIU CTG QH HWNN ECPVKNGXGT FGUKIP 6JKU OGCPU VJG[
CTG DWKNV UQ VJCV PQ GZVGTPCN DTCEKPI KU PGGFGF 6JG[ CTG
UWRRQTVGF KPVGTPCNN[ D[ UVTWEVWTCN OGODGTU CUUKUVGF D[ VJG
UMKP QH VJG CKTETCHV 1VJGT CKTETCHV YKPIU WUG GZVGTPCN UVTWVU
Gull wing Inverted gull QT YKTGU VQ CUUKUV KP UWRRQTVKPI VJG YKPI CPF ECTT[KPI VJG
CGTQF[PCOKE CPF NCPFKPI NQCFU 9KPI UWRRQTV ECDNGU CPF
(KIWTG 9KPI CVVCEJ RQKPVU CPF YKPI FKJGFTCNU UVTWVU CTG IGPGTCNN[ OCFG HTQO UVGGN /CP[ UVTWVU CPF VJGKT
 Left wing
Right wing

(KIWTG ő.GHVŒ CPF őTKIJVŒ QP CP CKTETCHV CTG QTKGPVGF VQ VJG RGTURGEVKXG QH C RKNQV UKVVKPI KP VJG EQEMRKV
CVVCEJ ſVVKPIU JCXG HCKTKPIU VQ TGFWEG FTCI 5JQTV PGCTN[ DWNMJGCFU TWPPKPI EJQTFYKUG NGCFKPI GFIG VQ VTCKNKPI GFIG
XGTVKECN UWRRQTVU ECNNGF LWT[ UVTWVU CTG HQWPF QP UVTWVU VJCV 6JG URCTU CTG VJG RTKPEKRNG UVTWEVWTCN OGODGTU QH C YKPI
CVVCEJ VQ VJG YKPIU C ITGCV FKUVCPEG HTQO VJG HWUGNCIG 6JKU 6JG[ UWRRQTV CNN FKUVTKDWVGF NQCFU CU YGNN CU EQPEGPVTCVGF
UGTXGU VQ UWDFWG UVTWV OQXGOGPV CPF QUEKNNCVKQP ECWUGF D[ YGKIJVU UWEJ CU VJG HWUGNCIG NCPFKPI IGCT CPF GPIKPGU 6JG
VJG CKT ƀQYKPI CTQWPF VJG UVTWV KP ƀKIJV (KIWTG UJQYU UMKP YJKEJ KU CVVCEJGF VQ VJG YKPI UVTWEVWTG ECTTKGU RCTV QH
UCORNGU QH YKPIU WUKPI GZVGTPCN DTCEKPI CNUQ MPQYP CU VJG NQCFU KORQUGF FWTKPI ƀKIJV +V CNUQ VTCPUHGTU VJG UVTGUUGU
UGOKECPVKNGXGT YKPIU %CPVKNGXGT YKPIU DWKNV YKVJ PQ GZVGTPCN VQ VJG YKPI TKDU 6JG TKDU KP VWTP VTCPUHGT VJG NQCFU VQ VJG
DTCEKPI CTG CNUQ UJQYP YKPI URCTU =(KIWTG ?

#NWOKPWO KU VJG OQUV EQOOQP OCVGTKCN HTQO YJKEJ VQ +P IGPGTCN YKPI EQPUVTWEVKQP KU DCUGF QP QPG QH VJTGG
EQPUVTWEV YKPIU DWV VJG[ ECP DG YQQF EQXGTGF YKVJ HWPFCOGPVCN FGUKIPU
HCDTKE CPF QEECUKQPCNN[ C OCIPGUKWO CNNQ[ JCU DGGP WUGF /QPQURCT
/QTGQXGT OQFGTP CKTETCHV CTG VGPFKPI VQYCTF NKIJVGT CPF
UVTQPIGT OCVGTKCNU VJTQWIJQWV VJG CKTHTCOG CPF KP YKPI /WNVKURCT
EQPUVTWEVKQP 9KPIU OCFG GPVKTGN[ QH ECTDQP ſDGT QT QVJGT $QZ DGCO
EQORQUKVG OCVGTKCNU GZKUV CU YGNN CU YKPIU OCFG QH C
EQODKPCVKQP QH OCVGTKCNU HQT OCZKOWO UVTGPIVJ VQ YGKIJV /QFKſECVKQP QH VJGUG DCUKE FGUKIPU OC[ DG CFQRVGF D[
RGTHQTOCPEG XCTKQWU OCPWHCEVWTGTU

6JG KPVGTPCN UVTWEVWTGU QH OQUV YKPIU CTG OCFG WR QH URCTU 6JG OQPQURCT YKPI KPEQTRQTCVGU QPN[ QPG OCKP URCPYKUG QT
CPF UVTKPIGTU TWPPKPI URCPYKUG CPF TKDU CPF HQTOGTU QT NQPIKVWFKPCN OGODGT KP KVU EQPUVTWEVKQP 4KDU QT DWNMJGCFU

Full cantilever Wire braced biplane

Semicantilever
Long struts braced with jury struts

(KIWTG 'ZVGTPCNN[ DTCEGF YKPIU CNUQ ECNNGF UGOKECPVKNGXGT YKPIU JCXG YKTGU QT UVTWVU VQ UWRRQTV VJG YKPI (WNN ECPVKNGXGT YKPIU
JCXG PQ GZVGTPCN DTCEKPI CPF CTG UWRRQTVGF KPVGTPCNN[
 Ribs Rear spar
Stringer

Nose rib
Ribs

Front spar

Skin

(KIWTG 9KPI UVTWEVWTG PQOGPENCVWTG

UWRRN[ VJG PGEGUUCT[ EQPVQWT QT UJCRG VQ VJG CKTHQKN #NVJQWIJ VJG WRRGT UWTHCEG QH VJG YKPI CPF UVKHHGPGTU QP VJG NQYGT
VJG UVTKEV OQPQURCT YKPI KU PQV EQOOQP VJKU V[RG QH FGUKIP UWTHCEG KU UQOGVKOGU WUGF #KT VTCPURQTV ECVGIQT[ CKTETCHV
OQFKſGF D[ VJG CFFKVKQP QH HCNUG URCTU QT NKIJV UJGCT YGDU QHVGP WVKNK\G DQZ DGCO YKPI EQPUVTWEVKQP
CNQPI VJG VTCKNKPI GFIG HQT UWRRQTV QH EQPVTQN UWTHCEGU KU
UQOGVKOGU WUGF 9KPI 5RCTU
5RCTU CTG VJG RTKPEKRCN UVTWEVWTCN OGODGTU QH VJG YKPI 6JG[
6JG OWNVKURCT YKPI KPEQTRQTCVGU OQTG VJCP QPG OCKP EQTTGURQPF VQ VJG NQPIGTQPU QH VJG HWUGNCIG 6JG[ TWP RCTCNNGN
NQPIKVWFKPCN OGODGT KP KVU EQPUVTWEVKQP 6Q IKXG VJG YKPI VQ VJG NCVGTCN CZKU QH VJG CKTETCHV HTQO VJG HWUGNCIG VQYCTF VJG
EQPVQWT TKDU QT DWNMJGCFU CTG QHVGP KPENWFGF VKR QH VJG YKPI CPF CTG WUWCNN[ CVVCEJGF VQ VJG HWUGNCIG D[
YKPI ſVVKPIU RNCKP DGCOU QT C VTWUU
6JG DQZ DGCO V[RG QH YKPI EQPUVTWEVKQP WUGU VYQ OCKP
NQPIKVWFKPCN OGODGTU YKVJ EQPPGEVKPI DWNMJGCFU VQ 5RCTU OC[ DG OCFG QH OGVCN YQQF QT EQORQUKVG OCVGTKCNU
HWTPKUJ CFFKVKQPCN UVTGPIVJ CPF VQ IKXG EQPVQWT VQ VJG YKPI FGRGPFKPI QP VJG FGUKIP ETKVGTKC QH C URGEKHKE CKTETCHV
=(KIWTG ? # EQTTWICVGF UJGGV OC[ DG RNCEGF DGVYGGP 9QQFGP URCTU CTG WUWCNN[ OCFG HTQO URTWEG 6JG[ ECP DG
VJG DWNMJGCFU CPF VJG UOQQVJ QWVGT UMKP UQ VJCV VJG YKPI IGPGTCNN[ ENCUUKſGF KPVQ HQWT FKHHGTGPV V[RGU D[ VJGKT ETQUU
ECP DGVVGT ECTT[ VGPUKQP CPF EQORTGUUKQP NQCFU +P UQOG UGEVKQPCN EQPſIWTCVKQP #U UJQYP KP (KIWTG VJG[ OC[
ECUGU JGCX[ NQPIKVWFKPCN UVKHHGPGTU CTG UWDUVKVWVGF HQT VJG DG # UQNKF $ DQZ UJCRGF % RCTVN[ JQNNQY QT & KP
EQTTWICVGF UJGGVU # EQODKPCVKQP QH EQTTWICVGF UJGGVU QP VJG HQTO QH CP + DGCO .COKPCVKQP QH UQNKF YQQF URCTU KU

(KIWTG $QZ DGCO EQPUVTWEVKQP

 A B C D E

(KIWTG 6[RKECN YQQFGP YKPI URCT ETQUU UGEVKQPU

QHVGP WUGF VQ KPETGCUG UVTGPIVJ .COKPCVGF YQQF ECP CNUQ DG
HQWPF KP DQZ UJCRGF URCTU 6JG URCT KP (KIWTG ' JCU JCF
OCVGTKCN TGOQXGF VQ TGFWEG YGKIJV DWV TGVCKPU VJG UVTGPIVJ
QH C TGEVCPIWNCT URCT #U ECP DG UGGP OQUV YKPI URCTU CTG
DCUKECNN[ TGEVCPIWNCT KP UJCRG YKVJ VJG NQPI FKOGPUKQP QH VJG
ETQUU UGEVKQP QTKGPVGF WR CPF FQYP KP VJG YKPI
HQWPFCVKQP HQT CVVCEJKPI VJG UMKP #NVJQWIJ VJG URCT UJCRGU
KP (KIWTG CTG V[RKE CN CEVWCN YKPI URCT EQPſIWTCVKQPU
CUUWOG OCP[ HQTOU (QT GZCORNG VJG YGD QH C URCT OC[ DG C
RNCVG QT C VTWUU CU UJQYP KP (KIWTG +V EQWNF DG DWKNV WR
HTQO NKIJV YGKIJV OCVGTKCNU YKVJ XGTVKECN UVKHHGPGTU GORNQ[GF
HQT UVTGPIVJ =(KIWTG ?

%WTTGPVN[ OQUV OCPWHCEVWTGF CKTETCHV JCXG YKPI URCTU

OCFG QH UQNKF GZVTWFGF CNWOKPWO QT CNWOKPWO GZVTWUKQPU Upper cap member
TKXGVGF VQIGVJGT VQ HQTO VJG URCT 6JG KPETGCUGF WUG QH Diagonal tube
EQORQUKVGU CPF VJG EQODKPKPI QH OCVGTKCNU UJQWNF OCMG
CKTOGP XKIKNCPV HQT YKPIU URCTU OCFG HTQO C XCTKGV[ QH Vertical tube
OCVGTKCNU (KIWTG UJQYU GZCORNGU QH OGVCN YKPI URCT
ETQUU UGEVKQPU

+P CP +ŌDGCO URCT VJG VQR CPF DQVVQO QH VJG +ŌDGCO CTG

ECNNGF VJG ECRU CPF VJG XGTVKECN UGEVKQP KU ECNNGF VJG YGD
6JG GPVKTG URCT ECP DG GZVTWFGF HTQO QPG RKGEG QH OGVCN
DWV QHVGP KV KU DWKNV WR HTQO OWNVKRNG GZVTWUKQPU QT HQTOGF Lower cap member
CPINGU 6JG YGD HQTOU VJG RTKPEKRCN FGRVJ RQTVKQP QH VJG
URCT CPF VJG ECR UVTKRU GZVTWUKQPU HQTOGF CPINGU QT OKNNGF
UGEVKQPU CTG CVVCEJGF VQ KV 6QIGVJGT VJGUG OGODGTU ECTT[ (KIWTG # VTWUU YKPI URCT
VJG NQCFU ECWUGF D[ YKPI DGPFKPI YKVJ VJG ECRU RTQXKFKPI C
(KIWTG 'ZCORNGU QH OGVCN YKPI URCT UJCRGU
 Upper spar cap
Stiffener
Rib attach angle
Lower spar cap
(KIWTG # RNCVG YGD YKPI URCT YKVJ XGTVKECN UVKHHGPGTU
+V EQWNF CNUQ JCXG PQ UVKHHGPGTU DWV OKIJV EQPVCKP ƀCPIGF
JQNGU HQT TGFWEKPI YGKIJV DWV OCKPVCKPKPI UVTGPIVJ 5QOG
OGVCN CPF EQORQUKVG YKPI URCTU TGVCKP VJG + DGCO EQPEGRV
DWV WUG C UKPG YCXG YGD =(KIWTG ?
Sine wave web
Caps
(KIWTG # UKPG YCXG YKPI URCT ECP DG OCFG HTQO CNWOKPWO QT
EQORQUKVG OCVGTKCNU
#FFKVKQPCNN[ HCKN UCHG URCT YGD FGUKIP GZKUVU (CKN UCHG
OGCPU VJCV UJQWNF QPG OGODGT QH C EQORNGZ UVTWEVWTG HCKN
UQOG QVJGT RCTV QH VJG UVTWEVWTG CUUWOGU VJG NQCF QH VJG HCKNGF
OGODGT CPF RGTOKVU EQPVKPWGF QRGTCVKQP # URCT YKVJ HCKN
UCHG EQPUVTWEVKQP KU UJQYP KP (KIWTG 6JKU URCT KU OCFG
KP VYQ UGEVKQPU 6JG VQR UGEVKQP EQPUKUVU QH C ECR TKXGVGF VQ
VJG WRRGT YGD RNCVG 6JG NQYGT UGEVKQP KU C UKPING GZVTWUKQP
EQPUKUVKPI QH VJG NQYGT ECR CPF YGD RNCVG 6JGUG VYQ UGEVKQPU
CTG URNKEGF VQIGVJGT VQ HQTO VJG URCT +H GKVJGT UGEVKQP QH VJKU
V[RG QH URCT DTGCMU VJG QVJGT UGEVKQP ECP UVKNN ECTT[ VJG NQCF
6JKU KU VJG HCKN UCHG HGCVWTG
#U C TWNG C YKPI JCU VYQ URCTU 1PG URCT KU WUWCNN[ NQECVGF
PGCT VJG HTQPV QH VJG YKPI CPF VJG QVJGT CDQWV VYQ VJKTFU QH
VJG FKUVCPEG VQYCTF VJG YKPIŏU VTCKNKPI GFIG 4GICTFNGUU QH
V[RG VJG URCT KU VJG OQUV KORQTVCPV RCTV QH VJG YKPI 9JGP
QVJGT UVTWEVWTCN OGODGTU QH VJG YKPI CTG RNCEGF WPFGT NQCF
OQUV QH VJG TGUWNVKPI UVTGUU KU RCUUGF QP VQ VJG YKPI URCT
Upper spar cap
Rivets
Splice
Lower spar cap
(KIWTG # HCKN UCHG URCT YKVJ C TKXGVGF URCT YGD
(CNUG URCTU CTG EQOOQPN[ WUGF KP YKPI FGUKIP 6JG[ CTG
NQPIKVWFKPCN OGODGTU NKMG URCTU DWV FQ PQV GZVGPF VJG GPVKTG
URCPYKUG NGPIVJ QH VJG YKPI 1HVGP VJG[ CTG WUGF CU JKPIG
CVVCEJ RQKPVU HQT EQPVTQN UWTHCEGU UWEJ CU CP CKNGTQP URCT
9KPI 4KDU
4KDU CTG VJG UVTWEVWTCN ETQUURKGEGU VJCV EQODKPG YKVJ URCTU
CPF UVTKPIGTU VQ OCMG WR VJG HTCOGYQTM QH VJG YKPI 6JG[
WUWCNN[ GZVGPF HTQO VJG YKPI NGCFKPI GFIG VQ VJG TGCT URCT
QT VQ VJG VTCKNKPI GFIG QH VJG YKPI 6JG TKDU IKXG VJG YKPI
KVU ECODGTGF UJCRG CPF VTCPUOKV VJG NQCF HTQO VJG UMKP CPF
UVTKPIGTU VQ VJG URCTU 5KOKNCT TKDU CTG CNUQ WUGF KP CKNGTQPU
GNGXCVQTU TWFFGTU CPF UVCDKNK\GTU
9KPI TKDU CTG WUWCNN[ OCPWHCEVWTGF HTQO GKVJGT YQQF QT
OGVCN #KTETCHV YKVJ YQQF YKPI URCTU OC[ JCXG YQQF QT
OGVCN TKDU YJKNG OQUV CKTETCHV YKVJ OGVCN URCTU JCXG OGVCN
TKDU 9QQF TKDU CTG WUWCNN[ OCPWHCEVWTGF HTQO URTWEG 6JG
VJTGG OQUV EQOOQP V[RGU QH YQQFGP TKDU CTG VJG RN[YQQF
YGD VJG NKIJVGPGF RN[YQQF YGD CPF VJG VTWUU V[RGU 1H VJGUG
VJTGG VJG VTWUU V[RG KU VJG OQUV GHſEKGPV DGECWUG KV KU UVTQPI
CPF NKIJVYGKIJV DWV KV KU CNUQ VJG OQUV EQORNGZ VQ EQPUVTWEV
(KIWTG UJQYU YQQF VTWUU YGD TKDU CPF C NKIJVGPGF
RN[YQQF YGD TKD 9QQF TKDU JCXG C TKD ECR QT ECR UVTKR
HCUVGPGF CTQWPF VJG GPVKTG RGTKOGVGT QH VJG TKD +V KU WUWCNN[
OCFG QH VJG UCOG OCVGTKCN CU VJG TKD KVUGNH 6JG TKD ECR UVKHHGPU
CPF UVTGPIVJGPU VJG TKD CPF RTQXKFGU CP CVVCEJKPI UWTHCEG
HQT VJG YKPI EQXGTKPI +P (KIWTG # VJG ETQUU UGEVKQP
QH C YKPI TKD YKVJ C VTWUU V[RG YGD KU KNNWUVTCVGF 6JG FCTM
TGEVCPIWNCT UGEVKQPU CTG VJG HTQPV CPF TGCT YKPI URCTU 0QVG VJCV
VQ TGKPHQTEG VJG VTWUU IWUUGVU CTG WUGF +P (KIWTG $ C VTWUU
YGD TKD KU UJQYP YKVJ C EQPVKPWQWU IWUUGV +V RTQXKFGU ITGCVGT
UWRRQTV VJTQWIJQWV VJG GPVKTG TKD YKVJ XGT[ NKVVNG CFFKVKQPCN
YGKIJV # EQPVKPWQWU IWUUGV UVKHHGPU VJG ECR UVTKR KP VJG RNCPG
QH VJG TKD 6JKU CKFU KP RTGXGPVKPI DWEMNKPI CPF JGNRU VQ QDVCKP
DGVVGT TKD UMKP LQKPVU YJGTG PCKN INWKPI KU WUGF 5WEJ C TKD ECP
TGUKUV VJG FTKXKPI HQTEG QH PCKNU DGVVGT VJCP VJG QVJGT V[RGU
 VJG VTCKNKPI GFIG QH VJG YKPI 9KPI DWVV TKDU OC[ DG HQWPF
CV VJG KPDQCTF GFIG QH VJG YKPI YJGTG VJG YKPI CVVCEJGU
VQ VJG HWUGNCIG &GRGPFKPI QP KVU NQECVKQP CPF OGVJQF QH
A
CVVCEJOGPV C DWVV TKD OC[ CNUQ DG ECNNGF C DWNMJGCF TKD QT C
EQORTGUUKQP TKD KH KV KU FGUKIPGF VQ TGEGKXG EQORTGUUKQP
NQCFU VJCV VGPF VQ HQTEG VJG YKPI URCTU VQIGVJGT

B 5KPEG VJG TKDU CTG NCVGTCNN[ YGCM VJG[ CTG UVTGPIVJGPGF KP UQOG
YKPIU D[ VCRGU VJCV CTG YQXGP CDQXG CPF DGNQY TKD UGEVKQPU
VQ RTGXGPV UKFGYKUG DGPFKPI QH VJG TKDU &TCI CPF CPVK FTCI
YKTGU OC[ CNUQ DG HQWPF KP C YKPI +P (KIWTG VJG[ CTG
C
UJQYP ETKUU ETQUUGF DGVYGGP VJG URCTU VQ HQTO C VTWUU VQ TGUKUV
HQTEGU CEVKPI QP VJG YKPI KP VJG FKTGEVKQP QH VJG YKPI EJQTF
6JGUG VGPUKQP YKTGU CTG CNUQ TGHGTTGF VQ CU VKG TQFU 6JG YKTG
(KIWTG 'ZCORNGU QH YKPI TKDU EQPUVTWEVGF QH YQQF FGUKIPGF VQ TGUKUV VJG DCEMYCTF HQTEGU KU ECNNGF C FTCI YKTG
VJG CPVK FTCI YKTG TGUKUVU VJG HQTYCTF HQTEGU KP VJG EJQTF
%QPVKPWQWU IWUUGVU CTG CNUQ OQTG GCUKN[ JCPFNGF VJCP VJG OCP[
FKTGEVKQP (KIWTG KNNWUVTCVGU VJG UVTWEVWTCN EQORQPGPVU
UOCNN UGRCTCVG IWUUGVU QVJGTYKUG TGSWKTGF (KIWTG % UJQYU C
QH C DCUKE YQQF YKPI
TKD YKVJ C NKIJVGP RN[YQQF YGD +V CNUQ EQPVCKPU IWUUGVU VQ
UWRRQTV VJG YGD ECR UVTKR KPVGTHCEG 6JG ECR UVTKR KU WUWCNN[
#V VJG KPDQCTF GPF QH VJG YKPI URCTU KU UQOG HQTO QH YKPI
NCOKPCVGF VQ VJG YGD GURGEKCNN[ CV VJG NGCFKPI GFIG
CVVCEJ ſVVKPI CU KNNWUVTCVGF KP (KIWTG 6JGUG RTQXKFG C
UVTQPI CPF UGEWTG OGVJQF HQT CVVCEJKPI VJG YKPI VQ VJG
# YKPI TKD OC[ CNUQ DG TGHGTTGF VQ CU C RNCKP TKD QT C OCKP TKD
HWUGNCIG 6JG KPVGTHCEG DGVYGGP VJG YKPI CPF HWUGNCIG KU
9KPI TKDU YKVJ URGEKCNK\GF NQECVKQPU QT HWPEVKQPU CTG IKXGP
QHVGP EQXGTGF YKVJ C HCKTKPI VQ CEJKGXG UOQQVJ CKTƀQY KP VJKU
PCOGU VJCV TGƀGEV VJGKT WPKSWGPGUU (QT GZCORNG TKDU VJCV
CTGC 6JG HCKTKPI U ECP DG TGOQXGF HQT CEEGUU VQ VJG YKPI
CTG NQECVGF GPVKTGN[ HQTYCTF QH VJG HTQPV URCT VJCV CTG WUGF VQ
CVVCEJ ſVVKPIU =(KIWTG ?
UJCRG CPF UVTGPIVJGP VJG YKPI NGCFKPI GFIG CTG ECNNGF PQUG
TKDU QT HCNUG TKDU (CNUG TKDU CTG TKDU VJCV FQ PQV URCP VJG GPVKTG
YKPI EJQTF YJKEJ KU VJG FKUVCPEG HTQO VJG NGCFKPI GFIG VQ

Leading edge strip Nose rib or false rib

Wing tip Front spar Anti-drag wire or tire rod Drag wire or tire rod Wing attach fittings

False spar or aileron spar Rear spar Wing rib or plain rib

Aileron Aileron hinge Wing butt rib (or compression rib or bulkhead rib)
(KIWTG $CUKE YQQF YKPI UVTWEVWTG CPF EQORQPGPVU

(KIWTG 9KPI TQQV HCKTKPIU UOQQVJ CKTHNQY CPF JKFG YKPI
CVVCEJ HKVVKPIU
6JG YKPI VKR KU QHVGP C TGOQXCDNG WPKV DQNVGF VQ VJG QWVDQCTF
GPF QH VJG YKPI RCPGN 1PG TGCUQP HQT VJKU KU VJG XWNPGTCDKNKV[
QH VJG YKPI VKRU VQ FCOCIG GURGEKCNN[ FWTKPI ITQWPF JCPFNKPI
CPF VCZKKPI (KIWTG UJQYU C TGOQXCDNG YKPI VKR HQT C
NCTIG CKTETCHV YKPI 1VJGTU CTG FKHHGTGPV 6JG YKPI VKR CUUGODN[
KU QH CNWOKPWO CNNQ[ EQPUVTWEVKQP 6JG YKPI VKR ECR KU UGEWTGF
Access panel
Points of attachment to front and rear
spar fittings (2 upper, 2 lower)
Louver
Leading edge outer skin
Corrugated inner skin
Reflector rod Heat duct
VQ VJG VKR YKVJ EQWPVGTUWPM UETGYU CPF KU UGEWTGF VQ VJG
KPVGTURCT UVTWEVWTG CV HQWT RQKPVU YKVJ „ KPEJ FKCOGVGT DQNVU
6Q RTGXGPV KEG HTQO HQTOKPI QP VJG NGCFKPI GFIG QH VJG YKPIU QH
NCTIG CKTETCHV JQV CKT HTQO CP GPIKPG KU QHVGP EJCPPGNGF
VJTQWIJ VJG NGCFKPI GFIG HTQO YKPI TQQV VQ YKPI VKR # NQWXGT
QP VJG VQR UWTHCEG QH VJG YKPIVKR CNNQYU VJKU YCTO CKT VQ DG
GZJCWUVGF QXGTDQCTF 9KPI RQUKVKQP NKIJVU CTG NQECVGF CV VJG
EGPVGT QH VJG VKR CPF CTG PQV FKTGEVN[ XKUKDNG HTQO VJG EQEMRKV
#U CP KPFKECVKQP VJCV VJG YKPI VKR NKIJV KU QRGTCVKPI UQOG
YKPI VKRU CTG GSWKRRGF YKVJ C .WEKVG TQF VQ VTCPUOKV VJG NKIJV
VQ VJG NGCFKPI GFIG
9KPI 5MKP
1HVGP VJG UMKP QP C YKPI KU FGUKIPGF VQ ECTT[ RCTV QH VJG
ƀKIJV CPF ITQWPF NQCFU KP EQODKPCVKQP YKVJ VJG URCTU CPF
TKDU 6JKU KU MPQYP CU C UVTGUUGF UMKP FGUKIP 6JG CNN OGVCN
HWNN ECPVKNGXGT YKPI UGEVKQP KNNWUVTCVGF KP (KIWTG UJQYU
VJG UVTWEVWTG QH QPG UWEJ FGUKIP 6JG NCEM QH GZVTC KPVGTPCN
QT GZVGTPCN DTCEKPI TGSWKTGU VJCV VJG UMKP UJCTG UQOG QH VJG
NQCF 0QVKEG VJG UMKP KU UVKHHGPGF VQ CKF YKVJ VJKU HWPEVKQP
Upper skin
Wing tip navigation light
Wing cap
(KIWTG # TGOQXCDNG OGVCN YKPI VKR
(WGN KU QHVGP ECTTKGF KPUKFG VJG YKPIU QH C UVTGUUGF UMKP 1P CKTETCHV YKVJ UVTGUUGF UMKP YKPI FGUKIP JQPG[EQOD
CKTETCHV 6JG LQKPVU KP VJG YKPI ECP DG UGCNGF YKVJ C URGEKCN UVTWEVWTGF YKPI RCPGNU CTG QHVGP WUGF CU UMKP # JQPG[EQOD
HWGN TGUKUVCPV UGCNCPV GPCDNKPI HWGN VQ DG UVQTGF FKTGEVN[ KPUKFG UVTWEVWTG KU DWKNV WR HTQO C EQTG OCVGTKCN TGUGODNKPI C DGG
VJG UVTWEVWTG 6JKU KU MPQYP CU YGV YKPI FGUKIP #NVGTPCVGN[ C JKXGŏU JQPG[EQOD YJKEJ KU NCOKPCVGF QT UCPFYKEJGF DGVYGGP
HWGN ECTT[KPI DNCFFGT QT VCPM ECP DG ſVVGF KPUKFG C YKPI VJKP QWVGT UMKP UJGGVU (KIWTG KNNWUVTCVGU JQPG[EQOD
(KIWTG UJQYU C YKPI UGEVKQP YKVJ C DQZ DGCO UVTWEVWTCN RCPGU CPF VJGKT EQORQPGPVU 2CPGNU HQTOGF NKMG VJKU CTG
FGUKIP UWEJ CU QPG VJCV OKIJV DG HQWPF KP C VTCPURQTV ECVGIQT[ NKIJVYGKIJV CPF XGT[ UVTQPI 6JG[ JCXG C XCTKGV[ QH WUGU
CKTETCHV 6JKU UVTWEVWTG KPETGCUGU UVTGPIVJ YJKNG TGFWEKPI QP VJG CKTETCHV UWEJ CU ƀQQT RCPGNU DWNMJGCFU CPF EQPVTQN
YGKIJV 2TQRGT UGCNKPI QH VJG UVTWEVWTG CNNQYU HWGN VQ DG UVQTGF UWTHCEGU CU YGNN CU YKPI UMKP RCPGNU (KIWTG UJQYU VJG
KP VJG DQZ UGEVKQPU QH VJG YKPI NQECVKQPU QH JQPG[EQOD EQPUVTWEVKQP YKPI RCPGNU QP C LGV
VTCPURQTV CKTETCHV
6JG YKPI UMKP QP CP CKTETCHV OC[ DG OCFG HTQO C YKFG XCTKGV[ QH
OCVGTKCNU UWEJ CU HCDTKE YQQF QT CNWOKPWO $WV C UKPING VJKP # JQPG[EQOD RCPGN ECP DG OCFG HTQO C YKFG XCTKGV[ QH
UJGGV QH OCVGTKCN KU PQV CNYC[U GORNQ[GF %JGOKECNN[ OKNNGF OCVGTKCNU #NWOKPWO EQTG JQPG[EQOD YKVJ CP QWVGT UMKP QH
CNWOKPWO UMKP ECP RTQXKFG UMKP QH XCTKGF VJKEMPGUUGU CNWOKPWO KU EQOOQP $WV JQPG[EQOD KP YJKEJ VJG EQTG KU

(KIWTG 6JG UMKP KU CP KPVGITCN NQCF ECTT[KPI RCTV QH C UVTGUUGF UMKP FGUKIP

Sealed structure fuel tank—wet wing

(KIWTG (WGN KU QHVGP ECTTKGF KP VJG YKPIU

CP #TKOKFs ſDGT CPF VJG QWVGT UJGGVU CTG EQCVGF 2JGPQNKEs
KU EQOOQP CU YGNN +P HCEV C O[TKCF QH QVJGT OCVGTKCN
EQODKPCVKQPU UWEJ CU VJQUG WUKPI ſDGTINCUU RNCUVKE 0QOGZs
-GXNCT s CPF ECTDQP HKDGT CNN GZKUV 'CEJ JQPG[EQOD
UVTWEVWTG RQUUGUUGU WPKSWG EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU FGRGPFKPI WRQP
VJG OCVGTKCNU FKOGPUKQPU CPF OCPWHCEVWTKPI VGEJPKSWGU
GORNQ[GF (KIWTG UJQYU CP GPVKTG YKPI NGCFKPI GFIG
HQTOGF HTQO JQPG[EQOD UVTWEVWTG
0CEGNNGU
0CEGNNGU UQOGVKOGU ECNNGF őRQFUŒ CTG UVTGCONKPGF
GPENQUWTGU WUGF RTKOCTKN[ VQ JQWUG VJG GPIKPG CPF KVU
EQORQPGPVU 6JG[ WUWCNN[ RTGUGPV C TQWPF QT GNNKRVKECN
RTQſNG VQ VJG YKPF VJWU TGFWEKPI CGTQF[PCOKE FTCI 1P
OQUV UKPING GPIKPG CKTETCHV VJG GPIKPG CPF PCEGNNG CTG CV VJG
HQTYCTF GPF QH VJG HWUGNCIG 1P OWNVKGPIKPG CKTETCHV GPIKPG
Core
Constant thickness
Core
Tapered core
(KIWTG 6JG JQPG[EQOD RCPGN KU C UVCRNG KP CKTETCHV EQPUVTWEVKQP %QTGU ECP DG GKVJGT EQPUVCPV VJKEMPGUU # QT VCRGTGF $
EQTG JQPG[EQOD RCPGNU CTG HTGSWGPVN[ WUGF CU HNKIJV EQPVTQN UWTHCEGU CPF YKPI VTCKNKPI GFIGU
PCEGNNGU CTG DWKNV KPVQ VJG YKPIU QT CVVCEJGF VQ VJG HWUGNCIG
CV VJG GORGPPCIG VCKN UGEVKQP 1EECUKQPCNN[ C OWNVKGPIKPG
CKTETCHV KU FGUKIPGF YKVJ C PCEGNNG KP NKPG YKVJ VJG HWUGNCIG CHV QH
VJG RCUUGPIGT EQORCTVOGPV 4GICTFNGUU QH KVU NQECVKQP C
PCEGNNG EQPVCKPU VJG GPIKPG CPF CEEGUUQTKGU GPIKPG OQWPVU
UVTWEVWTCN OGODGTU C ſTGYCNN CPF UMKP CPF EQYNKPI QP VJG
GZVGTKQT VQ HCTG VJG PCEGNNG VQ VJG YKPF
5QOG CKTETCHV JCXG PCEGNNGU VJCV CTG FGUKIPGF VQ JQWUG VJG
NCPFKPI IGCT YJGP TGVTCEVGF 4GVTCEVKPI VJG IGCT VQ TGFWEG
YKPF TGUKUVCPEG KU UVCPFCTF RTQEGFWTG QP JKIJ RGTHQTOCPEG
JKIJ URGGF CKTETCHV 6JG YJGGN YGNN KU VJG CTGC YJGTG VJG
NCPFKPI IGCT KU CVVCEJGF CPF UVQYGF YJGP TGVTCEVGF 9JGGN
YGNNU ECP DG NQECVGF KP VJG YKPIU CPF QT HWUGNCIG YJGP PQV
RCTV QH VJG PCEGNNG (KIWTG UJQYU CP GPIKPG PCEGNNG
KPEQTRQTCVKPI VJG NCPFKPI IGCT YKVJ VJG YJGGN YGNN GZVGPFKPI
KPVQ VJG YKPI TQQV
Skin
Skin
Skin
Skin
6CRGTGF