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Volume 10, Issue 03, March 2019, pp. 110-126. Article ID: IJMET_10_03_011
Available online at http://www.iaeme.com/ijmet/issues.asp?JType=IJMET&VType=10&IType=3
ISSN Print: 0976-6340 and ISSN Online: 0976-6359
ABSTRACT
In this paper, the technique of structure health monitoring was applied to detect
damage occurrence in the stiffeners of wing structure. A wing structure of airfoil
shape according to digital NACA 0015 was considered for modelling the aerodynamic
wing shape. Finite element models of the wing structure were created included
undamaged and damage wing structures using high order eight nodes and six nodes
shell elements. The damaged wing models included damaged at the main spar at 20%,
40%,60% and 80% the distance than the root chord. A mathematical model was
developed using high order shell elements and programmed via MATLAB. The load
cases were predicted experimentally using wind tunnel test on a wood airfoil
prototype such that the pressure distributions through upper and lower wing skins
measured at different attack angles. The static solutions were achieved for each finite
element model under action of maximum pressure distribution at attack angle of 100.
Strains distributions and lateral deflections through lower skin were estimated. The
results of strains through lower skin showed occurring of climax in strain values
initiated in the distribution at the location of the damage for all the cases of damaged
structures, which not appeared in the undamaged wing structure. The results of lateral
deformations through lower skin showed indicating variations in the shape of the
curves, such that the curve appeared to be gradually increased the region between the
chord and the damage. Semi to rapid increasing in the lateral deformation occurred in
region between the damage and the end tip of wing. The difference in the behavior of
the induced strains and lateral deformation between undamaged and damaged wing
structures is intended to a technique predicting of the occurrence of the damage in the
wing structure. The present of a climax in the strain distribution lead to presence of
damage near the climax value of strain. Also, the indicating of variations in the shape
of the lateral deformations of skins semi or rapid increasing lead to presence of
damage near the rejoin of that variation. It is concluded the possibility of using the
strain and deflection analysis for the wing structure to investigate occurring damage
in the structure due to variation in the strains and lateral deflections between different
damage locations.
Key Words: Wing structure, Structural health monitoring, finite element method,
structural analysis, airfoil pressure distributions, strain, stress, deflection, damage in
wing structure.
Cite this Article: Dr. Hatem Hadi Obeid, Detection of Damage in Stiffeners of
Aircraft Wing Structure Based On Induced Skin Strains and Lateral Deflections,
International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology, 10(3), 2019, pp.
110-126.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/issues.asp?JType=IJMET&VType=10&IType=3
1. INTRODUCTION
The Structural Health Monitoring of failures in aircraft and other flying equipment is very
important because its concerned with the safety of their users or the risks that may be
occurred due to falling on the ground. This analysis is applicable in wide range of engineering
fields spanning from mechanical, aerospace, military, building, to bridge and transportation
applications. Needs for prediction of failure in the aerospace structures are rapidly increasing
due to demands of enhance safety, reduce inspection time and cost but maintaining structural
function and uses. This field is also providing smart prognosis and diagnosis of failure
instantaneously. The deployment and development of structural health monitoring system is
required to ensuring the safe operation of any engineering structure or system. The execution
of the structural health monitoring is mainly considering the following processes: [1]
- Using sensors and instrumentation devices for sensing and tracing the interpretation of
an engineering system or structure under operational loads.
- Assessment the performance of the system or structure for any propagation of damages
or defects by the analysis of the measured values analytically or numerically.
- Indicating a notification or an alarm when the desired system parameters are exceeded.
The base on parameters or criteria that the structural health monitoring system executed
are varied depending on the nature of the system responses or performance. Although the
importance of structural health monitoring but their researches are relatively young if
compared to other engineering fields, thus most of the researches have been conducted at
universities or research and development centers of companies.
The applications of structural health monitoring in engineering fields included different
problems such detection of damage in steel structure, aerospace, concrete structures, precast
concrete, box girders in railroads, composite materials, dikes and pipelines of water and
wastewater. Also, evaluation bridge deflection; stress or strain analysis in petroleum pipes,
dam structures, or suspension bridge cables. In addition to more complicated problems such
as detection of impact effects in wind turbine blades and water leaks. The vibration of high-
rise reinforced structures such as towers can be evaluated and assessment.
In this paper the structural health monitoring is applied for detection failure at the
stiffeners of aircraft wing structure. The performance of an aircraft structure can be
characterized by various factors, essentially the response (i.e. strain mapping, shape
determination etc.) due to applied loading that can be evaluated by health monitoring
technique [2]. Finite element method is powerful to be used to modelling the wing structure
for estimation the effects in the structures due to the applied loading. The most wing structural
stiffness comes from the interior stiffeners. The stiffeners included main, auxiliary spars and
ribs. Having stiffeners (spars and ribs) attaing structure increases the load resistance of the
structure without further increasing in the weight. To further reduce the weight, a certain
arrangement of stiffener on structure is being necessary to increase the rigidity with less
material. The construction of both stiffeners and outer skin gives the overall wing structural
stiffness. The response of wing structure into the loading depending mainly on the overall
stiffness of wing. Then the present of damage in any location in the stiffeners will be affecting
on the response of the wing to the applied loading.
(1)
x: is the location along chord from ranged (0 to 100%).
y(x) is the half thickness at any location x .
t: is maximum thickness of the wing as a fraction of the chord.
The chords of the wing structure were assigned as 1m and 0.4m at the root and tip
respectively with length 1.75m.
The unit vector V3f can normalize from the vectorV3f, thus:
V3 f
V3 f
hf
V x
3f V3yf V3zf T
3
hf ΔX 1f
2
ΔX 2 f ΔX 3 f
2
2 1/ 2
The vector V 3f is the direction of “normal” at the node f, which is not necessarily
perpendicular to the mid-surface at f.
The vector V2f is normal to plane of vectors V1f and V3f: V2f = V1f V3f .
The mathematical characteristic of vector V1f is perpendicular to V3f and parallel to the
global X – Z plane, thus:
V1fx V3fz , V1fy 0.0 , V1fz -V3fx
x z
Or, if the vector is in the Y-direction V3f V3f 0.0
V1fx V3fz , V1fy 0.0 , V1fz -V3fx
considered normal to the shell mid-surface. It is assumed that the curvilinear coordinate varies
between (-1 and +1), which represent the top and bottom surfaces of the element respectively.
The two other coordinates are ξ, η which are curvilinear coordinate in the middle plane of the
shell element and are also assumed to vary between (-1 and +1) which represent the faces of
the element.
'
3.4. Local Coordinate System ( X i or X ' , Y ' , Z ' )
This system is a cartesian coordinate system defined at the sampling points wherein stresses
'
and strains are to be calculated. The direction Z is taken perpendicular to the mid-surface (
constant ), ' ' V '
it as shown in Figure (3). The vectors V1 ,V 2 , 3 define
X ' and Y ' tangent
X ' ,Y ' and Z ' direction of mid-surface respectively, and it should be noted that,
x x X
x x ξ
ξ η
ξ η
y y
ξ
y
η
y V1 ξ V3 ξ η Y
ξ η ξ ξ η
z z z z Z
ξ , η , ξ , ξ x η 6
X i N f , X if
n
f 1 9
The second part is to establish the second term of the general formulation, which defines
the position of the point along this “normal”. But to establish that, it is necessary to define
arbitrary point (p) on the “normal” at node (f), therefore the vector V3f which represents the
thickness of the shell hf, can be written ass:
X f X f
h f V3 f Yf Yf
Z Z
f top f bot 10
The distance between the arbitrary point (p) and the node f (at mid-surface) can be written as follows:
hf ζ
Unit Distance = 2 11
h f V3i f
Since the means the coordinates of the arbitrary point, the equation (11) can be rewritten with
the application of the two-dimensional interpolation function N f ξ, η from Table () so that:
ζ
X i N f ξ, η V3i f
n
f 1 2 12
The general formulation of the coordinate defines the geometry of the shell element which
represents the rotations between the coordinate ( ξηζ ) and coordinates (X, Y, Z). It is
obtained by the summation of the previous two parts (equation (8) & equation (12)) so that:
1 ζ
X if top N f (, ) 1 ζ X if bot
n n
X i N f (, )
f 1 2 f 1 2 13
X X V x
3f
n n ζ hf y
f
Y N ( , ) Y N f (, ) V 3f
Z f 1
Z f 1 2 V z
mid 3f
Xi
is the elemental Cartesian coordinate, ( X 1 X , X 2 Y , X 3 Z ), n: is the number of
nodes per element, hf is the element thickness at node f, i.e. the respective “normal” length,
Xif is the Cartesian coordinate of nodal point f, and N f ( , ) is the two dimensional
interpolation functions. ( ζ =constant) at nodal point f.
u N u
n
N f u 'οf
i
i
i f οf mid
f 1
16
u i : the nodal displacement through element thickness. u if : nodal displacement through
i
'
Cartesian coordinate. u f :nodal displacement through “normal” of the cross product of
rotations 1f and 2 f .
i
u i N f ξ, η, ζ Sf
n
f 1 21
ζ hf x ζ hf x
N f 0 0 Nf V1f Nf V2 f uf
vf
2 2
u ζ hf y ζ hf y
v 0 Nf 0 Nf V1f Nf V2 f w f
w 2 2 α1 f
0 ζ hf z
Nf
ζ hf z α
2 f
0 Nf Nf V1f V2 f
2 2 22
Nf is the shape function matrix of the degenerated shell element.
Sf is transformation matrix of the displacement vector at node f of shell element
u f , vf , w f , 1f , 2f T .
ζ
y
'
ζ η x y Dε ε ο
' '
η
ηx z
' '
yz
' '
23
is the initial strain vector.
x '
ε v
'
x'
ε y '
y'
u v ' '
ε
y x
x'y' ' '
x 'z' u w
' '
z x
y'z' ' '
v w
' '
z y
' '
25
' ' '
The local derivatives above of the displacement components u , v and w in the local
'
coordinates system ( X 1 ) can be obtained as:
u' v' w' u v w
x' x' x
u'
x' x x
v' w '
T u v w
'
y y' y
'
y y y
u' v' w' u v w
'
z z' z' z z z 26
[ ] is the transformation matrix given by,
x x x
x' y' z'
y y y
[ ] '
x y' z
'
z z z
'
x y' z' 27
u v w u v w
x ξ ξ ξ
x x
u v w 1 u v w
J
y y y η η η
u v w u v w
z z z ζ ζ ζ 28
x y z
ξ ξ ξ
x y z
[J]
η η η
x y z
ζ ζ ζ [J] is Jacobian matrix 29
The transpose of the Jacobian matrix results from equation (12) can be expressed as
follow:
X f V3xf V3xf
y hf y
[J] Yf N f , N f, 0 f V3f 0 0 N f V3f N f , N f, 0
T
n h
f 1
Z f 2 V z 2 z
3f V3f 30
n is the number of node per element,
hf is the element thickness at node f, and
N f , N f ,
N f , ; N f ,
31
are the derivatives of the global displacements referred to the curvilinear coordinates are
u
obtained from equation (18), such as . . .etc.
u n
hf x hf x
N f , u f V1 f N f , 1f V2 f N f , 2f
f 1 2 2 32
The strain matrix B can be formulated from equations (21), (29) and (31) as:
B 33
where,
δ u , v , w , α 1
, α2
T
34
a 0 0 d iV i 1 x - di V i 2 x
i i i
0 bi 0 eiV 1 y - eiV 2 x
bi ai 0 (eiV i1 x diV i 1 y) (- eiV i 2 x diV i 1 y)
0 ci bi (giV i 1 y eiV i 1 z) (- giV i 1 y eiV i 2 z)
(diV i 1 z giV i 1 x) (- diV i 2 z giV i 2 x)
[B]= ci 0 ai 35
ai J11* Ni, ζ J12* Ni, η bi J *21 Ni, ζ J *22 Ni, η ci J *31 Ni, ζ J *32 Ni, η
di hi (aiz , J *31 Ni)
2
ei hi (biz , J *23 Ni)
2
g i hi (ciz , J *23 Ni)
2
Consequently, it is used in the calculation of the stiffness matrix [K] using the mid-
coordinate rule. Hence [K] can be defined as follows:
1 1
1 T
[K]
1 1
1[B] [D][B] J ξ, η, ζ dζ dξ d η
36
Then K can be written as summing up the contribution of each layer at the gauss points,
1 1
nL 2 Δh j
[K] [B j ]T [D j ][Bj ] Jξ, η, ζ
h
dξ dη
1 1 j1
37
[K] : stiffness matrix, [D] : elasticity matrix, [Bj]: strain-displacement matrix.
J (, , )
is the determinant of the Jacobian matrix for layer ( j ).
h j
is the thickness of the jth layer.
nL is the total number of layers.
e
In the same way, the internal force vector { f } can be determined as follows:
{f e } [B]T {} J dV
v 38
nL 1 1 2 Δh j
{f e } [B j ]T {ζ j } J(ξ(η, ζ)
h
dξ dη
j1 1 1 39
e
{ j }
: is current stress vector,
{f }
: is the internal force vector.
It should be noted that, it is essential in nonlinear analysis to determine the internal force
vector (or equivalent nodal forces) at the end of each iteration. The transformation to the local
coordinates system ( X Y ) using the following relation:
' '
deformations of the lower skin at the intersection of the main spar with skins. The distribution
indicated that there are two shapes, the first shape in the rejoin between the chord and the
damage where the distribution was gradually increased. The second shape is between the
damage and the end tip of the wing, where the distribution appeared to be semi gradually
comparative with the first region. This is behavior due to the present of damage at the location
20% than the chord. In which the stiffness if reduced rapidly at that location. So, this behavior
can be used as a key to detect the damage location. The other runs were executed for the finite
element models that included the damages at the locations apart than the chord by 40%, 60%
and 80%. The behavior of the strain distribution indicates a decreasing towards the end tip of
the wing such that initiated a sudden climax at the location of the damage as shown in figures
(12, 14, and 16). The behavior of the lateral deformations indicated variations the shape of the
curve, such that the curve appeared to be gradually increased the region between the chord
and the damage. Semi to rapid increasing in the lateral deformation occurred in region
between the damage and the end tip of wing as shown in figures (13, 15, and 17).
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
Declare that there is no “conflict of interests” regarding the publication of this paper.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My thankful for the assistance from the staff of post graduate laboratory at Department of
Mechanical Engineering ,College of Engineering, Babylon University ,Iraq.
DATA AVAILABILITY
All data concerned with the fixation and performing the test of pressure distributions
through wing in wind tunnel are available in the author and can be obtained via mailing.
The codes of the finite element analysis can be obtained after publication of the research
and can be contacting with author for this purpose.
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