Class Notes on Crystallography & Mineralogy Salah Shata

MINERALOGY
Mineralogy is the study of minerals. Minerals1 are crystalline materials.
II.1 INTRODUCTION
“A mineral is defined as a naturally occurring homogeneous solid substance with
definite (but generally not fixed) chemical composition and a highly ordered atomic
arrangement. It is usually formed by inorganic processes2.”
Naturally Occurring : means it forms by itself in nature. Human made minerals are
referred to as synthetic minerals.
Homogeneous : means that it is a compound that contains the same chemical
composition throughout, and cannot by physically separated into more than 1 chemical
compound.
Solid: means that it not a gas, liquid, or plasma.
Definite chemical composition: means that the chemical composition can be
expressed by a chemical formula. A wide range of substitutions of one ion for another is
possible as long as a precise formula fitting the general formula of the mineral species
can be written. Examples: Quartz has the chemical formula SiO2. Whenever we find
quartz it consists of Si and O in a ratio of 1 Si to 2 O atoms.
Olivine is an example of a mineral that does not have a fixed chemical composition. In
nature we find that Mg and Fe atoms have the same size and charge and therefore can
easily substitute for one another in a mineral. Thus, olivine can have the chemical
formula Mg2SiO4 or Fe2SiO4 or anything in between. This is usually expressed with a
formula indicating the possible substitution - (Mg,Fe)2SiO4.
Highly ordered atomic arrangement: means that the atoms in a mineral are arranged
in an ordered geometric pattern. This ordered arrangement of atoms is called a crystal
structure, and thus all minerals are crystals. For each mineral has a crystal structure
that will always be found for that mineral, i.e. every crystal of quartz will have the same
ordered internal arrangement of atoms. If the crystal structure is different, then we give
the mineral a different name. A solid compound that meets the other criteria, but has not
definite crystal structure is a said to be amorphous.
Minerals are most commonly classified on the basis of the presence of a major chemical
component (an anion or anionic complex) into oxides, sulfides, silicates, carbonates,
phosphates, and so forth.
The careful description and identification of minerals often require highly specialized
techniques such as chemical analysis and measurement of physical properties, among
which are the specific gravity, optical properties, and X-ray parameters that relate to the
atomic structure of the minerals3.

Impact of minerals to Hume being’s life.

Minerals have an economic importance (resources, soil and rock stability), and act as
natural sink for many by-products of human activities, Also it is a record of Earth's
history [dating using radioisotopes (e.g. Pb, Rb), record the rise of oxygen in the early
atmosphere, preserve the climatic changes, from the isotopic ratio of O18/O16 in ice and
other minerals, investigate the properties of the deep Earth (mantle) and history of solar
system (meteorites)
Usefulness of Minerals: Minerals make up rocks, some minerals are Beauty, and are
used in decoration (“Jewelry” art of Minerals). Some minerals are valuable elements
such as gold, silver, diamond, others are sources of metals such as [galena (PbS,
1
Rocks, on the other hand, are defined as aggregates of minerals.
2
Frye, 1974, p.1; and DMM21ed.-KH, pp.1-2.
3
DMM, 21st ed., Cornelis Klein and Cornelius S. Hurlbut, Jr., p.14.

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Class Notes on Crystallography & Mineralogy Salah Shata

source of lead), sphalerite ( ZnS, zinc), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2, copper), Hematite (Fe2O3,
iron)
Some Minerals are used in Industry and Construction e.g. (Gypsum in “dry wall”,
Diamond in drill bits and abrasives, Phosphates for fertilizer, Asbestos for insulation, fire
proofing, strength, Ilmenite or Paint pigments..etc
Minerals are used in Food (salt) , Household & Cosmetics: (Sparkles in toothpaste, nail
polish-micas; Foot powder, baby powder – talc, and Face powders – clays).

CRYSTAL CHEMISTRY The study of the relationships between chemical composition,

crystal structure, bonding and the physical properties of crystalline materials. The aim of
crystal chemistry study is to relate the physical properties of minerals to their crystal
structure, understand how mineral forms at atomic level and relate this to geological
phenomena.
Atoms make up the chemical elements. Each chemical element has nearly identical
atoms. An atom is composed of three different particles:
Protons:- positively charged, exist in the center of the atom called the nucleus.
Electrons:- negatively charged, orbit in a cloud around nucleus.
Neutrons: no charge, reside in the nucleus.
In a neutrally charged atom, each element has the same number of protons and the
same number of electrons.
Number of protons = Number of electrons.
Number of protons = atomic number.
Number of protons + Number of neutrons = Mass number
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with differing numbers of neutrons. i.e. the
number of neutrons may vary within atoms of the same element. Some isotopes are
unstable which results in radioactivity (Fig. 28)

Figure 28. Schematic illustration of the content of protons and neutrons in

hydrogen isotopes

Example: K (potassium) has 19 protons. Every atom of K has 19 protons. The Atomic
number of K=19. Some atoms of K have 20 neutrons, others have 21, and others have
22. Thus mass number of K can be 39, 40, or 41. 40K is radioactive and decays to 40Ar
and 40Ca.
It is the electrons in the atoms that are responsible for the chemical properties of atoms.
The electronic configuration determines the types of atoms that can be bound to one

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another, the strength of the bonds, and the types of bonds. Thus, we need to look
closely at the electrons and the electronic configuration of atoms. The electronic
configuration determines the types of atoms that can be bound to one another, the
strength of the bonds, and the types of bonds. Thus, we need to look closely at the
electrons and the electronic configuration of atoms.
Planck found that the energy released in the electronic transitions is only released in
distinct packets, which he called "quanta", and that these packets of energy are related
to a constant (now called Planck's constant, and the frequency or wavelength of the
radiation released.
E = hν = hc/λ where
E = energy
h = Planck's constant, 6.62517 x 10-27 erg.sec
ν = frequency, c = velocity of light = 2.99793 x 1010
cm/sec, λ = wavelength
This led to the quantum mechanical view of the
atom.

Quantum Mechanical View of the Atom

The quantum mechanical view of the atom suggests
that the electrons are located within specific regions
of probability. These probability regions are
described by the azimuthal
Figure 29. The
electronic configuration of the atom

quantum number or orbital shape quantum number, l. A maximum of 2 electrons can

be found in each probability region, each electron have a spin quantum number with a
value of either +½ or -½. The orbital shape quantum number has the following values
and designations
for the shape of the probability region in which the electrons are most probably to be
found. Value of l 1 2 3 4
Sub-shell designation s p d f
The sub-shell designations stand for sharp, principal, diffuse, and fundamental.
This periodic filling of shells and sub-shells forms the basis of the periodic table of the
elements. Elements with similar configurations of outer shell electrons (called valence
electrons) have similar chemical properties. The rows in the table, labeled 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, & 7, “period” correspond to the principal quantum number.
Column I is a groups of elements that have 1 electron on their outermost shell, which in
this case is an s - orbital. Group I elements are called the alkaline metals. Elements in
column II, called the alkaline - earth metals, all have 2 electrons in their completely
filled outer s-orbital shells.
Groups III, IV, V, VI, and VII all have the same number of outer shell electrons as the
group number. Group VII elements are known as the halogens. Group VIII elements are
all characterized by having completely filled p -orbital shells with 8 electrons total in their
outermost s - and p -shells.
This group is known as the Noble Gases or Inert Gases, inert because these elements
do not combine with themselves or any other element under normal conditions.
The transition metals occur between the alkaline earths (Group II) and Group III. These
are elements with partially filled d - orbitals.
Note the discontinuity in the table at element 57. Beginning with Ce, 4f -orbitals begin
to be filled, and to keep the chart from becoming too wide, elements 58 to 71 (Ce to Lu)

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are placed at the bottom of the chart. The series from La to Lu is known as the
Lanthanides and these elements are also commonly called the Rare Earth Elements.

Figure 30. The periodic table of elements

The Ion
In a neutral atom, the number of protons and the number of electrons are equal, thus the
number of positive charges is the same as the number of negative charges and the atom
has no charge. However, some elements in the Periodic Table tend to loose electrons to
become positively charged and some elements tend to gain electrons to become
negatively charged.
Atoms with an electrical charge are called ions.
Elements that tend to loose electrons are called metals, while those that tend to gain
electrons are non-metals.
Metals thus tend to form positively charged ions called cations, while non-metals tend to
form negatively charged ions called anions.
Ionization Potential
When electrons are either removed or gained by an atom there is a transfer of energy.
The amount of energy required to remove an electron is called the ionization potential.
Periodic table shown in figure (31) gives value of the first ionization potential. Note that
elements with high ionization potential do not like to give up electrons, while those with
low ionization potential can give up electrons more readily and tend to become cations.
We can make the following observations:

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Fig. 31 First ionization potential for element

The Noble gases all have very high first ionization potentials, indicating that their
electronic structure is stable. A glance at the periodic table showing filling shells (above)
indicates that the Noble Gases all have in common completely filled p - orbitals. It is
because these sub-orbital shells are full that these elements do not readily become ions
and do not easily combine with other elements to become compounds.
Elements in Group I (the alkalies), on the other hand have very low first ionization
potentials, and thus it is relatively easy to remove one electron. Since all of these
elements have in common an outermost shell containing 1 electron in the s - orbital,
these elements tend to become +1 ions (i.e. Li+1, Na+1, K+1, Rb+1, Cs+1, etc.) Note that
removal of this electron will leave the atoms with an electronic configuration of the Noble
gases, i.e. they will have completely filled outermost electron shells.
Second ionization potentials (the energy required to remove a second electron) is also
very high for these elements, again indicating that once they become +1 ions they have
a stable electronic configuration.
Elements in Group II (the alkaline earths) also have relatively low first ionization
potentials and have relatively low second ionization potentials. Thus, these elements
tend to lose 2 electrons to become +2 ions (i.e. Be+2, Mg+2, Ca+2, Sr+2, Ba+2, etc.) Once
they have lost these two electrons they also have an electronic configuration with
completely filled outer electron shells, similar to the Noble Gases.
Elements in Group VII (the halogens) have very high first ionization potentials. They
don't like to give up electrons. But note that if they gain an electron to become a -1 ion,
they will also have completely filled outer electron shells similar to the Noble gases.
Thus these elements tend to gain electrons to become -1 ions (i.e. F-1, Cl-1, Br-1, etc.).
Based on similar reasoning, Group III elements tend to lose 3 electrons to become +3
ions (i.e. B+3, Al+3, Ga+3, etc.). Group IV elements tend to lose 4 electrons to become +4
ions (i.e. C+4, Si+4, Ge+4). But Pb, usually only loses 2 electrons to become Pb+2.
Elements in Group V tend to lose 5 electrons to become +5 ions (N+5, P+5, As+5).
Group VI tend to gain electrons to become -2 ions (i.e. O-2, S-2, Se-2), but sulfur
sometimes loses 6 electrons to become S+6.

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The transition elements all have d-orbital electrons in their outermost shells, and
because they have low to high first ionization potentials their behavior is somewhat
variable. The elements in the third column tend to become +3 ions (Sc+3, Y+3, La+3 ),
those in the 4th column tend to become +4 ions (Ti+4, Zr+4, Hf+4), and those in the 5th
column tend to become +5 ions (V+5, Nb+5, Ta+5). But the 5th through 11th column show
variable ions. For example, Cr is usually Cr+3, Mn can be usually Mn+2, Mn+3, or Mn+4, Fe
can be either Fe+2 (ferrous iron) or Fe+3 (ferric iron), Ni, Co, and Zn become +2 ions, and
Cu can be either Cu+1or Cu+2.
The rare earth elements tend to become +3 ions, with the exception of Eu, which can be
either Eu+2, or Eu+3. The actinides U and Th tend to become +4 ions.

Electronegativity
Another way of looking at the tendency to gain or lose electrons is based on the
electronegativity. Electronegativity is defined as the ability of an atom in a crystal
structure or molecule to attract electrons into its outer shell. Elements with low values of
electronegativity are electron donors, and those with high values are electron acceptors
(Fig. 32). The Noble gases have electronegativity values of zero, because they neither
accept or donate electrons. As we will see in our later discussion, electronegativity
difference between atoms plays an important role in determining they type of chemical
bond that forms between elements.

Figure 32 Electronegativity values of different elements in periodic table

Chemical Bonding
The chemical and physical properties of crystals depend almost entirely on the forces
that bind the atoms together in a crystal structure. These forces are known collectively
as chemical bonds. Chemical bonding depends on the electronic structure of the atoms
involved, in particular the valence electrons in the outermost shells, and on the size of
the ion or atom. In general, 5 different types of chemical bonds are recognized, although,
all bond types are transitional from one type to another.

Bonding types (Caution: most minerals have more than one type of bond!)

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a) ionic: loss (by metal) vs. gain (by nonmetal) of electrons to achieve electronic
configuration of a noble gas. Once a cation-anion pair exists, it is held together by the
overall opposite charge of the ions.
The degree of ionic character of a bond is a function of the electronegativity difference
among the two ions. Bond strength related to ionic charges (qA, qB) and inversely to
bond length (r=rA+rB), because attractive forces are proportional to qA*qB/r2. Bonds
usually non-directional (charge evenly spread around each ion). Ions pack as spheres,
often in structures with high symmetry.
Ionic bonds are more water soluble than the covalent bonds.

b) covalent: sharing of electrons between ions with little difference in electronegativity.

Covalent bond distance is usually somewhat shorter than the sum of the ionic radii
because orbitals must overlap. Short bond length led to bond strength often greater than
for an ionic bond. Number and direction of bonds is controlled by the shape and
orientation of the orbitals containing the shared electrons.
Diamond: entirely covalent bonding, C-C four sp3 orbitals. Very hard (H=10) but
excellent cleavage along {111} because fewer bonds hold these planes to one another.

c) metallic: valence electrons are weakly held by individual atoms and drift throughout
the entire structure. Energy levels of close neighbors spread out into valence and
conducting "bands". Bond distance is greater than the sum of ionic radii. Bonds are non-
directional, structures have high symmetry.
Metallic solids have a distinctive luster, are opaque, show good conductivity, malleability
& ductility (drawn into wire & sheets).

d) van der Waals: weak bond that ties "neutral" structural units into a cohesive structure
by the small residual charges on their surface. e.g. sheets of C in graphite.

e) hydrogen: the lone proton (H+) of an OH- group can form a weak bond with
neighbouring anions (usually O2-) or the negatively charged atoms of polar molecules
(e.g. H2O). Ice is the best example (isn't it a mineral?…)

Polarization: distortion of the shape of electronic cloud from a larger anion by a nearby
cation. The bonding becomes less ionic and more covalent or metallic.
More than one type of bond may occur in a single compound; such substances are
termed heterodesmic, and those in which only one bond type is present homodesmic.
In heterodesmic structures the physical properties, such as hardness, mechanical
strength, and melting point, are in general determined by the weakest bonds, which are
the first to suffer disruption under increasing mechanical or thermal strain.

The arrangement of atoms in a crystal structure not only depends on the charge on the
ion and type of bonding between atoms, but also on the size of the atoms or ions. In any
given molecule or crystal structure each atom or ion will be surrounded by other atoms
or ions. The number of ions or atoms that immediately surround an atom or ion of
interest is called the coordination number, - C.N.
As we shall see, the coordination number depends on the relative size of the atoms or
ions. So, we must first discuss their sizes.

Atomic and Ionic Radii

The size of an atom or ion depends on the size of the nucleus and the number of
electrons. Generally atoms with higher numbers of electrons have larger radii than those

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with smaller numbers of electrons. Thus ions will have radii different from the atoms
because ions will have either gained or lost electrons. The number of positive charges in
the nucleus determines both the number of electrons that surround an atom and the
number of electrons that can be lost or gained to form ions. Thus, as the charge on the
ion becomes more positive, there will be less electrons and the ion will have a smaller
radius.
As the charge on the ion becomes more negative, there will be more electrons and the
ion will have a larger radius.
As the atomic number increases in any given column of the Periodic Table, the number
of protons and electrons increases and thus the size of the atom or ion increases.

Atomic and ionic radii also depend on the type of bonding that takes place between the
constituents, and on the coordination number. Thus, atomic and ionic radii will vary
somewhat as a function of the environment in which the atoms or ions are found. First,
let's examine the table looking at one column of the Periodic Table (Table 1a) to see
how the radii are affected by increasing atomic number. Here we see the effect of
increasing the atomic number (and total number of electrons) for ions of equal charge
and the effect of changing the coordination number. The radii increase with increasing
total number of electrons downward in table. Ionic radius also increases with increasing
coordination number, the electron cloud is drawn out by the presence of more
surrounding ions.
Next, we examine one row of the Periodic Table (Table 1-b) to see how the radii are
affected by charge of the ion. Here we see that as the charge becomes more positive
the radius of the cation decreases. This is because there are fewer electrons in the outer
shells of the ions. The sizes of anions are relatively large because there are more
electrons in their outermost shells.
Table 1. The effect of cation charge and coordination number of ionic radius

(a) (b)

Coordination of Ions
In an ionic structure, each ion tends to surround itself with ions of opposite charge;
the number that can be grouped around the central ion depends upon the radius ratio
between the two. The coordinated ions always cluster about the central coordinating ion,

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in such a way that their centers lie at the apices of a polyhedron, (Fig.1). Thus, in a
stable crystal structure, each cation lies at the approximate center of a coordination

Figure 33. Planar representation of the relationship between the radius ratio and coordinates number.

polyhedron of anions. The number of anions in the polyhedron is the coordination4

number (C.N.) of the cation with respect to the given anion, and is determined by their
relative sizes; (Table 1). It is apparent that the larger the value for the ratio Rcation/
Ranion, the greater is the coordination number, i.e. more anions can be packed around
a large cation than a small one (or more small anions can be
packed around a cation than large anions) Coordination
number, C.N. depends on the relative size of the ions. If all
of the atoms in a crystal are the same size, then there are
two ways to pack the atoms to form a crystal structure. In
this case, the maximum number of atoms that be
coordinated around any individual is 12.
We call this 12-fold coordination. There are two ways that
atoms can be packed in 12-fold coordination.
First, examine a single layer of atoms of equal size. Note
that there are two kinds of voids between the atoms, those
that have a sort of triangular shape with the triangles pointing
up (black) we'll call B voids, and those with the triangles
pointing down (white) we'll call C voids.
If we add the next layer of atoms so that they occupy the
space above the B voids, and then add the next layer above
the A atoms, this will result in a stacking sequence that runs
AB AB AB ....etc. This type of closest packing is referred to
as hexagonal closest packing. It results in a hexagonal
lattice with the c-axis oriented perpendicular to the AB AB
layers.
If after adding the layer of B atoms we place the next layer
so that the atoms occupy positions over the C voids in the A
layer,
Figure 34 Hexagonal close packing vs. cubic close packing
and continue the process upward, we get a stacking sequence that runs ABC ABC
ABC.... etc. This type of packing is referred to as cubic closest packing. It results in a
cubic or isometric lattice with the axis perpendicular to the layers.

Coordination also called "cubic" (C.N. 8), "octahedral" (C.N. 6), "tetrahedral" (C.N. 4), "
Triangular Coordination " (C.N. 3) and linear (C.N. 2)

4
The term coordination simply refers to the number of anions surrounding a cation in a mineral structure.

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Cubic coordination Octahedral coordination

Tetrahedral coordination Triangular coordination linear coordination

Fig. 35 different types of coordination polyhedra are determined by the radius ratio, Rx/Rz

The table here summarizes the cation to anion radius ratios, Rx/Rz, for various
coordination numbers and gives the name of the coordination polyhedron for each
coordination number.
Table (2) Relationship between radius ratio and coordination number for ions as rigid spheres.
Radius Ratio Arrangement of Anions Coordination
(Rcation/Ranion) around Cations Number of Cations
<0.155 Linear 2
0.155-0.225 Corners of an equilateral triangle (Triangular Coordination). 3
0.225-0.414 Corners of a tetrahedron (Tetrahedral Coordination) 4
0.414-0.732 Corners of an octahedron (Octahedral Coordination) 6
0.732-1.00 Corners of a cube (Cubic Coordination) 8
>1.00 Corners of a Cuboctahedron (Hexagonal or cubic Closest 12
Packing)

Pauling's Rules
Given the Earth's crust composition, where O2- is the main anion, most minerals can be
considered dominantly ionic compounds. Linus Pauling studied crystal structures and
the types of bonding and coordination that occurs within them. His studies found that
crystal structures obey the following rules, now known as Pauling's Rules.

1. "No rattle" rule: a coordination polyhedron of anions forms around each cation.
- the coordination number (C.N.) is the number of nearest neighbour ions/atoms

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around a given ion or atom.

The cation-anion distance is equal to the sum of their radii (Fig. 36) . We know atomic
positions in the unit cell from X-ray diffraction. Assuming a radius of 1.26 or 1.40
angstroms for O2-, cationic radii have been determined by difference. The number of
nearest neighbours around the cation is determined by the radius ratio (cation
radius/anion radius). Note: in fact, barely 60% of mineral structures follow this rule.
Radii also change with C.N.
- spheres of equal size adopt the hexagonal close-packing (hcp, 6/m 2/m 2/m, as Mg,
Zn, Cd) or cubic close-packing (fcc, 4/m 3 2/m, as Au and Cu) configuration. For most
metals, the coordination number (C.N.) = 12.
- this does not apply to semi-metals (As, Bi) and non-metallic elements (C, S) where
bonding is covalent and controlled by the orientation of non-spherical orbitals. e.g.,
diamond (sp3), graphite (sp2).

Figure 36. In ionic crystals, the cation-anion distance is equal to the sum of their radii

2. Electrostatic valency principle.

a. In a stable ionic crystal structure, the total strength of the bonds that reach an anion
from all the neighbouring cations is equal to the charge of the anion.
b. The strength of an electrostatic bond is defined as an ion's valence charge (z)
divided by its coordination number (n). This ratio z/n is the electrostatic valency of
the bond. e.v = Charge on the ion/C.N.
c. If all bonds in a structure are of the same strength, the structure is said to be
isodesmic. E.g., NaCl, all Na-Cl bonds have an e.v. of +1/6.
Other compounds are anisodesmic, i.e. contain bonds of different strengths.
In NaCl, each Cl ion is surrounded by 6 Na ions in octahedral coordination. So, the 1/6
of a positive charge from each Na reaches the Cl ion and thus the Cl ion sees 6*1/6 = 1
positive charge, which exactly balances the -1 charge on the Cl.
At the same time, each Na+ is surrounded by 6 Cl- ions. The Na is thus in 6 fold
coordination and C.N. = 6. Thus e.v. = 1/6. So 1/6 of a negative charge reaches the Na
ion from each Cl. So the +1 charge on the Na ion is balanced by 6*1/6 =1 negative
charge from the 6 Cl ions.
In such case, the charge is exactly balanced on both the cations and anions i.e., bonds
are of equal strength from all directions. When this occurs the bonds are said to be
isodesmic.

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Figure 37. In ionic crystals, the cation-anion

distance is equal to the sum of their radii

This is not the case for C+4 ion in triangular coordination with O-2. Here, e.v. = 4/3 (C has
a charge of +4 and is coordinated by 3 oxygens). Thus,
the 3 Oxygens each contribute 4/3 charge to the Carbon
ion (Fig. 38), and the charge on the carbon is balanced.
But, each Oxygen still has 2/3 of a charge that it has not
used. In cases like this, where the electrostatic valency is
greater than 1/2 the charge on the anion (4/3 > 1/2*2), the
anion will be more strongly bound to the central
coordinating cation than it can be bonded to other
structural groups. When this occurs the bonding is said to
be anisodesmic.

Figure 38. Anisodesmic bonding in carbonate crystal

structure

3. The sharing of edges and (even more so) of faces among coordination polyhedra
decreases their stability because of cation-cation repulsion (Fig. 38). Sharing is easiest
for large polyhedra (cations of low valency and large coordination number), difficult for
smaller polyhedra.
E.g., at the Earth's surface temperature and pressure, the SiO4 tetrahedra only share
corners in quartz (SiO2). In the high-pressure SiO2 polymorph stishovite (found at
meteoritic impact sites), SiO6 octahedra share edges.

4. In a crystal containing different cations, small polyhedra around ions of high

valency tend not to share edges or faces with each other. When they do, their edges
contract and cations are displaced away from the shared anions. E.g. in olivine
(MgSiO4), edge sharing occurs distorts the MgO6 octahedra. Sharing of polyhedral
elements for cations of high charge will place cations close enough together that they
may repel one another. Thus, if they do not share polyhedral elements they can be
better shielded from the effects of other positive charges in the crystal structure.

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Figure 39. In ionic crystals, if the distance (cc) between the cations in the polyhedrons
that share corners is taken as 1, then sharing edges reduces the distance to 0.58, and
sharing of faces reduces the distance to 0.38.

5. Principle of parsimony. There are only a few types of contrasting cation and
anion sites in any crystalline structure (Fig. 40).

Figure 40. The structure of amphibole (although amphibole comprises 14 different ions,
yet there are only five site available to accommodate these ions.

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