i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 2 ( 2 0 1 7 ) 2 4 2 2 2 e2 4 2 2 8

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Numerical investigation of the coupled heat

transfer of liquefied gas storage tanks

Jingjie Ren a, Han Zhang a, Mingshu Bi a,*, Jianliang Yu a, Shaochen Sun b

a
School of Chemical Machinery, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116023, Liaoning, China
b
Shenyang Institute of Special Equipment Inspection & Research, Shenyang 110035, Liaoning China

article info abstract

Article history: It is a common situation that the liquefied gas tanks are always heated by the outer hot
Received 5 June 2017 environments, which affecting the safety of the tanks. In this paper, numerical studies
Received in revised form were conducted to reveal the heat transfer characteristics of this circumstance. The
18 July 2017 coupled heat transfer process among the thermal environment, the tank wall and the fluid
Accepted 18 July 2017 in the tank was thoroughly investigated by simultaneously solving the temperature fields
Available online 8 August 2017 of both the solid region and the fluid region as well as the flow fields of both the liquid
phase and the vapor phase inner the tank. The results showed that affected by the near
Keywords: wall flow and the wall boiling, the heat transfer presented different patterns in the stable
Liquefied gas storage tanks thermal stratification stage and the de-stratification stage. In the stable stratification stage,
Thermal stratification the heat flux from the liquid phase wall to the medium distributed uniformly along the
Coupled heat transfer axial direction of the tank, while in the de-stratification stage, it differed a lot at the
different positions.
© 2017 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

thermal environment, temperature stratifications always

Introduction
In the field of hydrogen energy utilization, liquefied gases
were often involved. For instance, hydrogen (H2) was always
liquefied in many cases to raise storage or transportation ef-
ficiency, and research shows that liquefied hydrogen would
bring additional risk comparing with compressed hydrogen
[1]. Meanwhile, during the generation of hydrogen, liquefied
natural gas (LNG) [2e4] and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) [5,6]
were usually used as main raw materials. What's more, there
are also other gases used in the industries which are stored in
liquid state, such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and so
on [7e9]. Most of these liquefied gases are stored at fairly low
temperature. So although there are insulation facilities, the
heat leakage is still inevitable. Owing to the heat leak from the
exist in the liquefied gas tanks. It affects the temperature
distribution and energy storage of the liquid and the pressure
rising in the vapor phase, and consequently will have a direct
impact on the safety of the tank [10e12].
The temperature stratification phenomenon and its effects
have long been noticed [13,14]. For example, in liquid
hydrogen rocket propulsion system, it's found that the ther-
mal stratification of liquid hydrogen in the sealed tank would
cause cavitation in the delivery pump and affect the fuel in-
jection process, which may result in the launch failure [15].
Previous studies showed that even in microgravity environ-
ment and sloshing conditions, buoyancy effects can also bring
considerable thermal stratification in the liquid [16,17]. And
considering the launch performance, it's unwise to reduce the
stratification effect by blindly thickening the insulation,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bimsh@dlut.edu.cn (M. Bi).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.07.155
0360-3199/© 2017 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 2 ( 2 0 1 7 ) 2 4 2 2 2 e2 4 2 2 8 24223

which means undesirable increase of the tank weight [9].

There are some researchers have investigated methods to Numerical simulation methods
reduce the thermal stratification in the liquid hydrogen tanks,
for example, improvising transverse wall ribs on the inner In our previous works, a vertical cylindrical tank was built to
cylindrical surfaces of the tank, which can decrease the de- experimentally study the thermal stratification phenomenon
gree of stratification to some extent but cannot completely in the liquefied gas tank [37,38]. And a simulation model about
eliminate it [18,19]. it was established based on computational fluid dynamics
To reveal the development of the thermal stratifications method (CFD) to numerically research the formation and
and its effect on the self-pressurization process of the stor- deformation mechanisms of the thermal stratification in the
age tank, many experimental and numerical research works liquid medium [39]. In this paper, the proposed calculation
were carried out. Most experimental researches were con- model was used to analyze the coupled heat transfer process
ducted using non-combustible medium. Seo and Jeong used between the thermal environment, the tank wall and the
liquid nitrogen as medium to investigate the effect of various liquefied gas under the influence of thermal stratification. And
heat leaks and liquid fractions on the self-pressurization the CFD software of ANSYS FLUENT 12.0 was used to conduct
process of the cryogenic fluid storage tank [20]. Das et al. the simulation works.
conducted flow visualization experiments using water as the
experimental fluid in a rectangular glass tank heated from
The tank geometry structure
the sides and obtained the convective regime that governed
Fig. 1 showed the geometry structure of the tank. In the figure,
the formation of the stratification [21]. Kumar et al. numer-
the blue part and the red part stood for the liquid phase zone
ically investigated the effect of different levels of heat
and the vapor phase zone respectively, and the yellow part
leakage and aspect ratios of tank on stratification and taken
between the inner wall and the outer wall was the solid zone.
into account the surface evaporation to predict the self-
There were two liquid temperature monitoring points, TL1 and
pressurization process [22]. Kirk et al. and Liu et al. numeri-
TL2, set in the model to monitor the media temperature
cally investigated the temperature stratification proceeding
response and the thermal stratification evolution process in
process under different gravity environments in rotating
the tank.
liquid hydrogen tanks [23e25]. Fu et al. studied the phase
change in the cryogenic tanks under microgravity and sug-
The heat transfer through the tank wall
gested that the influence of the bubbles generated at the side
tank wall on the heat transfer process needed further
The coupled heat transfer process between the tank wall and
investigation [26].
the inner medium was predicted by simultaneously solving
In other conditions, if the storage tank of these liquefied
the partial-different control equations of the vapor phase
gases expose to high temperature thermal environments, the
medium, the liquid phase medium and the solid region of the
rise of tank pressure, as well as the increase of the wall tem-
tank wall. The heat transfer model through the tank wall is
perature and medium temperature will possibly drive the tank
shown in Fig. 2, including the heat transfer from the heater to
to failure. The high temperature environments can be caused
the outer wall, the heat transfer inside the wall and the heat
by the ignition of the leaked fuel for some reason [27e33]. Take
transfer between the tank and the fluid medium.
the hybrid hydrogen-gasoline fueling stations for example, if
Since the temperature of the wall is different in the vertical
there formed a gasoline pool fire for some reason, the liquid
direction, the heat transferred from the heater to the outer
hydrogen storage tanks would suffer from heat invasions and
wall of the tank is not uniform. The heat absorbed by the outer
face for the risk of failure [33]. There were some works focused
wall surface from the heater is calculated by Equation (1),
on the effect of fire environments on compressed hydrogen
where ks is the thermal conductivity of the solid, Theater is the
storage vessels [34e36]. However, the thermal response pro-
temperature of the heater, Two is the temperature of the tank
cess of the liquefied hydrogen storage vessels was different.
wall at the outermost layer of grid, and Dn is the distance
Therefore, it is of practical significance to research the heat
between the center of the grid and the outer wall surface.
transfer process of the liquefied gas storage tanks in thermal
environments for proposing safe operation strategy and ac- ks
cident prevention measures. qheater ¼ ðTheater  Two Þ (1)
Dn
It is true that the accident patterns are different for
The heat transfer inside the solid region is a multidimen-
different liquefied gas storage tanks, but from the physical
sional and unsteady process, which includes heat conduc-
point of view, they are all the results of the coupled heat and
tions from the outside wall to the inside wall and from the gas
mass transfer among the thermal environment, the tank wall
and the internal medium. Although the formation mecha-
nism of the thermal stratification in the liquid medium in
this process has been researched extensively and reached to
a consensus, the furtherly influence of it on the heat transfer
across the tank wall is still a problem needing to be studied.
So this paper focuses on researching the effect of the me-
dium thermal stratification and de-stratification on the
coupled heat transfer process of the liquefied gas storage
tanks. Fig. 1 e The geometrical model.
24224 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 2 ( 2 0 1 7 ) 2 4 2 2 2 e2 4 2 2 8
Fig. 2 e The coupled heat transfer model through the tank
wall.
phase wall to the liquid phase wall, and the heat flux rates at
the two directions change significantly with the thermal
response of the two phase media and the temperature dif-
ference between the vapor phase wall and the liquid phase
wall. The equation describing the thermal conduction process
in the solid region of the tank wall is as follow:
v
ðr hs Þ ¼ V$ðks VTs Þ
vt s
where rs is the density of the solid, Ts is the local temperature
inner the tank wall and hs is the sensible enthalpy of the solid
RT
and it is calculated by Tref cp;s dT.
The heat transferred from the inner wall to the medium is
calculated by Equation (3), where hf is the convective heat-
transfer coefficient, which is determined by kf =Dn in the
viscous sublayer of the fluid, and Dn refer to the distance be-
tween the inner wall surface and the center of the viscous
sublayer grid, and Twi and Tf are the temperatures of these two
positions respectively. For the vapor phase, the heat transfer
includes convection and radiation. For the liquid phase, it is
mainly convection.
 
qcoupled ¼ hf Twi  Tf þ qrad
The coupling of the heat and mass transfer in the two-phase
flow field
The Volume of Fluid (VOF) method [40] and the interface
reconstruction technique of Youngs [41] are used to solve the
vapor-liquid two-phase flow problem, by which the interface
shape and the heat-mass transfer between the two phases can
be calculated. The governing equations for the heat and mass
transferring calculation of the two-phase flow field based on
the VOF method were detailed described in the previous work
[39]. When considering the coupled heat and mass transfer
problem of the liquid and vapor phases in the liquefied gas
tank during the heat-driven natural convection process, the
Table 1 e Boundary conditions.
Flow boundary condition Thermal boundary condition
of inner wall surface of inner wall surface
No Slip Coupled
influence of the change in fluid densities were involved in all
the relevant terms of the governing equations.
The boundary conditions and initial conditions
As shown in Fig. 2, the heater cladding on the outer surface of
the tank was simplified to a hot wall with a certain thickness,
in which electric heat was generated and conducted to the
tank along the radial direction. Meanwhile, a part of this heat
would dissipate to the environment by convection and radi-
ation. For the inner wall of the tank, the non-slip boundary
condition (No Slip) is used, that is, the fluid clinging is
assumed stationary. The solid and fluid side temperatures
used to calculate the heat flux was updated at each time step.
Boundary conditions set in FLUENT were listed in Table 1.
The calculation was started from an initial stratification
state with the medium temperature at TL1 and TL2 were 350 K
and 338 K respectively, and the pressure in the tank at this
condition was saturated with the surface liquid temperature.
To reduce the computational error caused by the increase of
the pressure due to vaporization, the operating pressure
condition was updated at each time step.
(2) Results and discussions
The evolution process of the thermal stratification
The temperature responses of the monitoring points, TL1 and
TL2, as well as that of the liquid surface are shown in Fig. 3.
According to the different patterns of the temperature curves,
the response process of the liquid medium can be divided into
two stages: the stable stratification stage (before 1250 s) and
the de-stratification stage (after 1250 s). In the stable stratifi-
cation stage, the temperature rising rate of the liquid surface
is faster than that of the de-stratification stage. In this case,
the near wall liquid absorbed heat and then floated to the
liquid surface and transferred energy to the vapor phase by
(3) vaporization. As a result, the tank pressure rising rate which
was determined by the liquid surface temperature was also
faster. In the de-stratified stage, the temperature rising rate of
the liquid surface was slower, and the rate of the corre-
sponding pressure boosting was also slower.
Fig. 4 showed the temperature distributions along the
central axis of the tank at different times. It can be seen that
before 1300 s, there was an obvious temperature gradient in
the liquid phase except a small region under the liquid sur-
face, where the liquid was well mixed and without tempera-
ture difference. Moreover, the liquid temperature gradient in
this period basically kept constant as time went on. After
1300 s, the well mixed region under the liquid surface
expanded downwards continuously, and the temperature
gradient under it increased.
Heat generation condition Heat dissipation
of outer wall surface condition of outside wall surface
Heat Generation Rate Mixed
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 2 ( 2 0 1 7 ) 2 4 2 2 2 e2 4 2 2 8 24225

Fig. 5 shows the temperature contours in the tank wall and

the inner media at the stably stratified stage (1000 s). The
result showed that due to the weak heat exchange capacity of
the vapor phase medium, the wall temperature of this region
is higher than that of the liquid region. And the maximum
wall temperature appeared in the height range of
0.42me0.43 m. Moreover, there formed a longitudinal tem-
perature gradient from top to bottom in the vapor phase wall,
which indicated that the heat transferred directly from the
vapor phase wall to the inner medium is much smaller
comparing with that transferred to the liquid phase wall. As
the liquid heat transfer capacity is stronger, the heat trans-
ferred directly from the liquid phase wall to the inner medium
was considerable. So the temperature distribution in the
liquid phase wall showed an oblique gradient, which sug-
gested that the heat transferred from the liquid phase wall to
Fig. 3 e The temperature response process of monitors the medium along the radial direction and to the bottom wall
TL1 and TL2. along the longitudinal direction were comparable.
The temperature contours of the tank in the de-
stratification stage (2500 s) were shown in Fig. 6. As illus-
trated, except for the overall rising, the temperature distri-
bution in the vapor phase wall in the de-stratification stage
was not different from that in the stratification stage. The
temperature gradient was still along the longitudinal direc-
tion, and the maximum wall temperature position had not
changed. Unlike the vapor phase wall, the temperature
gradient in the liquid phase wall was changed to radial di-
rection at the height range of 0.09 me0.23 m. This result
indicated that as the stratification eliminating, the heat
transfer from the liquid phase tank wall to the inner medium
along the radial direction was enhanced.

The coupled heat transfer process

The heat transfer flux from the liquid wall to the medium, the
temperature difference near the inner wall and the tempera-
ture distribution of the core liquid (Tc) were shown in Fig. 7. It
can be found that in the stratification stage (1000 s), the heat
Fig. 4 e The evolution process of the temperature flux was uniform in most area, while in the de-stratification
stratification. stage (2000 s), it changed significantly. Concretely, with the
elimination of the temperature stratification, the heat flux

Fig. 5 e The temperature distribution of the tank wall and the media in the stable stratified stage.
24226 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 2 ( 2 0 1 7 ) 2 4 2 2 2 e2 4 2 2 8
Fig. 6 e The temperature distribution of the tank wall and the media in the de-stratification stage.
near the liquid surface was increased and there appeared two
local low heat flux zones (around 0.18 m and 0.1 m respec-
tively). It can be noticed that the position of 0.1 m was just
located between the stratified and de-stratified regions at the
Fig. 7 e The distribution characteristics of the heat flux and
the temperature.
Fig. 8 e The local characters of the heat flux at the bubble
region.
moment. From the results, the effect of the stratification
evolution on the heat transfer process was macroscopically
reflected that, the elimination of the temperature stratifica-
tion had made the natural convection circulation enhanced,
which promoting the heat transfers near the liquid surface,
while at the transition region of the stratification and de-
stratification, the convective heat transfer process was sup-
pressed affected by the circulation stream which flowing back
against the wall and hindering the lower floating stream.
In addition, as illustrated in Fig. 7, the heat flux and the
temperature difference presented consistent trends except
the position of 0.18 m. This can be further analyzed through
Fig. 8. In Fig. 8, the distribution of the vapor volume fraction
near the wall was plotted together with that of the heat flux.
As can be seen from the figure, the heat flux was reduced by
about 27% at the position where the bubble was generated on
the wall (near 0.18 m shown in the figure). So from the local
point of view, the heat transfer from the wall to the medium
was weakened at the position where the bubble attached.
Fig. 9 shows the relationship of the boundary flow velocity
and the corresponding position of the bubble at the same
time. The curves showed the velocity of the boundary flow
around the bubble region was significantly increased, and the
Fig. 9 e The influence of the bubble on the boundary flow.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 2 ( 2 0 1 7 ) 2 4 2 2 2 e2 4 2 2 8
Fig. 10 e The heat flux histories.
velocity increasing area was much larger than the bubble re-
gion. This result indicated that the bubbles generated on the
wall of the stratified elimination area had a strong effect on
the acceleration of the natural convective boundary flow, and
on the enhancement of the natural circulation intensity.
Figs. 10 and 11 respectively show the distribution of heat
flux through the liquid wall and the liquid velocity of the
boundary flow at different times in the de-stratification
stage. The curves in Fig. 10 displayed the local characters of
the heat transfer under the effect of the appearance of wall
boiling and the evolution of the thermal stratification. It can
be seen that the heat flux fluctuated greatly at different po-
sitions, and the wall boiling region was included in the de-
stratification region and extended down as the stratification
eliminating. Fig. 11 presented the acceleration process of the
boundary flow during the de-stratification stage which indi-
cated that the wall boiling had strengthened the natural
convective circulation and driven the mixing of the liquid
involved in it, thus promoted the de-stratification of the
liquid medium.
Fig. 11 e The boundary flow histories.
24227
Conclusions
In this paper, the thermal response process of a vertical liq-
uefied gas storage tank which was heated outside was
numerically researched. The coupled heat transfer pattern
among the thermal environment, the tank wall and the fluid
in the tank was studied by analyzing the distributions of the
temperatures and heat flux, as well as the characters of the
near wall flow and boiling. The main conclusions are as
follows:
(1) The heat transfer from the thermal environment to the
tank system was a coupled process of both the multi-
dimensional heat conduction inside the tank wall and
the heat convection between the tank wall and the
medium. On the one hand, the liquid wall of the tank
absorbed heat from the environment in the radial di-
rection and on the other hand, it obtained heat from the
high temperature vapor wall in the axial direction. In
this mode, most of the external heat was transferred to
the liquefied gas through the liquid wall.
(2) The heat transfer through the liquid phase wall was
affected by the near wall flow. When the liquefied gas
was in the stable stratification stage, the heat trans-
ferred from the liquid phase wall to the medium
distributed uniformly along the axial direction of the
tank. But when the liquefied gas was in the de-
stratification stage, the heat flux through the liquid
phase wall would vary a lot at the different position and
the heat transfer mode changed from single-phase
natural convection to boiling convection.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant numbers: 51176022 and 51506025),
the Postdoctoral Science Foundation of China (grant number
2015M571301) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the
Central Universities of China (Grant number: DUT14RC(3)111).
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