4 .

By the end of this subtopic, you will be able to

Explain thermal equilibrium
Explain how a liquid-in glass thermometer works

During a barbecue session using burning charcoal, why does

a piece of cold meat become hot after a while?

1. There is a net heat transfer from the burning charcoal

to the piece of meat.
2. The temperature of the piece of meat increase.

When two objects are in thermal contact with each other, heat
energy is transferred from one object to another. Compare
the rate of heat energy transfer from hot object to cold object
and from cold object to hot object.

The rate of heat energy transferred from hot object to cold

object is faster, compared to the rate of heat energy
transferred from cold object to hot object.

There is a net flow of heat energy from the hotter object to the
colder object.

The hot object cools down, while cold object becomes hotter.
 After some time, heat energy is transferred at the same rate
between the two objects.

1. What is the net heat transfer between the two objects?

Zero
2. What happen to the temperature of the two objects?
Same

Based on the situation When two objects are in thermal equilibrium,

above, state the conditions
1. No net heat flow between the two objects.
when two objects are in
2. Both objects have the same temperature.

When the rate of heat energy transfer between two objects in thermal contact
is the same, the two objects are in thermal equilibrium.

A form of energy Degree of hotness of an object

Joule (J) Kelvin (K)

 - -

1. Glass Tube
What is the advantage of using glass?
It is transparent so level of liquid can be seen easily.

2. Upper Fixed Point

For mercury thermometer, the upper fixed point is 100˚C.
Why is the upper fixed point also known as steam point?
This is because 100˚C is the temperature which steam
produce by boiling water pressure.

3. Narrow Capillary Tube

Advantage : when there is a slight change in volume, a big
change seen in the length of the mercury thread. Therefore
increase its sensitivity.

4. Mercury
State the physical property of mercury that makes it suitable
to be used in liquid-in-glass thermometer.
1. Opaque colour - can be seen easily.
2. Expands at a constant rate – more accurate

5. Lower Fixed Point

For mercury thermometer, the lower fixed point is 0˚C. Why is
the lower fixed point also known as ice point?
This is because 0˚C is the temperature of pure melting ice.

6. Bulb
1. Thin glass wall
Advantage : increase the rate of heat exchange between
the liquid and the object, hence increase its sensitivity.
2. Large Bulb
Advantage : increase the volume of the liquid, hence
increase its sensitivity.
1. Given the length of steam point, L100 is 14.9 cm and the length of ice point of a
mercury thermometer, L0 is 3.6 cm. What is the temperature of a liquid when
the length of mercury thread, L in the same thermometer used gives a reading
of 9.0 cm?

Temperature of the liquid

= x 100˚C

= x 100˚C

= 47.8 ˚C

2. The temperature of liquid W is measured by using a mercury thermometer. The

length of the mercury column at steam point and ice point are 41 cm and 6 cm
respectively. When the thermometer is immersed in the liquid W, the length of
the mercury column is 34 cm. what is the temperature of the liquid W?

Temperature of the liquid

= x 100˚C

= x 100˚C

= 80 ˚C

𝐿 𝐿
For a mercury-in-glass thermometer, 𝜃 = x 100˚C
𝐿 𝐿

Where 𝜃 = the unknown temperature

L0 = length of mercury column at ice point
L100 = length of mercury column at steam point
𝐿𝜃 = length of mercury column at the unknown temperature
4 .2

By the end of this subtopic, you will be able to

Define specific heat capacity
𝑄
State that 𝑐
𝑚𝜃

Determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid

Determine the specific heat capacity of a solid
Describe applications of specific heat capacity
Solve problems involving specific heat capacity

, , c

The amount of heat that must be The amount of heat must be

supplied to a body to increase supplied to increase the
its temperature by 1 ˚C temperature by 1 ˚C for a mass of
1 kg of the substance.

J J

(WATER)

To determine the specific heat capacity of water

What is the specific heat capacity of water?

/ Immersion heater, thermometer, power supply, stirrer, electronic

balance, stopwatch, polystyrene cup containing water
 1. Determine the mass of empty polystyrene cup and record as
m1.
2. Fill the polystyrene cup with water. Determine its mass and
record as m2.
3. Set up experiment as shown in the diagram above.
4. Record initial temperature of water,
5. Switch on the power supply and start the stopwatch at the
same time.
6. Stir the water by using stirrer continuously as it is being heat
up.
7. After 5 minutes, switch off the power supply. Keep stir the
water until thermometer shows the highest reading.
8. Record the temperature as

Mass of the empty beaker, m1 _______________ kg

Mass of the beaker filled with water, m2 _______________ kg

Mass of water in the beaker, _______________ kg

m = m 2 - m1

Initial temperature of water, _______________ ˚C

Final temperature of water, _______________ ˚C

Increase in temperature, _______________ ˚C

 Power of heater, P _______________ W

Energy supplied by the heater, Q _______________ J

Specific heat capacity of water,

= ____________ J

(ALUMINIUM)

To determine the specific heat capacity of aluminium

What is the specific heat capacity of aluminium?

/ Immersion heater, thermometer, power supply, stirrer, electronic

balance, stopwatch, aluminium cylinder, felt cloth, a small amount
of oil.

1. Determine the mass of aluminium cylinder and record as m.

2. Set up the experiment as shown in the diagram above.
3. Determine the initial temperature of the aluminium cylinder
and record as
 4. Switch on the power supply and start the stopwatch at the
same time.
5. After 5 minutes, switch off the power supply. Wait for a while
and record the highest reading.
6. Record the temperature as

Mass of aluminium block, m _______________ kg

Initial temperature of aluminium block, _______________ ˚C

Final temperature of aluminium block, _______________ ˚C

Increase in temperature, _______________ ˚C

Power of heater, P _______________ W

Energy supplied by the heater, Q _______________ J

Specific heat capacity of aluminium,

= ____________ J

Based on the activities above,

1. Why felt cloth used to wrap the apparatus?

To reduce the heat loss to the surrounding.

2. Explain why the gaps between the immersion heater and thermometer in the
aluminium cylinder are filled with oil?
Oil is a good heat conductor compared to air. Thus the heat transfer between
the heater and aluminium cylinder, and between thermometer and aluminium
cylinder are more efficient.
3. Why did the temperature continue to rise after the power supply has been
switched off?
Thermal equilibrium has not reached yet. There is still a net flow of heat from
heater to water.

4. Why the values of specific heat capacity of water and aluminium from the
experiment are higher than the actual values?
The experiment value is higher than actual value because there is a heat loss
to the surrounding during the experiment.

5. State one of the precaution step while carry out this experiment.
The experiment must be carried out in still air or switch off the fan to reduce the
heat loss.

1. Water as a

 Water has a high specific heat capacity.

 Acts as a heat reservoir as it can absorb a great amount of heat before it boils.
 Used as a cooling agent

2.
Explain how sea breeze occur :

 During the day time, heat energy from the sun is absorbed by the sea
and the land.
 Sea has a higher specific heat capacity
 Temperature increase slower
 Sea cooler than land
 Land has a lower specific heat capacity
 Temperature increase faster
 Land warmer than sea
 Hot air above land rises

 Cooler air above the sea moves towards the land

3.

Explain how land breeze occur :

 During the night time, heat lost from the sea and land.

 Land has a lower specific heat capacity

 Cools off faster
 Land is cooler than sea
 Sea has a higher specific heat capacity
 Cools off slower
 Sea is warmer than land
 Hot air above sea rises

 Cooler air from the land moves towards the sea

 1. Calculate the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 3.7 kg of
water from 56 0C to 71 0C. (Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1 C-1).

Amount of heat required, Q = mcθ

= 3.7 x 4200 x (71-56)
= 233, 100 J

2. 255 g block of an aluminium at 143 0C is cooled until 43 0C. Find the amount of
heat is released. (Specific heat capacity of aluminium = 900 J kg-1 C-1).

Amount of heat released, Q = mcθ

= 0.255 x 900 x (143-43)
= 22 950 J

3. 0.4 kg of water at 80 0C is mixed with 0.46 kg of water at 53 0C. Assuming that

no heat is lost, find the final temperature of the mixture. (Specific heat capacity
of water = 4200 J kg-1 C-1)

Amount of heat released, Q = Amount of heat required, Q

mcθ = mcθ
0.4 x 4200 x (80- θ) = 0.46 x 4200 x (θ - 53)
θ = 65.6 0C
4 .3

By the end of this subtopic, you will be able to

Define specific latent heat
𝑄
State that 𝑙 𝑚

Determine the specific latent heat of fusion

Determine the specific latent heat of vaporisation
Solve problems involving specific latent heat

Amount of heat required to change

the phase of 1 kg of the substance
at a constant temperature.

Amount of heat required to change

1 kg of the substance from solid to
liquid phase without a change in
temperature.
J
Amount of heat required to change
1 kg of the substance from liquid to
gaseous phase without a change in
temperature.
solid  Molecules arranged in regular patterns and closed
tightly to each other.
 When heated, molecules gain energy and vibrate at
their fixed positions
 Kinetic energy increase and temperature increase
Solid and  Solid begins to melt.
liquid
 Latent heat of fusion is absorbed to provide energy to
overcome the forces of attraction between the
molecules
 Molecules freed from their fixed position and move
freely
 Energy absorbed does not increase the kinetic energy,
so temperature remains constant during melting
liquid  The temperature rises
 The heat supplied increase the kinetic energy of
molecule
 Molecules begin to move faster and randomly
Liquid and  Liquid starts to boil
gas
 Latent heat of vaporisation is absorbed to provide
energy to overcome the forces of attraction between
the molecules
 Heat absorbed does not increase in kinetic energy, so
 temperature remains constant during boiling
gas  The heat supplied increases the kinetic energy of gas
and temperature rises
 All liquid turns to vapour
 Gas molecules completely free to move

gas  When the gas cooled, heat is released to the

surrounding
 Kinetic energy of molecules decrease
 Temperature of gas decrease
Gas and  Gas begins to condense into a liquid when reached
liquid
condensation point
 Temperature remains constant
 Latent heat of vaporisation is released to the
surroundings
liquid  Kinetic energy of molecules decrease
 Temperature keeps falling
Liquid and  Liquid begins to freeze when reached freezing point
solid
 Molecules closely packed
 Temperature remains constant
 Latent heat of fusion is released
 solid  Molecules are closely packed
 All the liquid completely solidified
 Temperature decrease

(ICE)

To determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice

What is the specific latent heat of fusion of ice?

Immersion heater, filter funnel, beaker, power supply, electronic

/ balance, stopwatch, retort stand and clamp, crushed ice

1. Measure the masses of beaker 1 and beaker 2, record as

m1 and m2 respectively.
2. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above. At
first, both beakers are not placed under the filter funnels.
3. Switch on the power supply of set A and wait until water
flows from the filter funnels at a constant rate. Place beaker
1 and beaker 2 under respective funnels and start the
stopwatch.
4. Switch off the power supply after 5 minutes.
5. Remove the beakers. Measure the masses of both beakers
again and record as m3 and m4.
 Mass of the empty beaker 1, m1 _______________ g

Mass of the empty beaker 2, m2 _______________ g

Mass of beaker 1 with water, m3 _______________ g

Mass of beaker 2 with water, m4 _______________ g

Power of heater, P _______________ W

Energy supplied by the heater, Q _______________ J

Mass of ice melted in beaker 1, _______________ g

m 3 – m1

Mass of ice melted in beaker 2, _______________ g

m 4 – m2

Mass of ice melted by the heat

supplied by the heater,
_______________ g
m = (m3 – m1) – (m4 – m2)

Specific latent heat of fusion,

= ____________ J

(WATER)

To determine the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water

What is the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water?

/ Beaker, immersion heater, pure water, electronic balance,

stopwatch, power supply, retort stand and clamp.

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above.

2. When the water starts boiling, start the stopwatch and
record the initial reading of the electronic balance.
3. After 5 minutes, record the reading of electronic balance.

Initial reading of electronic balance, m1 _______________ g

Reading of electronic balance after 5 _______________ g

minutes, m2

Mass of water vaporised, m _______________ g

Power of heater, P _______________ W

Energy supplied by the heater, Q _______________ J

Specific latent heat of vaporisation,

= ____________ J
 Given,
Specific heat capacity of water = 4 200 J kg-1 C-1
Specific heat capacity of ice = 2 100 J kg-1 C-1
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 X 105J kg-1
Specific latent heat of vaporisation of ice = 2.26 X 106J kg-1

1. An immersion heater rated at 800 W is fitted into a large block of ice at 0 0C.
How long does it take to melt 0.5 kg of ice?

Q = ml
Pt = 0.5 x (3.36 x 105 )
800 x t = 302 400
t = 210 s

2. Calculate the amount of heat needed to convert 1.4 kg of ice at 0 0C to water at

30 0C.

Q = mLf + mc
= (1.4)(3.36 x 105) + (1.4)(4200)(30)
= 646 800 J

3. Find the amount of heat needed to convert 0.5 kg of ice at -15 0C into steam at
100 0C

Q = (mc)ice + (mLf)ice + (mc)water + (mLv)steam

= (0.5)(2100)(15) + (0.5)(336 000) + (0.5)(4200)(100) + (0.5)(2260 000)
= 1 523 750 J

4. Calculate the amount of heat needed to convert 100 g of ice at 0 0C into steam
at 100 C.

Q = (mLf)ice + (mc)water + (mLv)steam

= (0.1)(336 000) + (0.1)(4200)(100) + (0.1)(2260 000)
= 301 600 J
 4 .4

By the end of this subtopic, you will be able to

Explain gas pressure, temperature and volume in terms of kinetic theory.
Determine the relationship between
(i) P and V (ii) V and T (iii) P and T
Solve problems involving pressure, temperature and volume of a fixed mass of gas.

 The molecules are in continuous random motion.

PASCAL,  When a molecule collides with the wall of the
Pa container and bounces back, there is a change in
momentum and a force is exerted on the wall.
 The force per unit area is the pressure of the gas.

 The molecules move freely in random motion and

fill up the whole space in the container.
(metre)3,
 The volume of the gas is equal to the volume of
m3
the container.

 The molecules are in continuous random motion

Kelvin,
and have an average kinetic energy which is
K
proportional to the temperature.
 ’ ’

Boyle’s law states that the Charles’ law states that Pressure law states that
pressure of a fixed mass the volume of a fixed mass the pressure of a fixed
of gas is inversely of the gas is directly mass of gas is directly
proportional to its volume proportional to its absolute proportional to its absolute
provided when the temperature when its temperature when its
temperature of the gas is pressure is kept constant. volume is kept constant.
kept constant.

P1V1 = P2V2
= =

Graph P against V Graph V against T (K) Graph P against T (K)

Graph P against 1/V Graph V against T (˚C) Graph P against T (˚C)

 ’

Pressure of air depends on volume of air

Volume of air increase, pressure decrease

To investigate the relationship between volume and pressure of air.

: volume of air

: pressure of air

: temperature

/ Syringe, rubber tube, bourdon gauge, piston

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above.

2. Piston is push until the volume of air is 100 cm3.
3. Observed and record the pressure of air through bourdon
gauge.
4. The experiment is repeated by pushing the piston at
different volume of air which are 90 cm3, 80 cm3, 70 cm3,
and 60 cm3.

Volume, V (cm3) 1/V (cm-3) Pressure, P (Pa)

100
90
80
70
60
Plot graph P against 1/V

1. Based on the graph, state the relationship between P and V.

P is directly proportional to 1/V.

2. Explain the relationship between pressure and volume of

gas based on kinetic theory of gases.
 When the volume of a gas is decreased, the number of
molecules per unit volume increases.
 The molecules will collide more frequently with the wall of
container.
 The rate of collision increased by as the force acting on per
unit area of the wall container is increased.
 Therefore pressure exerted by the gas increased.

3. State one precaution step while carry out this experiment.

Tightened and greased the rubber tube to prevent leakage
of air from the syringe.

Volume of air depends on temperature of air

Temperature of air increase, volume of air increase

To investigate the relationship between volume of air and

temperature of air

: temperature of air

: volume of air (length of air column)

: mass of air , pressure of air

/ Thermometer, meter rule, retort stand, concentrated sulphuric acid,
water, rubber bands, capillary tube, Bunsen burner, wire gauge

1. Set up the apparatus as shown above.

2. Heat the water and stir continuously until the temperature
reaches 30˚C.
3. Observed and record the length of air column (indicate the
volume of air) by using meter rule.
4. The experiment is repeated by heating the water to
temperature 40 ˚C, 50 ˚C, 60 ˚C, and 70 ˚C.
Temperature of air, T (˚C) Volume of air, V (cm3)
30
40
50
60
70

Plot graph V against T

1. Based on the graph, state the relationship between V and T.

V is directly proportional to T.

2. Explain the relationship between volume and temperature of

gas based on kinetic theory of gases.
 When the temperature of the gas increase, the molecules
 move faster as kinetic energy increased.
 The molecules push the sulphuric acid column up.
 Hence the air expands and the volume increase.

3. State one precaution step while carry out this experiment.

Make sure the position of eye perpendicular to the scale of

thermometer to avoid parallax error.

Pressure of gas depends on temperature of gas

Temperature increase, pressure increase

To investigate the relationship between pressure of gas and

temperature of gas

: temperature of gas

: pressure of gas

: volume of gas

/ Round bottom flask, beaker, thermometer, bourdon gauge, stirrer,

tripod stand with wire gauze, Bunsen burner, rubber tube, retort
stand with clamp, tap water
 1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above.
2. Stir the water and record its initial temperature.
3. The water is heated slowly until the temperature of water
reaches 30 ˚C.
4. The Bunsen burner is moved away and water is stirred until
the temperature of air is in equilibrium with the temperature
of water. The temperature and pressure of air are recorded.
5. Repeat the above steps until the water reaches 40˚C, 50˚C,
60˚C and 70˚C.

Temperature of air, T (˚C) Pressure, P (Pa)

30
40
50
60
70

Plot graph P against T

1. Based on the graph, state the relationship between P and T.

P is directly proportional to T.

2. Explain the relationship between pressure and temperature

of gas based on kinetic theory of gases.
 When the temperature of the gas increase, the molecules
move faster as kinetic energy increased.
 The molecules will collide more frequently with the wall of
container.
 The rate of collision increased by as the force acting on per
unit area of the wall container is increased.
 Therefore pressure exerted by the gas increased.

3. State one precaution step while carry out this experiment.

Tightened the rubber tube to prevent air leakage from syringe.
1. A bicycle pump of uniform cross section has a length of 28 cm and contains air at
atmospheric pressure. If the piston is pushed inwards a distance of 13 cm to pump
air into tyre, what is the pressure of the air in the pump at this instant?

P1V1 = P2V2
(1)(28) = (P2)(28-13)
P2 = 1.87 atm

2. A gas of volume 22 m3 at 42 0C is heated until its temperature becomes 71 0C at

constant pressure. What is the increase in volume?

V1 = V2 , 22 = V2 .

T1 T2 42 + 273 71 + 273
V2 = 24.03 m3

3. The air pressure in a container at 28 0C is 1.3 x 107 N m-2. The container is heated
until the temperature is 69 0C. What is the final air pressure if the volume of the
container is fixed?

P1 = P2 , 1.3 x 107 = P2 .

T1 T2 28 + 273 69 + 273
P2 = 1.5 x 107 N m-2