GENERAL ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE

Controls

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 Instrumentation and controls
Basic Control Theory.

In order to control a system it must be possible to adjust one of the parameters that affect it. For
example in an engine lubricating system the oil temperature can be controlled by either by-passing
the flow of oil to the cooler or by by-passing the flow of water to the cooler.

In order to control a system parameter, the parameter must first of all be measured. There are four
common system parameters that are used for control purposes, these are:
1. Temperature – use liquid in glass thermometers, bi-metallic strips, bourdon tube gauges,
thermocouples and resistance thermometers.
2. Pressure – manometers, bourdon tubes, differential pressure cells.
3. Level – sight glass, floats, electric probes.
4. Flow – using the venture tube, electro-magnetic flowmeter

Control systems can be manual or automatic:

 An automatic system will control a system parameter without external intervention.
 A manual system requires an operator to alter the system parameter.

Ships usually use automatic controllers but there is always a provision for controlling the system
manually in case of failure.

Basic control loop operation.

Desired
value
Deviation
Controller Comparator

Measured
value

Regulating Process or Detector

Unit system

The detector contains a measuring element, this senses the system output and produces a signal
related to the output, this signal is the measured value.

The measured value is transmitted to the comparator.

In the comparator the measured value is compared with a system desired value, any deviation
between the two values will result in a signal being passed to the controller, the size of this signal
depends on the difference between the measured and desired values.

The controller will generate a signal based on the deviation of measured value from desired value
and will pass this on to the regulating unit.

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The regulating unit will act on the process to adjust it.

The system components can be electrically, hydraulically or pneumatically operated, pneumatic

control is very reliable and is often used on ships.

Terminology.

1. Closed loop control system – this is where the control action is dependant on the system
output, it can be an automatic or a manual system.
2. Desired value – this is the value of the controlled condition that the operator desires to
achieve.
3. Set value – this is the value of the controlled condition that the controller is set, this should
be the same as the desired value.
4. Deviation – this is the difference between the measured and desired values.
5. Offset – this is a sustained deviation between the measured and desired value.
6. Feedback – this increases the accuracy and sensitivity of the controller by using the output
condition of the system to adjust the control action.
7. Control action – this can be either proportional, integral or derivative.
8. Measuring element-the element which responds to the sign from the detecting element and
gives a signal representing the controlled condition.
9. Controlled condition- the physical quantity or condition of the controlled body , processes or
machine which is the purpose of the system to be controlled.
10. Correcting unit- The element which acts directly on the controlled body, process or
machine. Eg. The control valve for lub oil to bypass the cooler.
11. Proportional action – the action of a control element whose output signal is proportional to
its input signal.
12. Proportional band - the range of values of deviation corresponding to the full operating
range of output signal of the controlling unit resulting from proportional action only. The
proportional band can be expressed as a percentage of the range of values of the
controlled condition which the measuring unit of the controller is designed to measure.
13. Integral action / reset – the action of a control element whose output signal changes at a
rate which is proportional to its input signal.
14. Derivative action – the action of a control element whose output signal is proportional to the
rate at which its input signal is changing.

Controller action.

The controller must take some corrective action to match the system measured value to its desired
value, but due to the system itself there will be time lags and delays in measuring the system
output, altering the regulating unit and the system output actually changing. The control system
must be designed to take account of these various delays in order to maintain the output at the
correct value.

Controllers exist that use both ON/OFF control, proportional, integral and derivative action or
combinations of these three types.

Regulating unit.

The commonest type of regulating unit found at sea is the pneumatic control valve. Valve
operation may be direct acting where increasing pressure on a diaphragm by a control signal
causes the valve to close or reverse acting where the opposite happens.

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Control valves can simply regulate the flow or they can be three way valves that control the
percentage of fluid flowing in each direction.

In the diagram the control signal to the valve is pneumatic, it enters the valve at the top and acts
on a diaphragm. The diaphragm is connected to the top of the valve spindle, movement of the
spindle is opposed by a spring.

The valve disc or plug can be single or double seated and can have a variety of shapes depending
on the relationship required between valve lift and liquid flow.

A valve positioner may be required to be used with the valve if:

1. the valve is remote from the controller.
2. there is a high pressure difference across the valve.
3. the controlled medium is viscous.
4. the pressure on the gland is high

Types of inner valve construction.

There are 5 types of construction these are shown below

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 (a) Characterised V port or skirted : ‘V’ port or plugs may have equal percentage (logarithmic)
or linear (parabolic) flow characteristics;
(b) Quick opening plug: With tapered construction this would a cone or ratio plug
(characterised flow)
(c) Throttle or parabolic plug (linear).
(d) Parabolic plug (linear)
(e) Quick opening or bevelled disc

a) Percentage V Port.
This designation describes both its percentage flow characteristics and ‘V’ port construction
and its particular advantages are :
1) Reduction and possible elimination of high pitched noise on steam or gas service.
2) Reduction in tendency of plug to spin
3) Improved stability at high loads ; it is well suited for applications where wide changes in
flow and or / pressure drops are encountered and when estimated flow conditions make
it necessary to approximate the valve size.

b) Parabolic
The parabolic plug is sometimes called the percentage parabolic and this description
identifies both its percentage flow characteristics and solid turned construction.
The parabolic plug is characterised by smooth contour, large free port area and an equal
percentage flow range which makes it particularly suitable for throttling service where
flowing medium may be relatively dirty.

c) Quick Opening
The quick opening plug is disc type which offers minimum restriction so that the port area
increases rapidly as the plug leaves the seat. It is normally used for on/off control
applications.

Percentage Flow Characteristics

The term ‘equal percentage’ is commonly used when speaking of control valve characteristics.
The following definition expresses the principle involved ‘ a valve having an equal percentage
characteristic will produce a change in lift which is proportional to the quantity flowing just
before change is made’

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The characterised V port and wide range parabolic inner valves should have port openings shaped
in such manner that the valve will produce equal percentage increases in flow for equal amount of
valve lift. On the curve shown above for the percentage V port valve, if the lift changes from 20 to
30 per cent of maximum lift, the new flow at 30 per cent would be about 50 per cent more than the
original flow at 20 per cent. Similarly if the lift increased from 40 to 50 per cent the new flow rate
at 50 per cent would be about 50 per cent more than the original flow at 40 per cent. Hence the
logarithmic characteristic.

Linear Flow Characteristics.

With the linear valve having a constant pressure drop across it, equal incremental changes in
valve stem lift result in equal incremental changes in flow rate. For example if the lift increases
form 40 to 50 per cent of the maximum, the flow rate also increases from 40 to 50 percent of the
maximum.

Booster Relay.

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 Flapper Nozzle Booster Relay

The relay in the figure above is known as a direct acting relay which means that increases in
nozzle back pressure give an increase in relay output pressure. By keeping the nozzle capacity
small, pressure changes can take place quickly.
Assuming the system is in equilibrium then the pressure in chamber A equals the pressure in
chamber B and equals the output pressure.
If the flapper moves closer to the nozzle, the nozzle back pressure will increase so that the
chamber A is greater than the pressure in chamber B and the diaphragm assembly will move
closer to the right, pushing the pilot valve plug to the right and opening the supply port. The
supply air will then flow through supply port raising the pressure in chamber B, and then the
diaphragm assembly will move to the left until in its central equilibrium position when the pressure
in chamber B equals the pressure in chamber A and the supply port is closed.
Conversely, for a decrease in nozzle back pressure, the diaphragm assembly will move to the left,
opening the exhaust port and allowing surplus pressure from the receiver and the transmission
pipeline to bleed of to atmosphere until the pressures in chamber A and B are again equal to the
and the exhaust port closed. If the diaphragms have the same cross sectional area as in the
figure above the relay is said to be a 1:1 ration volume booster. By having different areas, other
ratios can be achieved.

Bailey Pneumatic Transmitter.

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As illustrated in the above figure the motion of the drive link changes the vane and nozzle
relationship and the air pressure change in the booster bellows activates the booster relay.
A pneumatic signal proportional to the measured variable indicator position is maintained and the
restoring bellows measures this pneumatic signal proportional to the measured variable

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 Closed Loop Control System
The operation of the plant under automatic control in order to such variables such as temperature,
level, flow viscosity etc is known as process control.
In the figure above the process is the cooling of the lubricating oil in a cooler.
Working around the system from the process the controlled condition is the temperature of the
lubricating oil and this is monitored by a sensor or detecting element, which could be a filled
system thermometer connected to a bourdon tube. This operates a nozzle / flapper device which
produces a pneumatic signal known as the measured value this then goes to the comparator or
controlling unit. Here the signal is compared one method is shown with the signal representing the
required lub oil temperature or set value (set point) or desired value. If the set value and the
measured value are the same the beam will not move, but if there is a difference between these
signals, known as the deviation or error, it means that the lubricating oil from the cooler is not at
the required operating temperature (set point) and action has to be taken to restore it.
The difference in signal pressure on the diaphragms will rotate the beam about the pivot, the
movement being the error signal and this will operate the controlling element.
This develops the signal necessary for the restoration of the oil temperature the signal may be
known as the controller output signal or control signal.
This signal is transmitted to the motor element or diaphragm of a control valve which operates the
correcting element or valve. This then adjust the correcting condition or cooling water flow to
enable the oil temperature to be restored.

Feedback: is the transmission of a signal representing the controlled condition for comparison
with the pre set ( desired condition) set by the operator. This is intended to determine the value of
the controlled condition.
As a loose interpretation the feedback may be considered to be similar to the measured value.

Open Loop Control: this means that there is no feed back of information on the value of the
controlled condition for example some accommodation heating systems. Fans pump air across
steam heating elements into the ship distribution system. The quantity of steam flowing is
controlled by a valve, the setting of which is determined by the deck temperature. As long as this
temperature remains constant, so will the heat to the air and to the accommodation. However if
the air flow changes ,(or the steam pressure or temperature) then the air would become cooler or
hotter, but the steam valve would remain in the same position as it has no feed back information
from the air temperature in the accommodation.

Two step (on-off) Control a simple cheap form of control for use on a process where
considerable deviation from the desired value can be tolerated.
Such control examples fridge room, air bottles pressure. Such systems have only two positions or
conditions open/shut, running or stopped. The automatic controller switches the correcting unit
from one extreme to the other as the controlled condition passes the set point. In a system such
as temperature control of refrigerated domestic store room or steam hot water heater, there is a
time lag between the valve opening and the heat or refrigerant cooling the room. This is known as
a Transfer Lag and due to this the store room temperature or water temperature may take time to
rise or fall as in the figure below. Such systems may be given overlap by the use of differential
pressure switches or using limit switches to start and stop air compressor.

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 Proportional Control.

This is the basic form of modulating control in which the controller is ser up so that any change in
output is directly proportional to the deviation between the controlled condition and the desired
value.
Thus if the boiler water level in the drum falls due to increased steam demand and drops by
20mm, then the automatic controller output to the feed water inlet valve may change from 0.6 to
0.7 bar. If the level drops by 40mm, then the automatic output would change from 0.6 to 0.8 bar.
To obtain optimum performance from the control system and the plant, the former must be
capable of adjustment to suit the characteristics of the latter. In order to do this, the amount by
which the controller output changes for a given alteration in the input can be adjusted when the
system is first set up, and subsequently, should any changes take place as characteristics alter
due to age. The adjustment is made by altering the amplification of the controller, or the number of

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times the change in the input signal is repeated in the output signal change. The variable
amplification is known as the Proportional Band of the controller and is measured by the
percentage of the input range available that is required that is required to make the output signal
change over its full range. Thus the input signal (or error signal) to the controller ranges from 0.2
bar to 1.0 bar, and the output from the controller ranges from 0.2 bar to 1.0 bar, then the
proportional band is 100 % ie. it takes the full input signal range to give the full output signal range.
If however, the input signal only has a range from 0.2 to 0.5 bar ie. 50 % of its range, to make the
output change from 0.2 to 1.0 bar, then the proportional band is said to be 50 %. From these
figures it can be seen that the output signal change (0.8 bar) is twice the input signal (error signal)
change (0.4 bar). Thus the automatic controller has multiplied the input signal change by a factor
of 2.
This is known as the Gain Of the automatic controller.

The effect of varying the proportional band or automatic controller output for a set change in the
error signal or input signal is shown below.

Offset /Droop. When a disturbance happens to the controlled condition due to a change in plant
loading, the correcting unit will have to move to a new position (control valve) in order to restore
the process to the set or desired condition. For example if the steam demand in figure previous
increases, the boiler water level will fall and the feed water inlet valve will have to open to allow
more feed water into the boiler drum to prevent it eventually emptying.
However the only way the correcting unit (or feed water control valve) can be made to move to a
new position in a proportional control system is for the error, ie. The controlled condition (water
level) to move away from the desired value. If the feed water control valve is initially at half stroke
and has to move to three- quarter stoke, for the water to match the steam demand, then the
controller output signal must change by 25% of its range. (if the output range is 0.2 to 1.0bar, it
must change from 0.6 to 0.8 bar, for example)

If the automatic controller has a proportional band setting of 50% (a gain of 2), then input signal
must alter by 12.5% (ie 0.1 bar) to bring about this output change, and hence the boiler water
level must fall. If the boiler water measuring unit has a range of 0 – 400mm then this change in
level means a fall of 50mm. Once the system has reached equilibrium has been established, the
boiler will operate about a water level 50mm below the level existing before the increase in steam

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demand. For each change in steam demand a new level will exist. The difference between the
previous and existing level is known as Offset and sometimes Steady State error or Ultimate
State error.
The offset will remain until a new steam demand causes a change.

Desire Value, Set Value (Set Point)

Confusion can arise over the use of these terms and they are frequently used to indicate the same
value. The set value (set point) represents the value of the controlled condition to which the
comparing element is set, and is usually the desired value. When using a proportional controller
however, the value of the controlled condition actually obtained in a steady state, (the control
point), differs from this desired value as load changes arise, and this difference is known as the
offset. To allow for this, the set value may be adjusted to a value which is different from the
desired value. If for example, in the previous case of boiler water level it is necessary to maintain
a water level of 100mm in the gauge glass and this is the desired value, then the with the load
change described the level drops to 50mm, and ther is an offset of 50mm. The operator will would
be required to to re-adjust the set value to 150mm for the water level to be controlled at the
100mm desired condition.
This set point alteration would have to be made with each load change. Such precision of
definition is not always used and in line with most books set point (value) and desired value will be
taken to be the same.

Offset can be reduced by increasing the gain or sensitivity of the controller. This is achieved by
adjusting the proportional band setting, reducing or narrowing the band (a lower percentage
reading, higher gain reading) and requiring a smaller variation between the measured value and
desired value to give an output signal change over the full signal range.

In the previous case with a 50% proportional band setting, an input signal change of 0.1 bar
brought about an output signal change of 0.2 bar. If the proportional band setting is reduced to
25% (gain of 4 ) it means that only a quarter of the measured has to be used to cause the output
signal to change over its complete range, or an input signal change of 0.05 bar brings about an
output change of 0.2 bar and opens the valve by 25%. Thus if the proportional band is narrowed a
very small deviation between the measured value and desired value cab cause a very large
change in output signal. In the case of the boiler water control valve a very small change in level
would cause the valve to open to its full position allowing such an inrush of water that the level
would be lifted far above the desired value. As the control system tries to correct for this, the
valve shuts in and the flow virtually stops. This oscillation or surging effect with rapid opening and
closing of the valve is called hunting and should be avoided at all cost as it causes damage to the
plant and excessive wear and tear on control and plant equipment.
The effect of varying the proportional band is shown below.

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Actual control systems.

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Jacket water temperature control system.

The system shown is very simple and may not be good enough to keep the jacket water
temperature constant when the engine is manoeuvring, the system can either be improved or it
can be operated in the manually whilst manoeuvring and automatically when the engines are on
full away.

Comparator

F.W. cooler
in
Main
engine

F.W. out
S.W. S.W.
in out
Temperature
sensing
element

Boiler water level control.

A simple level sensor is not good enough to control the water level in a modern high pressure,
high temperature water tube boiler due to the following reason.

When the boiler is operating the water level in the gauge glass reads higher than when the boiler
is shut down, this is because of the presence of steam bubbles in the water.

If there is a sudden increase in steam demand the pressure in the steam drum will fall this will
cause some of the water in the drum to flash off into steam and these steam bubbles will cause
the drum water level to rise, the reduced mass of water in the drum will also result in more steam
being produced, which will again raise the water level, this effect is known as swell.

When the boiler load returns to normal the drum pressure will rise and steam bubble formation will
reduce, causing the drum level to fall, incoming colder feed water will further reduce steam
formation and what is known as shrinkage of the drum level will occur.

If the quantity of feed water entering the boiler is controlled using only water level then the control
system will add more water when it should be adding less and vice versa. Any control system
must take account of steam demand as well as water level to control the flow of feed water.

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 Feed water Steam outlet
control valve

Steam
flow
transmitter

Water level
Level
transmitte
r

Feed
water flow
transmitter

Differential
relay

Desire Controller
d
value

Control Systems and Interlocks.

Complex control systems are used throughout a vessel to start and stop machinery and to ensure
correct running of machinery, in order for these systems to operate safely and without causing
damage to the machinery certain interlocks must be included into the control systems to stop
dangerous occurrences from happening.

Automatic auxiliary boiler control system.

The following interlocks are incorporated into the automatic control system for an auxiliary boiler.
1. Purge air failure.
2. Flame failure.

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 3. High / Low water level alarm.
4. Extra low water level cut out.
5. Burner door micro switch.

Diesel engine starting system.

The following interlocks are incorporated into the control system for starting and running a diesel engine
1. Turning gear disengaged.
2. Correct direction of rotation before fuel is admitted.
3. Confirmation that the engine is accelerating before cutting starting air.
4. Fail to start alarm.
5. Speed limitation, i.e. barred speed range, jacket temperature limitations.
6. Automatic slow down on high jacket temperature.
7. Automatic slow down on high crankcase oil mist.
8. Automatic stop on lub oil pressure fail.

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Viscosity controllers (Viscotherm)
The basic principle of the Viscotherm viscosity monitoring device is shown in Figure 2.24. A
continuous sample of the fuel is pumped at a constant rate through a fine capillary tube. As the
flow through the tube is laminar, pressure drop across the tube is proportional to viscosity. In this
unit an electric motor drives the gear pump through a reduction gear, at a speed of 40 rpm. The
pump is positioned in the chamber through which the fuel is passing from the heater to the fuel
pumps or combustion equipment. Tapping points are provided to enable the pressure difference to
be measured by means of a differential pressure gauge. The gauge is calibrated directly in terms
of viscosity. Parts in contact with the fuel are of stainless steel for corrosion resistance. A
differential pressure transmitter (Figure 2.25) provides an analogue of viscosity to a pneumatic
controller, which regulates the supply of fuel heating

Cascade control
Where two independent variables need to be controlled with one valve, a cascade control system
may be used.

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Figure 5.3.7 shows a steam jacketed vessel full of liquid product. The essential aspects of the
process are quite rigorous:
 The product in the vessel must be heated to a certain temperature.

 The steam must not exceed a certain temperature or the product may be spoiled.

 The product temperature must not increase faster than a certain rate or the product may be
spoiled.

If a normal, single loop control was used with the sensor in the liquid, at the start of the process
the sensor would detect a low temperature, and the controller would signal the valve to move to
the fully open position. This would result in a problem caused by an excessive steam temperature
in the jacket.

Fig. 5.3.7 Jacketed vessel

The solution is to use a cascade control using two controllers and two sensors:
 A slave controller (Controller 2) and sensor monitoring the steam temperature in the jacket,
and outputting a signal to the control valve.

 A master controller (Controller 1) and sensor monitoring the product temperature with the
controller output directed to the slave controller.

 The output signal from the master controller is used to vary the set point in the slave
controller, ensuring that the steam temperature is not exceeded.

Example 5.3.1 An example of cascade control applied to a process vessel

The liquid temperature is to be heated from 15°C to 80°C and maintained at 80°C for two hours.

The steam temperature cannot exceed 120°C under any circumstances.

The product temperature must not increase faster than 1°C/minute.

The master controller can be ramped so that the rate of increase in water temperature is not
higher than that specified.

The master controller is set in reverse acting mode, so that its output signal to the slave controller
is 20 mA at low temperature and 4 mA at high temperature.

The remote set point on the slave controller is set so that its output signal to the valve is 4 mA

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when the steam temperature is 80°C, and 20 mA when the steam temperature is 120°C.
In this way, the temperature of the steam cannot be higher than that tolerated by the system, and
the steam pressure in the jacket cannot be higher than the, 1 bar g, saturation pressure at 120°C.

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