HAZWOPER40 Study Guide PDF

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL TRAINERS, INC.
3812 SHOAL CREEK COURT

MARTINEZ, GEORGIA 30907
1.888.877.7130
WWW.NATIONALENVIRONMENTALTRAINERS.COM
The Official Site of Environmental Health & Safety Training®
40 Hour HAZWOPER
29 CFR 191 0. 120 ( e)
Course Description
2014
Notice: Any reproduction of this document and or images without permission is strictly prohibited.
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This course features the exclusive OSHA accepted HAZWOPER Hands–on

Simulator®. The simulator offers a stunning 3D environment for the
proper donning and doffing of personal protective equipment (PPE).
Cost: $395.00 per person Course Description
Group discounts available (3 or more people). Please In compliance with OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120
email or call us at 1.888.877.7130 for a quote. Price regulations, (40 hour HAZWOPER regulations) this
match guarantee! Must be OSHA compliant and same training is required for individuals who plan to work in
quality course. a area that is defined as a HAZWOPER Work Site.
Upon successful completion of the course, students
will receive a certificate of completion accepted by
Course Features regulatory agencies. Students will be allowed to
proceed at their own pace in this interactive program.
- Includes 14 full length videos Students must complete a minimum of 40 hours of
- HAZWOPER Hands-on Simulator® - (OSHA study time in order to satisfy part of the 40 hour
Accepted) HAZWOPER certification requirement.
- Over 75 interactive flash animations
- Approximately 81 modules Along the way there are self grading quizzes,
- Award winning content - CEU's interactive exercises, full length videos and a self
- Self grading quizzes and final exam grading final exam. The quizzes can be taken as
- OSHA Study Timer (tracks your study time login and many times as needed, and the final exam can be
logout at your convenience) taken a maximum of 3 times. Once a person
- Certificate of Completion (3 certificates) e-cert, 8x10 satisfactorily completes the course, an e-certificate is
and wallet card (instant download of e-certificate upon immediately sent to them via email. The original
course completion) certificates (8x10 and wallet card size) arrive in the
- HAZWOPER course access for 1 year from the time U.S. mail.
of registration
- Free registration into the National Repository® The 40 Hour HAZWOPER Course is taken online. As
(download your certificates at anytime in the future) with any training (classroom or online) the employer is
required by regulations to train the employee(s) on
performance based standards for any applicable

equipment.

©Copyright 1996-‐2014 (All Content & Images) National Environmental Trainers, Inc., All Rights Reserved – Any Reproduction Without Permission is Strictly Prohibited
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Aesthetically pleasing course layout that is user friendly.

Professional voice-overs, animations and high definition
photographs. Self-grading quizzes and final exam.
This is a site-specific requirement and typically cannot be achieved in a regular
public seminar or open enrollment class where training on a respirator(s) or PPE in
general does not meet the site-specific regulatory requirement.
General site workers (such as equipment operators, general laborers, and supervisory
personnel) engaged in hazardous substance clean up and removal of other activities which
expose or potentially expose workers to hazardous substances and health hazards shall
receive a minimum of 40 hours of instruction off the site, and a minimum of 3 days actual
field experience under the direct supervision of a trained, experienced supervisor.
Course Overview
In compliance with the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulation
29 CFR 1910.120, the 40-hour training is to certify individuals who have a role in Hazardous
Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER) operations. This training
course offers 40 hours of on-line instruction. The course is a combination of: web-based
instruction interactive exercises, audio narration of text, videos, animations, self-grading
quizzes, and a final exam. Our OSHA Study Timer is also used to comply with the 40 Hour
HAZWOPER training requirement. A student cannot take the final exam until this time
requirement is met. Once a student successfully completes the training, an e-certificate will
be issued and the original certificates (8x10 and wallet card size) will be mailed. The 40
Hour HAZWOPER Course is taken online. As with any training (classroom or online) the
employer is required by regulations to train the employee(s) on performance based
standards for equipment.
This course features our exclusive OSHA accepted HAZWOPER Hands-on Simulator and
is divided into 81 modules.
While this training course is very comprehensive, additional site-specific training must be
taken for certain hazardous materials/environments that may be encountered at different
sites. This is an employer obligation. As with any 40 Hour HAZWOPER training (classroom

or online), a student must complete

3 days of site-specific training at their first HAZWOPER
site after successful completion of the course. This requirement is for new employees.

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Group discounts available (3 or more people). Please email

or call us at 1.888.877.7130 for a quote. Price Match
Guarantee! We match any competitor’s price for the same
course even though the quality of the course may be vastly
different. You may find less expensive online courses but
they cannot fulfill the OSHA hands-on requirement without a
simulator. We are the only company today with an OSHA
"Overall I thought your 8
accepted online simulator. Course includes Free Study
Guide!
Hour HAZWOPER
Refresher was very
Support
good...”
Includes 24/7 U.S. Based support. An experienced and
highly qualified HAZWOPER instructor is available to you
throughout the training process. Our toll free hotline or
email will allow access to some of the finest instructors in
the U.S.
J. Staples, OSHA
Duration
40 hours (OSHA 40 Hour HAZWOPER Training

Requirement) Note: OSHA requires the 40 hour course will
take a minimum of 40 hours of actual study time. Anything Module 4: HAZCOM Hazardous Materials
less will not comply with the OSHA standard. Our course Identification System (HMIS)
allows you to login and logout at any time increment in HMIS Labels
order to fit your schedule. When you logout, the course will DOT Labels
be bookmarked so you can begin where you left off. The HMIS Labels Explained
study timer will also accrue your time and will begin where
you left off in the course. Module 5: Roles and Responsibilities Part 1
Organizational Structure
Continuing Education Units (CEU's) Essential Personnel
Health and Safety Plan (HASP)
This 40 hour HAZWOPER course has been awarded 6.68 Module 6: Roles and Responsibilities Part 2
Industrial Hygiene CM Points by the American Board of Optional Personnel
Industrial Hygiene (ABIH) - approval number 13334. This Lines of Authority
course is eligible for 3.33 Continuance of Certification
(COC) points from the Board of Certified Safety Module 7: HAZWOPER Site Control
Professionals (BCSP). Site Map
Site Preparation
Prerequisites
Module 8: HAZWOPER Site Zones
None Site Zones Explained
Establishing the Hot Line
The Buddy System
Table of Contents
Module 9: HAZWOPER Support Zones
Module 1: Regulatory Overview Site Security
EPA Communication Systems
OSHA
Levels of Training Module 10: General Health and Safety Plan
Guidelines
Module 2: Hazard Communication (HAZCOM) Health and Safety Guidelines
Regulatory Overview Overview of Health and Safety Plan
Requirements of the HAZCOM Standard
Hazard Evaluation Module 11: Medical Surveillance Part 1
Information for Medical Program
Module 3: HAZCOM Safety Data Sheets (SDS) Develop a Site Specific Medical Program
SDS Form

SDS Form Explained
Container Labeling Requirements

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Module 12: Medical Surveillance Part 2

Medical Examination
Periodic Medical Monitoring
Examination After Injury
Termination Exam
Module 13: Hazard Recognition

Injury Prevention
Boiling Point, Vapor Pressure, Vapor Density, pH,
Flashpoint
Oxidizers
Lower/Upper Explosive Limits
Flammability
Fire Triangle
SDS
Module 14: Respiratory Protection Part 1

Respirator Protection Program
Respirator Types
Selection of Respiratory Equipment
Module 15: Respiratory Protection Part 2

Air-purifying Respirators Module 21: Personal Protection
Combination Canisters and Cartridges Equipment (PPE) Part 3
Types of APR Face Pieces Protective Clothing
Inspection and Maintenance of Protective Clothing
Module 16: Respiratory Protection Part 3 Selection of Chemical Protective Clothing
Supplied Air Respirators (SAR) Permeation and Degradation
Self Contained Breathing Apparatus Work Mission Duration
(SCBA) Combination SCBA/SAR
Module 22: Personal Protection Equipment (PPE)
Module 17: Respiratory Protection Part 4 Part 4
Chemical Concentration Considerations for working in PPE
Protection Factors Air Supply Consumption
Calculating Protection Factors Coolant Supply
Accessories
Module 18: Respiratory Protection Part 5 Special Considerations
Respirator Fit Test (Quantitative and Qualitative)
Respiratory Maintenance Module 23: Personal Protection Equipment (PPE)
Types of Respirator Canisters Part 5
How Respirators Work Reasons to Upgrade/Downgrade PPE
Positive and Negative Pressure Fit Test PPE Inspection Program
Respirator Limits Proper Storage
Cleaning, Maintenance and Storage PPE Before Use Inspection
Module 19: Personal Protection Equipment (PPE) Module 24: Personal Protection Equipment (PPE)
Part 1 Clothing and Ensembles Part 6
Developing a PPE Program In-use Monitoring
Training Donning and Doffing
Program Review and Evaluation Clothing Reuse
Heat Stress and Monitoring
Module 20: Personal Protection Equipment (PPE) Heat Rash
Part 2 Heat Cramps
Level A Heat Stroke
Level B
Level C Module 25: Personal Protection Equipment (PPE)
Level D Part 7
Selecting the level of protection Hand Protection

General Requirements of the OSHA Standard
Eye and Face Protection
Selection of Eye and Face Protection

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Head Protection
Foot Protection
Module 26: Decontamination Part 1

Decon Plan and Procedures
Standard Operating Procedures
Maximizing Worker Protection from Hazardous Wastes
Proper Dress Out Procedures
Levels of Contamination

Personal Decon Station
Extent of Decon Required
Types of Contamination
Amount of Contamination
Levels of Protection

Decon of Personnel and Equipment
Decon During Medical Emergencies
Physical Injury
Heat Stress
Module 35: Placards and Labeling
Module 29: Decontamination Part 4 NFPA Hazardous System Identification
Protection for Decon Workers DOT Placards
Decon Procedures
Chemical and Physical Removal of Contamination Module 36: Excavations Part 1
OSHA Excavation Standard
Module 30: Decontamination Part 5 General OSHA Requirements
Persistent Contamination Competent Person
What if Decon procedure has not worked?
Lab Testing Articles Module 37: Excavations Part 2
Fundamentals that Affect Permeation of Protective OSHA Soil Classification
Clothing OSHA Accepted Manual Field Test Methods
Substance and Tools for Effective Decontamination Visual Test
Manual Test
Disposal of Contaminated Equipment and Materials Module 38: Excavations Part 3
Decon Tools, Devices and Equipment Requirements for Protective Systems
Disposal of Contaminated Materials Options for Protective Systems
Health and Safety Hazards of Decontamination Sloping and Benching
Decon Facility Design Distressed Soils
Trenching and Shoring
Module 32: Handling Drums Part 1 Trench Boxes
Planning and Inspection
Handling Drums Module 39: Confined Spaces
Drum Handling Chart Key Occupational Roles
Safety Attendant
Module 33: Handling Drums Part 2 Authorized Entrant
Opening Drums and Incompatibilities Emergency Rescue Team Training
Other Containers and Incompatible Chemicals
Explosive and Shock Sensitive Wastes Module 40: What is a Confined Space?
Bulging Drums Confined Space Fatalities
Lab Packs Types of Confined Spaces
Leaking, Open and Deteriorated Drums Specific Confined Space Hazards
Buried Drums
Module 41: Confined Space Pre-Entry Procedure
Module 34: Handling Drums Part 3 Part 1
Sampling and Staging Safe Entry Procedures
Drum Sampling Confined Space Entry Plan
Bulking Shipping

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Module 42: Confined Space Pre-Entry Procedure

Part 2
Entry Permits
Crew Briefing
Rescue Operations
Communications
Module 43: Confined Space Entry

Preparing the Confined Space for Entry
Confined Space Atmosphere
Module 44: Confined Space Protective Devices,

Controls, and Monitoring Part 1
Protective Devices
Lockout/Tagout Devices
Safety Barriers
Equipment Used in Emergency Response
First Aid Equipment
Module 45: Confined Space Protective Devices,

Controls, and Monitoring Part 2
Fire Suppression Systems
Top Entry Module 52: Toxicology Part 3
Hot Work Dose and Response
Electrical Equipment Storage in the Body
Chronic Response
Module 46: Confined Space Injury Prevention Toxic
Injury Prevention Chemical Interaction
Causes of Fatalities Dose/Response
OSHA Exposure Limits
Module 47: Confined Space Hazards
Electrical/Mechanical Module 53: Hazard Recognition Part 1
Engulfment and Drowning NFPA Requirements
Fall Hazards and Toxic Atmosphere Job Hazard Analysis
Defining Risk
Module 48: Site Characterization Part 1 Chemical Hazard Identification Systems
Offsite Characterization and Records Search NFPA 704 System
Information Sources DOT Labels and Placards
Interviews Ionizing Radiation
Perimeter Reconnaissance
On-site Survey Module 54: Hazard Recognition Part 2
Chemical and Physical Hazards
Module 49: Site Characterization Part 2 Fires and Explosions
Protection of Entry Team and Documentation Combustibles
Entry Team Shock Sensitive
Monitoring and Hazard Assessment Oxygen Deficiency
Document Control
Module 55: Hazard Recognition Part 3
Module 50: Toxicology Part 1 Site and Equipment Hazards
Chemical Classification Noise
Toxicology Heat Stress
Routes of Exposure and Dose Heat Stroke
Interaction with Other Chemicals Dust, Fumes, Mists Cold Stress
and Vapors
Module 56: Hazard Recognition Part 4
Module 51: Toxicology Part 2 Infectious Diseases (Bloodborne Pathogens, HIV,
Toxicokinetics HBV)
Metabolism Sanitation
Classes of Chemical Toxins Illumination
Dose to Organs Lockout/Tagout

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Module 57: Chemical Awareness Part 1

Hazardous Chemicals
Corrosive Class Chemicals
Labeling and MSDS

"We really enjoyed the
Acids and Bases content and the delivery
Liquid Hazards
Vapor Hazards of your training".
Protective Measures

Hazardous Mixtures
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

Solvents
Health Effects of Solvents
Dos and Don’ts of Solvent Use and Storage S. Maide, U.S. EPA
Fire Triangle

Oxidizers and Gases
Health Effects of Oxidizers and Gases Module 68: Air Monitoring Part 4
Protective Measures Active and Passive Sampling Equipment
Personal Monitors
Module 62: Chemical Awareness Part 6 Radiation Dosimeters
Water Reactive Substances and Explosives Calibration
Characteristics of Water Reactive Metals Personal Sampling Plan
Unstable Materials
Module 69: Air Monitoring Part 5
Module 63: Chemical Awareness Part 7 OSHA Exposure Limits
Radioactive Hazards Measuring Particles, Gases and Vapors
Types of Radiation Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL)
Measurement of Radioactive Materials Time Weighted Averages (TWA)
Radiation Dose Rates Calculating TWAs
Module 64: Chemical Awareness Part 8 Module 70: Air Monitoring Part 6
Radiation Exposure and Protection Site Monitoring
Acute and Chronic Radiation Exposure Monitoring for Immediately Dangerous to Life and
Transferable Contamination Health (IDLH)
Radiation Protection Perimeter Monitoring
Sources of Exposure Variables of Hazardous Waste Site Exposures
Module 65: Air Monitoring Part 1 Module 71: Hazardous Materials Sampling Part 1
Requirements for Air Monitoring Devices Sampling Plan
Sampling Methods Hazardous Materials Sampling
Air Monitoring Equipment Characteristics Sample Collection and Documentation
Module 66: Air Monitoring Part 2 Module 72: Hazardous Materials Sampling Part 2
Types of Direct Reading Instruments Soil, Surface Water and Groundwater Sampling
Calibration Types of Sampling Equipment
Toxic Atmosphere Monitors
Module 73: Hazardous Materials Sampling Part 3
Module 67: Air Monitoring Part 3 Container Sampling
Types of Direct Reading Instruments Cont’d Drum Opening
Photoionization Detector (PID) Personal Protective Equipment
Flame Ionization Detector (FID) Selection of Sampling Equipment
Radiation Monitors
OSHA Action Levels
Module 74: Site Emergencies Part 1
Planning and Personnel
Site Emergencies

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How Teams assist in Emergencies

Roles of Personnel During Emergencies

Communications Safe Distances and Site Mapping
Safe Refuge
Public Evacuations

Evacuations and Emergency Decontamination
Personal Locator Systems
Evacuation Routes and Procedures
First Aid/Medical Treatment
Module 77: Emergency Response Procedures and

Documentation
Rescue/Response Action
Implementing Procedures - Ipsum
Follow up and Documentation
Module 78: Compressed Gas Cylinders

Types and Hazards of Compressed Gases
Identification
Labeling
Module 79: Compressed Gas Cylinders Handling

and Use
Handling and Use
Valves
Regulators
Module 80: Compressed Gas Cylinder Leaks

Identification
Leaking Cylinders
Module 81: Compressed Gas Cylinder

Transportation and Storage
Transportation of Cylinders
Segregation and Storage of Cylinders
Empty Cylinders
HAZWOPER Hands-On Simulator
Final Exam

7/15/2013
40 Hour HAZWOPER
Module Navigation Instructions
Note:
Go forward to other sections of current module
For best results, leave the Pause/Play button
Go back to other sections of current module on play and advance through the sections of a
Pause/Play current section of module module using the Forward button.
Course Overview
40 Hour HAZWOPER
• Welcome to the training session entitled 40 Hour

HAZWOPER. We will be discussing the various
aspects of Hazardous Waste Operations and
Emergency Response (HAZWOPER).
• OSHA requires that you spend a minimum of 40

hours in this course before taking the final exam.
The final exam will not be available to you until
you have at least 40 hours of study time accrued.
World Trade Center, New York, 2001
How to Use This Course Part 1
• This course is divided into modules that you can access from the
main menu or by continuing in the course. You must complete
the course in a sequential manner i.e., proceed from one
module to the next.
• Once you have completed a module, the results are stored in a

database and the next module link will be activated on the main
menu and at the end of your current module. This will allow you
to advance taking consecutive modules if you desire.
• Quizzes are located in the modules that must be taken in order

to proceed in the course. A passing grade for a quiz is 70% or
better. You do not have to pass the quiz to advance in the
course although it is highly recommended. You may take the
quizzes as many times as you like.
• Study Timer – You will notice at the bottom right of your

screen that a timer is displayed. This tells you at all times how
much study time you have accrued. Many of the courses require
a minimum amount of study time (OSHA regulatory
requirement).
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How to Use This Course Part 2
• Logging In and Out – You can login to the course and logout
on your own schedule. Your course will resume where it left off
both in study time and your last module.
• Final Exam – You must pass the final exam with a grade of
70% or better to successfully complete the course and receive
your certificate. You have 3 attempts at taking the final exam
to achieve a passing score. If you do well on the quizzes, you
will pass the final exam. Again, the quizzes can be taken as
many times as you like. The final exam and quizzes are self
grading so you will know your score immediately.
• Certificates – You will receive a total of 3 certificates when

you complete the course. An e-certificate will be emailed to
you immediately upon course completion and the other 2
certificates (8x10 and wallet card size) will arrive in the mail.
• We hope you enjoy the course! Our contact info is listed on

your screen (upper right) at all times in case you need us.
Course Study Timer
• You must stay active in the course or you will be timed out by the OSHA study
timer. If you are inactive for more than 15 minutes e.g., not clicking, you will
see a notice that says “course timer has stopped.”
• If you see this message, please close all windows to our site including any
windows in your task bar (lower portion of your computer screen). This will log
you out of the course but all windows to our site must be closed. Then login
again and the course will continue where it left off both in content and study
time.
• If you finish the material prior to the regulatory required time limit, please go
back and review the quizzes or view one of the many videos.
Course Objectives
40 Hour HAZWOPER (29 CFR 1910.120)
In compliance with the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulation 29 CFR 1910.120, this training
is to certify individuals who will be engaged in Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER)
work. While this training course is very comprehensive, we highly recommend that additional site-specific
training be taken for certain hazardous materials that may be encountered at different sites.
Course Objectives:
• Describe training and other requirements for HAZWOPER workers.
• Describe various types of hazardous substances.
• Define toxicity and describe factors that affect it.
• Describe hazardous substance labeling requirements and standards.
• Describe factors associated with respiratory protection.
• Describe various types of and selection criteria for personnel protective equipment.
• Describe decontamination guidelines and methods.
• Describe proper handling of drums and other hazardous waste containers.
• Recognize results of mixing incompatible chemicals and list examples of various incompatible chemicals.
• Take the HAZWOPER Certification exam.
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Table of Contents
• There are a total of 77 modules associated with this course

along with our exclusive HAZWOPER Hands-On Simulator.
• A final exam is located at the end of the course and you

must pass the exam to become certified.
• The complete list of modules is present on the main menu

and is available to you at any time.
• Ready? Let’s get started!
Module 1
Regulatory Overview
Overview of Pertinent Regulations
Congress passed the OSHA in 1970 to

create a governmental agency that
would regulate and govern worker
protection. All workers have the right
to as healthy and safe of a workplace
as possible. Chemical exposure may
cause or contribute to serious health
effects such as rashes, burns, lung
and kidney damage, heart ailments,
cancer, etc. Worker awareness and
proper response to hazardous
materials is a must to minimize
unnecessary exposures.
The primary components of the OSHA

regulation applicable to the proper
management of hazardous materials
are Title 29, Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR) Part 1910.
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HAZWOPER Standard
The Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER)

section of the OSHA regulations is the centerpiece of worker protection
standards for handling hazardous materials on abandoned waste sites and
emergency response scenarios.
The major requirements are training for personnel engaged in the handling
or use of hazardous substances, a written site-specific health and safety
plan, use of personal protective equipment (PPE) when needed, and
development of an emergency response plan. Depending on the job
classification, a 40-hour (worker) or at least 24-hour (supervisor) initial
HAZWOPER training must be taken prior to working with hazardous
substances. Also, an annual 8-hour HAZWOPER refresher training is
required to maintain the initial training certification.
The training must train workers and supervisors on a) personnel responsible

for safety, b) health and other hazards at the worksite, c) use of PPE, d)
minimization of risks to work hazards, e) safe use of engineering controls
and equipment at the site, f) medical surveillance requirements, and g) the
contents of the site specific health and safety plan. These are the
requirements as listed in the OSHA regulations.
Where Does HAZWOPER Apply?
• Cleanup operations required by a governmental body, whether Federal, state local or

other involving hazardous substances that are conducted at uncontrolled hazardous
waste sites (including, but not limited to, the EPA's National Priority Site List (NPL),
state priority site lists, sites recommended for the EPA NPL, and initial investigations
of government identified sites which are conducted before the presence or absence
of hazardous substances has been ascertained);
• Corrective actions involving cleanup operations at sites covered by the Resource

Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA) as amended (42 U.S.C. 6901 et
seq);
• 1910.120(a)(1)(iii) Voluntary cleanup operations at sites recognized by Federal,

state, local or other governmental bodies as uncontrolled hazardous waste sites;
• Operations involving hazardous waste that are conducted at treatment, storage,

disposal (TSD) facilities regulated by 40 CFR Parts 264 and 265 pursuant to RCRA;
or by agencies under agreement with EPA to implement RCRA regulations; and
• Emergency response operations for releases of, or substantial threats of releases of,
hazardous substances without regard to the location of the hazard.
General Site Workers

• The initial off-site general site worker training course
shall be a minimum of 40 training hours in duration,
shall be of sufficient detail that trainees can demonstrate
competency in the following topics:
• a. The HAZWOPER standard requirements

• b. Health hazards
• c. Safety hazards and safe work practices and
procedures
• d. The rudiments of confined spaces hazards and entry
restrictions
• e. Emergency response plan and procedures
• f. Materials handling procedures and equipment
• g. Sampling procedures, precautions, and applications
• h. Sample collection, monitoring, handling, packaging,
and shipment
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General Site Workers

• i. Respiratory protection including program requirements
and selection, use, care, and limitations
• j. Personal protective ensembles (Levels A, B, C, and D)
and selection, use, care, and limitations
• k. Decontamination principles, practices, and procedures
• l. Worker rights and responsibilities
• m. Medical surveillance requirements
• n. Monitoring requirements, monitoring instruments,
their limitations and demonstration of competency with
instruments trainees may be required to use
• o. Site Safety and Health Plans
• p. The Hazard Communication standard and its
requirements and purpose
• q. The information that is to be provided to the worker
upon initial site entry
Other Related Regulations

Bloodborne Pathogens Standard - (29 CFR 1910.1030)
Permit Required Confined Spaces - (29 CFR 1910.147)
Control of Hazardous Energy - Lockout/Tagout (29 CFR 1910.147)
Excavations (29 CFR 1926)
General Requirements - (29 CFR 1910.132)
Respiratory Protection - (29 CFR 1910.134)
The Bloodborne Pathogens standard (29 CFR 1910.1030) may interface

with HAZWOPER in several scenarios, including but not limited to, cleanup
of a hazardous waste site containing infectious waste, operation of a
RCRA-permitted incinerator that burns infectious waste, and response to
an emergency caused by the uncontrolled release of infectious waste or
where infectious waste is part of the release.
Many work tasks at a HAZWOPER site will cross-over into other areas
regulated by OSHA. All of these related areas to HAZWOPER as listed
above will be discussed in later modules. This course was written based
on current OSHA regulations, guidance documents and enforcement
policies.
Module Quiz
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What does the acronym HAZWOPER stand for?
A) Hazardous Substances Operations and Emergency Response
B) Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response
C) Hazardous Substances Operations and Response
D) Hazardous Waste and Emergency Response
Correct - Click anywhere to continue Incorrect - Click anywhere to continue

Your answer:
You did not answer this question

You answered this correctly!
completely
The correct answer is:
You must answer the question before Submit Clear
continuing
HAZWOPER regulations apply to emergency response operations only for releases and not for
threats of releases.
A) Yes, the statement is correct
B) No, the statement is not correct
C) Maybe
D) Sometimes, depending on the chemical contamination

Your answer:

completely
continuing
A minimum of 24 hours of training is required for...
A) ...hazardous materials technicians.
B) ...incident commanders.
C) ...hazardous materials specialists.
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
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The primary components of the OSHA regulation applicable to the proper management of
hazardous materials are...
A) Title 49, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 1910
B) Title 39, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 1920
C) Title 29, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 1910
D) Title 19, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 1920

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}
Max Score {max-score}
Number of Quiz {total-attempts}

Attempts
Question Feedback/Review Information Will Appear Here
Continue Review Quiz
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Module 2
Hazard Communication (HAZCOM) Overview

and Global Harmonization System (GHS)
Requirements
Hazard Communication Standard (1910.1200)
Intent - To provide employees with information

to help them make knowledgeable decisions
about chemical hazards in their workplace
Standard Requirements
• Written program for each location to cover

issues of chemical safety and hazard
communication (HAZCOM)
• Labels to identify each chemical
• Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs)

(now SDSs under the Globally Harmonized
System GHS)
• Safe work procedures/practices
• Employee training on SDS information and

safe chemical procedures and practices
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Training
• Upon initial employment
• When a new hazardous

product/chemical is introduced
into the workplace
• Change in process
• As deemed necessary by
supervision/management
“Right to Know” Law
• Ensures all employees’ right to know the hazards

of chemicals they work with at their job
• Mandates that employees must be provided with

information about chemicals they work with
through:
o Information on chemical labels

o Safety Data Sheets (SDSs)
o Training on hazard communication
o Written HAZCOM plan
Why is a Standard Necessary?
• To evaluate the hazards of all chemicals imported

into, produced, or used in workplaces in the United
States
• To prevent or minimize employee exposure to

chemicals
• Because chemical exposure can contribute to

serious health effects:
o Heart ailments
o Burns/rashes
o Kidney/lung damage
o Sterility
o Cancer
o Central nervous system damage
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What is The Globally Harmonized System (GHS)?
What is the GHS? The GHS is an acronym for The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of
Chemicals. The GHS is a system for standardizing and harmonizing the classification and labeling of chemicals.
It is a logical and comprehensive approach to: Defining health, physical and environmental hazards of chemicals;
Creating classification processes that use available data on chemicals for comparison with the defined hazard
criteria; and Communicating hazard information, as well as protective measures, on labels and Safety Data Sheets
(SDS).
GHS
Rationale:
“To provide a single, harmonized system to classify

chemicals, labels and SDS with the primary benefit of
increasing the quality and consistency of information
provided to workers, employers and chemical users.”
Effective, in part, on June 26, 2012, with a built-in

transition period and a fully effective date of
June 1, 2016
Why was the GHS Developed?
The production and use of chemicals is fundamental to all economies. The global chemical business is more than a
$1.7 trillion per year enterprise. In the U.S., chemicals are more than a $450 billion business and exports are
greater than $80 billion per year.
Chemicals directly or indirectly affect our lives and are essential to our food, our health, and our lifestyle. The
widespread use of chemicals has resulted in the development of sector-specific regulations (transport, production,
workplace, agriculture, trade, and consumer products). Having readily available information on the hazardous
properties of chemicals, and recommended control measures, allows the production, transport, use and disposal of
chemicals to be managed safely. Thus, human health and the environment are protected.
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Why was the GHS Developed?
The sound management of chemicals should

include systems through which chemical hazards
are identified and communicated to all who are
potentially exposed. These groups include workers,
consumers, emergency responders and the public.
It is important to know what chemicals are present

and/or used, their hazards to human health and
the environment, and the means to control them.
A number of classification and labeling systems,
each addressing specific use patterns and groups
of chemicals, exist at the national, regional and
international levels. The existing hazard
classification and labeling systems address
potential exposure to chemicals in all the types of
use settings listed earlier.
Why was the GHS Developed? (cont’d)
While the existing laws and regulations

are similar, they are different enough to
require multiple labels for the same
product both within the U.S. and in
international trade and to require
multiple safety data sheets for the
same product in international trade.
Several U.S. regulatory agencies and

various countries have different
requirements for hazard definitions as
well as for information to be included
on labels or material safety data sheets.
Updating GHS/HCS
• The adoption of this will affect the OSHA 29 CFR

1910.1200 Hazard Communication Standard with
changes
• GHS is updated every two years
• Hazard Communication Standard, (HCS), to remain

current, can be updated by:
o Technical updates (minor terminology changes),

o Direct final rules (for text clarification), and
o Notice and comment rulemaking (for more substantive
updates or changes)
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OSHA HAZCOM Modifications due to GHS
o Hazard classification of chemical hazards
o Revised labeling provisions that include

requirements for:
 Standardized signal words

 Pictograms
 Hazard statements
 Precautionary statements
o Specified format for safety data sheets in 16

section format and
o Revisions to definitions of terms used in the

standard and requirements for employee training
on labels and Safety Data Sheets (SDS)
HCS Key Revisions Also Include
• Disclosure of PELs and voluntary threshold limit values (TLVs)

established by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH)
• Disclosure of carcinogen status from nationally and internationally

recognized lists of carcinogens
• Inclusion of combustible dust in the definition of “hazardous

chemical” covered on labels and SDS
• Workers be re-trained within 2 years of the publication of the final

rule
• Mixtures (GHS)
o Health hazards can be based on data for mixture
o If no data, extrapolate from ingredient data or other similar
mixtures to classify
HNOC: Hazards Not Otherwise Classified
• Creation of a new category of hazards – “Hazards Not

Otherwise Classified” HNOC
• OSHA originally classified this category
• HNOC (HCS) disclosed on SDS in section 2, not label
• Under new GHS standard, the following are not

classified under HNOC but addressed individually:
o Pyrophoric gases
o Simple asphyxiants
o Combustible dusts
• GHS label elements for combustible dusts:

o Signal Word: Warning
o Hazard Statement: “May form combustible
dust concentrations in the air”
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Other Label Elements
OSHA label elements for:
Pyrophoric Gases:
• Signal Word: Danger

• Hazard Statement: “Catches fire spontaneously if exposed to air”
Simple Asphyxiants:
• Signal Word: Warning
• Hazard Statement: “May displace oxygen and cause rapid suffocation”
Combustible Dusts:
• Signal Word: Warning
• Hazard Statement: “May form combustible dust concentrations in the air”
Are all Chemicals Covered By the GHS?
The GHS covers all hazardous chemicals. There are no complete exemptions from the scope of the GHS for a particular
type of chemical or product. The term "chemical" is used broadly to include substances, products, mixtures,
preparations, or any other terms that may be used by existing systems. The goal of the GHS is to identify the intrinsic
hazards of chemical substances and mixtures and to convey hazard information about these hazards.
The GHS is not intended to harmonize risk assessment procedures or risk management decisions, as described
above."Articles" as defined in the OSHA Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) (29 CFR 1910.1200), or by similar
definitions, are outside the scope of the GHS. Chemical inventory (e.g., TSCA, etc.) and chemical control requirements
in various countries are not harmonized by the GHS.
Classification in the GHS is criteria-based, not limiting coverage to a list that can become outdated. It is not anticipated
that the GHS will develop or maintain an international classification authority or international classification list. Several
countries currently maintain regulatory lists. GHS classification criteria can be used to reclassify chemicals on lists, if
desired. Existing lists, such as those provided by organizations that evaluate cancer hazards, could be used in
conjunction with the GHS to promote harmonization.
Effective Dates for GHS
Effective
Completion Date Requirements Who
Dec. 1, 2013 Train employees on the new

Employers
label elements and Safety
Data Sheet (SDS) format
June 1, 2015 Compliance with all modified Chemical manufacturers,

provisions of this final rule, except: importers, distributors
and employers
Dec. 1, 2015 The distributor may ship products
labeled by manufacturers
under the old system until
December 1, 2015
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Effective Dates
Effective
Completion Date Requirements Who
June 1, 2016 Update alternative workplace labeling Employers

and hazard communication program as
necessary, and provide additional employee
training for newly-identified physical or health
hazards
Transition period May comply with either 29 CFR 1910.1200 Chemical

to the effective Hazard Communication (final standard), manufacturers,
completion dates current standard, or both distributors,
noted above and employers
OSHA
OSHA proposed all revisions of the Hazard

Communication Standard (HCS) become
effective by June 1, 2016
Hazard Classification
• GHS has specific criteria for each health and physical

hazard
• Detailed instructions for hazard evaluation and

determinations whether mixtures of the substance are
covered
• Classification guidance for health hazards and physical

hazards
• Test-method neutral (person classifying a chemical or

substance should use available data and no additional
testing is required to classify a chemical)
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Hazard Classification
GHS: Only terminology changes
GHS has no provisions regarding

Hazard Communication programs
Hazard Communication & Chemical Safety
Chemicals are all around us every day
Chemicals can be:
o Corrosive
o Reactive
o Flammable
o Explosive
o Oxidizing
o Inert
Chemical Safety
In many cases, the chemicals you may deal with at work are no more dangerous than those you use at home
But in the workplace exposure may be greater, concentrations higher, exposure time longer: potential danger could
be greater on the job
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Routes of Occupational Exposure
Inhalation - nearly all materials that are airborne can be inhaled
Skin Absorption - skin contact with a substance can result in a possible reaction
Ingestion - most workers do not deliberately swallow materials they handle
Injection – normally associated with bloodborne pathogens
Ocular - absorbed through the eyes
Hazards
A chemical can pose a “physical hazard”

or a “health hazard”
The hazard communication standard

applies to both types of hazards
GHS looks at:
o Class-nature of hazard
o Category-degree of severity
Physical Hazards
Physical hazards are exhibited by certain chemicals
because of their physical properties (e.g. flammability,
reactivity, etc.)
These chemicals fall into the following classes:
• Flammable liquids or solids
• Combustible liquids
• Compressed gases
• Explosives
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Physical Hazards
• Organic peroxide: May react explosively to

temperature/pressure changes
• Oxidizers: Chemicals that initiate or promote

combustion in other materials
• Pyrophoric materials: May ignite spontaneously

in air temperatures of 130 degrees Fahrenheit or
below
• Unstable materials
• Water reactive materials
Health Hazard
Health hazard - Occurs when a chemical

produces an acute or chronic health
effect on exposed employees
Acute Health Effects
• Happen quickly
• High, brief exposure
• Examples:
- Carbon monoxide
poisoning
- Cyanide inhalation
- Hydrogen sulfide
inhalation
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Chronic Health Effects
• May be caused by chemical exposures

that do not cause immediate, obvious
harm or make you feel sick right away
• May not see, feel, or smell the danger
• Effects are long, continuous and follow

repeated long-term exposure; e.g.:
o Lung cancer from cigarette

smoking
o Black lung from coal mine dust
Keeping It Safe
• Corrosives, solvents and other chemical

substances can be potentially dangerous
• Safe handling procedures
o Read container labels

o Check SDS(s)
• Never sniff a chemical for identification
• Use appropriate personal protective equipment
Module Quiz
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Please define the acronyms HAZCOM and GHS.
A) Hazard Communion and Global Harmonization System
B) Hazard Communication and Global Harmonization System
C) Hazard Command and Global Harmonization System
D) Hazard Conservation Recovery Act and Global Harmonization System

Your answer:

completely
continuing
What is the regulatory citation for the HAZCOM standard?
A) OSHA 49 CFR 1910.1200
B) OSHA 29 CFR 1910.200
C) OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1200
D) OSHA 29 CFR 1910.100

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Quiz 1
Your Score {score}

Attempts
12
7/15/2013
13
7/15/2013
Module 3
Container Labeling
Labeling
The standardized label elements included in

the GHS are:
•Symbols (hazard pictograms): Convey

health, physical and environmental hazard
information, assigned to a GHS hazard class and
category.
•Signal Words: “Danger” or “Warning” are used

to emphasize hazards and indicate the relative
level of severity of the hazard, assigned to a GHS
hazard class and category.
•Hazard Statements: Standard phrases

assigned to a hazard class and category that
describe the nature of the hazard.
Chemical Labels
• Each container must be

labeled, tagged or marked
• Warning can be a message,

words, pictures or symbols
• Labels must be written in

English and prominently
displayed
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Label Information
Chemical manufacturers and importers must provide a label that

includes:
• Harmonized signal word
• Pictogram
• Hazard statement for each hazard class

and category
• Precautionary statements must also be

provided as well as product identifier and
supplier information
Reading Chemical Labels
Warning labels provide important information about the chemical:
 DANGER
 WARNING
Always read the label before you begin a job using a potentially hazardous chemical
Labels/Other Warnings
• Mandatory Appendix C: What specific information

is to be provided for each hazard class and
category once a chemical is classified
• Requirements are significantly different from

existing HCS
• GHS uses nine pictograms to convey health,

physical and environmental hazards
• Proposed HCS requires eight of these pictograms

(no environmental hazard since environmental is
not within OSHA’s jurisdiction)
2
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Labeling
Employers who only store

chemicals may either use the
OSHA new labeling system or
continue using the NFPA 704
rating system or HMIS system
(OSHA plans to change the

labeling system June 1, 2016)
GHS Comparison
GHS classification ratings order of severity differ from NFPA and HMIS:
HMIS/NFPA
0 = Least Hazardous
4 = Most Hazardous
GHS
4 = Least Hazardous
1 = Most Hazardous
Pictograms
Different symbol on white background with red square

frame set on point
Eight pictograms are required by OSHA
The ninth one dealing with the environment is not

within OSHA’s jurisdiction
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Hazard Classes may have ‘Categories’
Health Hazard
Used to describe:
o Carcinogen
o Mutagenicity
o Reproductive toxicity
o Respiratory sensitizer
o Target organ toxicity
o Aspiration toxicity
o Germ cell mutagens
Flame
Describes:
o Flammables
o Pyrophorics
o Self-heating
o Emits flammable gas
o Self-reactives
o Organic peroxides
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Exclamation Mark
Describes:
o Irritant (skin and eye)
o Skin sensitizer
o Acute toxicity (harmful)
o Narcotic effects
o Respiratory tract irritant
o Hazardous to ozone layer

(non-mandatory)
Gas Cylinder
Describes:
o Gases under pressure
Corrosion
Describes:
o Skin corrosion/burns
o Eye damage
o Corrosive to metals
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Exploding Bomb
Describes:
o Explosives
o Self-reactives
o Organic peroxide
Flame Over Circle
Describes:
o Oxidizers
Skull and Crossbones
Describes:
o Acute toxicity (fatal or toxic)
6
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Module Quiz
_________: Convey health, physical and environmental hazard information, assigned to a GHS
hazard class and category.
A) Written statements
B) Symbols (hazard pictograms)
C) Signal words
D) Hazard statements

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Each _____ must be labeled, tagged or marked.
A) container
B) vehicle
C) worker
D) item

Your answer:

completely
continuing
7
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Quiz 3
Your Score {score}

Attempts
8
7/15/2013
Module 4
Safety Data Sheets (SDS)
Safety Data Sheets (SDS)
• Under the GHS, MSDSs (material safety data sheets) become

SDSs (safety data sheets)
• There are 16 Categories listed in a specific order
• GHS requires new SDSs be in uniform format by June 1, 2015
• Developed by chemical manufacturers and importers
• An SDS must be on hand for each hazardous chemical used
Safety Data Sheets (SDS) (cont’d)
•The OSHA ‘Material Safety Data Sheet’ (MSDS) is now

called a ‘Safety Data Sheet’ (SDS)
•The MSDS had 8 non-mandatory sections
•The SDS has 12 mandatory and 4 non-mandatory sections

and is essentially the ANSI Z400.1-2004 format
- Sections 12-15 are not mandatory and cover Ecological,

Disposal, Transport, and Regulatory information
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SDS
What a New ‘SDS’ May Look Like The old Non‐Mandatory ‘MSDS’
Information on a SDS
• Chemical names
• Manufacturer info (name, address and telephone

numbers)
• List of chemical ingredients
• Permissible exposure limits (PELs) and threshold

limit values (TLVs)
Any other exposure limit used or recommended by chemical

manufacturer, importer or employer preparing the SDSs now are
required on the SDS. These limits are derived by the American
Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists and are codified
into law by OSHA.
OSHA uses Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) to set regulatory

levels for acceptable exposure concentrations of hazardous
materials.
2
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• Reactions with other chemicals
• Physical appearance
• Date of preparation
• Plus:
o How to put out a fire caused by a chemical

o How to handle spills
o How to prevent dangerous exposures
Where are your SDSs?
SDSs:
• Must be readily accessible to employees during their work shift
• Are typically kept in a centralized location
• Must be updated as new information becomes available
SDS Categories
Section 1: Identification
Section 2: Hazard identification
Section 3: Ingredients
Section 4: First-aid measures
Section 5: Fire fighting measure
Section 6: Accidental release measures
Section 7: Handling and storage
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SDS Categories
Section 8: Exposure controls and personal protection

Section 9: Physical and chemical properties
Section 10: Stability and reactivity
Section 11: Toxicological information
Section 12: Ecological information*
Section 13: Disposal considerations*
Section 14: Transport information*
Section 15: Regulatory information*
Section 16: Other information
*OSHA indicated that since other agencies

regulate sections 12-15, OSHA will not be
enforcing them
Module Quiz
How many sections are there on a SDS?
A) 12
B) 15
C) 16
D) 13

Your answer:

completely
continuing
4
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A(n) ______ must be on hand for each hazardous chemical used.
A) MSDS
B) SDS
C) Labeling book
D) Procedure

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Quiz 5
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
Module 5
Part 1
Roles and Responsibilities
• This section provides guidance to

assist in the preparation of the Key
Personnel portion of the site-
specific Health and Safety Plan
(HASP). In this section, the HASP
should:
• Identify an individual who has the

authority to direct all activities
• Identify the other personnel
needed for the project and assign
their general functions and
responsibilities
• Show lines of authority,
responsibility, and means of
contact
• Identify the interface with the
response community
Organizational Structure
• The HASP should specifically identify

the names and organizational
relationships among key personnel,
such as the Project Manager, Field
Team Leader, and Site Safety and
Health Officer (SSHO). Designated
alternates for the key personnel,
responsibilities, and lines of authority,
methods of communication, and an
organizational structure should be
identified.
• If specific key job responsibilities listed

in this chapter are not needed, or
more than one function is to be
performed by a person, those
responsibilities should be addressed in
the HASP.
1
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Organizational Structure (cont’d)
• During the first stages of planning, an organizational

structure that supports the overall objectives of the project
should be developed. An explanation of the structure
including the chain of command and overall responsibilities
of supervisors and employees in carrying out the health
and safety program should be included in the HASP. An
organizational chart should be developed depicting the
structure and identifying all key personnel and other onsite
and offsite personnel. The chart should be placed in a
central location, and included in the HASP. At a minimum,
the organizational chart should include the Project
Manager, the SSHO, the Field Team Leader, the Command
Post Supervisor, the Decontamination Station Officer(s),
site security, and the specialty team.
• As the project progresses, it may be necessary to modify

some organizational aspects, such as personnel
responsibilities and authorities, so that individual tasks can
be performed as efficiently and safely as possible. Any
changes to the overall organizational structure should be
recorded in the appropriate sections of the HASP that are
developed for individual phases or tasks. These specific
changes should be communicated to all parties involved.
Onsite Essential Personnel
Project Manager
• The name and position of the individual who has the

authority to direct all activities should be identified (i.e.,
Project Manager, Project Team Leader, or Site Supervisor).
A designated alternate for this position should be identified
by name. A general description including areas of
responsibility (i.e., assumes total control over site
activities, authority to direct response operations) should
be provided for the Project Manager who should be
considered an "onsite essential" person.
• The specific responsibilities of the Project Manager should

be stated. These responsibilities should include, but are
not limited to:
Project Manager (cont’d)
• Management of the project

• Preparation of the work plan, preparation of the HASP,
and designation of the field team
• Designation of an individual within each project to act as
the confined space coordinator (if required)
• Identification of work-site confined spaces
• Designation of an individual to act as the medical
program administrator
• Access permission for visitors, new hires, etc., and
coordinates activities with appropriate officials
• Confirmation of each team member's suitability for work
based on employees training and physician's
recommendation
• Briefing field teams on their specific assignments
• Coordination with the SSHO on safety and health
requirements
• Preparation of the final report and support files on the
response activities
• Liaison with public officials
• Maintenance of a daily site log
2
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Site Safety and Health Officer
• The Site Safety and Health Officer (SSHO)

should be identified by name for each
organization. A designated alternate for each
SSHO should be identified by name.
• A general description of duties, including lines

of authority (i.e., stop work authority) should
be provided. The SSHO should be an "onsite
essential" person.
• The specific responsibilities of the SSHO

should include, but are not limited to:
Site Safety and Health Officer (cont’d)
• Managing the safety and health program for the site

• Periodically inspecting protective clothing and equipment
• Monitoring and evaluating HASP implementation
• Monitoring protective clothing and equipment to ensure that
they are properly stored and maintained
• Monitoring entry and exit to the exclusion zone
• Verifying each team member's suitability for work based on
employee's training and physician's recommendation
• Monitoring the work parties for signs of stress, such as cold
exposure, heat stress, and fatigue
• Advising medical personnel of potential exposures and
consequences
• Participating in the preparation and implementation of the HASP
• Conducting periodic inspections to verify if the HASP is being
properly implemented
• Verifying that the "buddy" system is being implemented
• Knowing emergency procedures, evacuation routes, and the
telephone numbers of the ambulance, local hospital, poison
control center, fire department, and police department
• Notifying local public emergency officials when necessary
• Coordinating emergency medical care
Safety and Health Personnel
• Names and responsibilities of other personnel that have safety

and health duties should be listed. These should include, but are
not limited to:
• Construction safety experts

• Safety specialists/technicians
• Health physicists
• Industrial Hygienists
3
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Field Team Leader
• The individual who is responsible for field team

operations and safety should be identified by name. In
some cases, the Field Team Leader may also be the
same person as the Project Manager and may be a
member of the specialty team.
• A designated alternate for them should be identified by

name. A general description, including areas of
responsibility (i.e., responsible for field team operations
and safety) should be provided for the Field Team
Leader, who should be considered an "onsite essential"
person.
• The specific responsibilities of the Field Team Leader

should be stated. These responsibilities include, but are
not limited to:
Field Team Leader (cont’d)
• Managing field operations

• Executing the work plan and schedule
• Enforcing safety procedures
• Coordinating with the SSHO in determining
protection levels
• Enforcing site control
• Documenting field activities, including sample
collection
• Serving as liaison with public officials where
there is no Public Affairs official designated
Command Post Supervisor
• The individual who is responsible for communications

and emergency assistance should be identified by
name. In some cases, the Command Post Supervisor
may be the same person as the Field Team Leader. A
designated alternate should be identified by name.
• A general description, including areas of responsibility

(i.e., responsible for communications and emergency
assistance) should be provided for the Command Post
Supervisor, who should be considered an "onsite
essential" person.
• The specific responsibilities of the Command Post

Supervisor should be stated. These responsibilities
should include, but are not limited to:
4
7/15/2013
Command Post Supervisor (cont’d)
• Notifying emergency response personnel by telephone or radio

in the event of an emergency
• Assisting the SSHO in rescue operations, if necessary
• Maintaining a log of communication and site activities
• Assisting other field team members in the clean areas, as
needed
• Maintaining line-of-sight and communication contact with the
work parties via walkie-talkies, signal horns, or other means
Emergency Response Coordinator
• The individual who has the authority to direct, control, and

evaluate site emergency response/emergency activities should
be identified. A designated alternate should be identified by
name. The Emergency Response Coordinator should be
considered an "on-site essential" person. A general description
including areas of authority and responsibilities should be
provided.
• These responsibilities should include, but are not limited to:

• Developing, implementing, and updating the emergency
response/emergency action plan
• Conducting rehearsals, employee training, evaluations of
responses/actions
• Assuring the evacuation, emergency treatment, emergency
transport of site personnel and notifying emergency response
units and the appropriate management staff
Decontamination Station Officer
• The individual who is responsible for decontamination

procedures, equipment, and supplies should be identified by
name. In some cases, the Decontamination Station Officer may
be the same person as the Field Team Leader. A designated
alternate should be identified by name. A general description,
including areas of responsibility (i.e., responsible for
decontamination procedures, equipment, and supplies) should
be provided for the Decontamination Station Officer, who should
be considered an "onsite essential" person. The specific
responsibilities of the Decontamination Station Officer should be
stated.
• These responsibilities should include, but are not limited to, the
following:
• Setting up decontamination lines and the decontamination
solutions appropriate for the type of chemical contamination on
site
• Controlling the decontamination of all equipment, personnel, and
samples from the contaminated areas
• Assisting in the disposal of contaminated clothing and materials
• Ensuring all required equipment is available and in working order
• Providing for collection, storage and disposal of waste
5
7/15/2013
Module Quiz
The ______ should specifically identify the names and organizational relationships among key
personnel.
A) HASP
B) plan
C) WASP
D) Permit

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Who has responsibility for overall management of the project?
A) Industrial Hygienist
B) Project Manager
C) SSHO
D) Field Engineer

Your answer:

completely
continuing
6
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
7
7/15/2013
Module 6
Part 2
Security Officer
• The individual who is responsible for managing site security

should be identified by name. A general description, including
areas of responsibility (i.e., maintains site security) should be
provided for the Security Officer, who should be considered
an "onsite essential" person. Specific responsibilities of the
Security Officer should be stated.

• Conducting routine area patrols
• Controlling facility access and egress
• Assisting with communication during an emergency
• Securing accident/incident scenes
• Maintaining a log of site access and egress
Specialty Teams
• Specialty Teams, consisting of field team members (e.g., to

include rescue teams for retrieving personnel from dangerous
situations, and sampling teams for obtaining samples of
potentially hazardous materials) who complete the onsite tasks
required to fulfill the work plan, should be identified. A general
description, including areas of responsibility and stop work
authority (i.e., any or all of the field team may be in the
Specialty Team and should consist of at least two people) should
be provided. Specialty Team personnel should be considered
"onsite essential" personnel. Specific responsibilities of the
Specialty Teams should be stated.

• Safely completing the onsite tasks required to fulfill the work
plan
• Complying with HASP
• Notifying the SSHO or supervisor of unsafe or potentially unsafe
conditions
1
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Optional Personnel - Industrial Hygienist
• The employee who is trained to anticipate,

recognize, evaluate and control
environmental factors or stresses in the
workplace, should be identified by name. A
qualified and designated alternate for the
Industrial Hygienist should be identified by
name. Specific responsibilities of the
Industrial Hygienist should be provided.
• The responsibilities should include, but are

not limited to:
• Conducting health hazard assessments
• Providing advice on adequate health
protection
• Conducting tests to determine worker
exposures to hazardous substances
Optional Personnel – Fire Fighters
• The means of contacting the Fire Department should be

provided in the document, and this information should be
conspicuously posted at locations throughout the site.
Responsibilities of the fire department should be stated.
• These responsibilities include, but are not limited to:

• Having Emergency Medical Technicians on response teams
• Responding to fires that occur on site
• Standing by for response to potential fires and performing
rescues
Optional Personnel – Scientific Advisor
• The advisor that guides the Project Manager in

technical or scientific matters should be named. A
general description should be provided for the
Scientific Advisor (i.e., reports to the Project Manager,
may be located on site or off site).
• The specific responsibilities of the Scientific Advisor

should be stated. These responsibilities include, but
are not limited to:
• Providing advice for field monitoring
• Sample collection
• Remedial plans
2
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Optional Personnel – Logistics Officer and Photographer
Logistics Officer
• The employee who oversees all logistics for the operation should be named. A general description should be provided
for the Logistics Officer (i.e., reports to the Project Manager, may be located on site or off site). The specific
responsibilities of the Logistics Officer should be stated. These responsibilities include, but are not limited to the
planning and mobilization of the facilities, materials, and personnel required for the response.
Photographer
• The employee who is responsible for all site photography should be named. A general description should be provided
for the Photographer (i.e., reports to the Project Manager, may be located on site or off site). The specific
responsibilities of the Photographer should be stated. These responsibilities include, but are not limited to, providing
photographs of site conditions and archiving photographs.
Optional Personnel – Recordkeeper and Public Information Officer
Recordkeeper
• The employee who oversees all recordkeeping for the
operation should be named. A general description
should be provided for the Recordkeeper (i.e, reports
to the Project Manager, may be located on site or off
site.) The specific responsibilities of the Recordkeeper
should be stated. These responsibilities include, but
are not limited to, maintaining the official records of
site activities.
Public Information Officer

• The employee who oversees the release of public
information should be named. A general description
should be provided for the Public Information Officer
(i.e., reports to the Project Manager, may be located
on site or off site.) The specific responsibilities of the
Public Information Officer should be stated.
Optional Personnel – Multidisciplinary Advisors and Medical Support
Multidisciplinary Advisors
• The list and general description of multidisciplinary advisors should be
provided. This list includes representatives from upper level management
and onsite management, field team members, and technical experts.
Specific responsibilities should also be stated. These responsibilities
include, but are not limited to, providing advice on the design of the work
plan and the HASP.
Medical Support
• The general description of the types of medical support personnel required
should be provided, such as consulting physicians, medical personnel at
local hospitals and clinics, and ambulance personnel.
• The specific responsibilities of medical support personnel should be stated.
These include:
• Being familiar with the types of materials on site, the potential for worker
exposures and recommending the medical program for the site
• Providing emergency treatment and decontamination procedures for the
specific type of exposures that may occur at the site
• Providing emergency treatment procedures appropriate to the onsite
hazards
3
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Optional Personnel – Bomb Squad Expert and Communications
Bomb Squad Expert

• The general description of this function should be
provided (i.e., reports to the Project Manager
when requested to perform site-related
functions). The specific responsibilities of the
Bomb Squad Expert should be stated (e.g.,
providing advice on methods of handling
explosive materials and assisting in safely
detonating or disposing of explosive materials).
Communications
• The site-specific HASP should identify the
location of and describe the use of all
communication equipment that could be utilized
in an emergency situation (e.g., telephones,
radios, PA systems). The HASP should identify
how key personnel and optional personnel can be
contacted including work phone, home phone,
radio, etc.
Optional Personnel – Other Sources of Assistance
Other Sources of Assistance
• Procedures for contacting the Emergency Response Center should

be established and identified. A general description for contacting
the communications personnel other than the Emergency
Response Center, such as Civil Defense organizations, local radio
and television stations, and local emergency service networks,
should also be provided. A protocol for contacting the
organizations stated above should be established and stated. The
specific responsibilities of the Emergency Response Center include
providing communication with the public in the event of an
emergency and providing communication links for mutual aid.
• Other organizations such as Chemtrec, EPA, and the NRC may

provide additional assistance and should be identified. An
overview of the services and information available from these
organizations should be provided. Services that may be available
include providing advice on properties of materials, contaminant
control materials, dangers of chemical mixtures that may result
from site activities, and providing immediate advice to those at
the scene of a chemical or radiological emergency.
Module Quiz
4
7/15/2013
The security officer is responsible for:
A) Controlling facility access and egress

B) Inventory control
C) Health and safety
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
The _______is responsible for planning and mobilization of the facilities.
A) Security Officer
B) Logistics Officer
C) Project Manager
D) Project Scheduler

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
6
7/15/2013
Module 7
HAZWOPER Site Control
HAZWOPER Site Control
Introduction
The purpose of site control is to

minimize potential contamination of
workers, protect the public from the
site hazards, and prevent vandalism.
Site control is especially important in
emergency situations.
This module describes the basic

components of a program to control
the activities and movements of
people and equipment at a
hazardous waste site or during
characterization and sampling.
HAZWOPER Site Control (cont’d)
An effective site control program, as required under 29 CFR

1910.120, contains key procedures that reduce worker and
public exposure to chemical, physical, biological, and safety
hazards.
The key procedures for site control include developing a site

map, preparing the site for work activities, establishing site
work zones, maintaining site security, and establishing good
communication. Site control is especially important in
emergency situations. The level of site control needed
depends on:
• Site characteristics
• Site size
• Surrounding community
The site control program should be established in the

planning stages of a project and then be modified whenever
new information arises from site assessment. The order in
which controls should be implemented is based upon site-
specific needs. Each following section will discuss site control
procedures.
1
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Site Map
The site map is an essential piece of

the site control program. The map
serves as a central source of
information about the site and can
help personnel plan and organize
activities.
With the map, issues are identified,

such as access and evacuation routes
and areas requiring the use of
personal protective equipment (PPE).
This makes the site map an excellent
resource and supplement for daily
safety/health briefings of the field
teams.
A site map should be developed prior

to the initial site entry using
information from the preliminary
evaluation.
Site Map (cont’d)
A site map showing topographic features, prevailing wind

direction, drainage, and the location of buildings, containers,
impoundments, pits, ponds, and tanks is helpful in:
• Planning activities
• Assigning personnel
• Identifying access routes, evacuation routes, and problem
areas
• Identifying areas of the site that require use of personal
protective equipment
• Supplementing the daily safety and health briefings of the
field teams
Site Map (cont’d)
The map should be prepared prior to site entry and updated

throughout the course of site operations to reflect:
• Accidents
• Changes in site activities
• Emergencies
• Hazards not previously identified
• New materials introduced on site
• Vandalism
• Weather conditions
Note: Overlays can be used to help portray information

without cluttering the map.
2
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Site Preparation
Time and effort must be spent in

preparing a site for the cleanup
activity to ensure that response
operations go smoothly and that
worker safety is protected.
Site preparation can be as hazardous

as site cleanup. Therefore, safety
measures should be afforded the
same level of care at this stage as
during actual cleanup.
The next sections present the major

steps in site preparation prior to any
cleanup activities.
Site Preparation Steps
• Construct roadways to provide ease of access and a

sound roadbed for heavy equipment and vehicles.
• Arrange traffic flow patterns to ensure safe and efficient

operations.
• Eliminate physical hazards from the work area as much

as possible, including:
- ignition sources in flammable hazard areas
- exposed or ungrounded electrical wiring, and low

overhead wiring that may entangle equipment
- sharp or protruding edges, such as glass, nails, and torn

metal, which can puncture protective clothing and equipment
and inflict puncture wounds- debris, holes, loose steps or
flooring, protruding objects, slippery surfaces, or unsecured
railings, which can cause falls, slips, and trips
Site Preparation Steps (cont’d)
- unsecured objects, such as bricks and gas cylinders, near the

edges of elevated surfaces, such as catwalks, roof tops, and
scaffolding, which may dislodge and fall on workers
- debris and weeds that obstruct visibility
• Install skid-resistant strips and other anti-skid devices on

slippery surfaces
• Construct operation pads for mobile facilities and

temporary structures
• Construct loading docks, processing and staging areas,

and decontamination pads
• Provide adequate illumination for work activities. Equip

temporary lights with guards to prevent accidental contact
• Install all wiring and electrical equipment in accordance

with the National Electric Code
3
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Module Quiz
The purpose of a site control program is to...
A) minimize potential contamination.

B) protect the public.
C) protect the environment.
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Site control zones at a hazardous materials incident are established primarily:
A) So the logistics officer can establish a staging area.

B) Because OSHA requires it.
C) To isolate the scene and lessen risk to public and responders.
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
4
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
Module 8
HAZWOPER Site Work Zones
HAZWOPER Site Work Zones
• HAZWOPER site work zones are designed

to reduce the accidental spread of
hazardous substances by workers from
the contaminated area to the clean area.
Zones should be delineated on the site
where different types of operations will
occur, and the flow of personnel among
the zones should be controlled.
• The establishment of work zones will help

ensure that: personnel are properly
protected against the hazards present
where they are working, work activities
and contamination are confined to the
appropriate areas, and personnel can be
located and evacuated in an emergency.
HAZWOPER Site Work Zones (cont’d)
• Hazardous waste sites should be divided

into as many different zones as needed
to meet operational and safety
objectives. For illustration, this course
describes three frequently used zones
• Exclusion Zone, the contaminated area.
• Contamination Reduction Zone (CRZ),

area where decontamination takes place.
• Support Zone, the uncontaminated area

where workers should not be exposed to
hazardous conditions.
1
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HAZWOPER Site Work Zones (cont’d)
• Delineation of these three zones

should be based on sampling and
monitoring results and on an
evaluation of potential routes and
amount of contaminant dispersion in
the event of a release.
• Movement of personnel and

equipment among these zones
should be minimized and restricted
to specific Access Control Points to
prevent cross-contamination from
contaminated areas to clean areas.
This is extremely important if you
are dealing with radiological
materials.
Exclusion Zone
• The Exclusion Zone is the area

where contamination does or
could occur. The primary
activities performed in the
Exclusion Zone are:
• Site characterization, such as

mapping, photographing, and
sampling.
• Installation of wells for

groundwater monitoring.
• Cleanup work, such as drum

movement, drum staging, and
materials bulking.
Exclusion Zone
• The outer boundary of the Exclusion Zone, called the

Hotline, should be established according to information
in the following sections.
• It should be clearly marked by lines, placards, hazard

tape and/or signs; or enclosed by physical barriers, such
as chains, fences, or ropes.
• Access Control Points should be established at the

periphery of the Exclusion Zone to regulate the flow of
personnel and equipment into and out of the zone and
to help verify that proper procedures for entering and
exiting are followed.
• If feasible, separate entrances and exits should be

established to separate personnel and equipment
movement into and out of the Exclusion Zone.
2
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Exclusion Zone (cont’d)
• The Exclusion Zone can be subdivided into different areas of

contamination based on the known or expected type and degree of
hazard or on the incompatibility of waste streams. This allows more
flexibility in safety requirements, operations, decontamination
procedures, and use of resources.
• The personnel working in the Exclusion Zone may include the Field
Team Leader, the work parties, and specialized personnel such as
heavy equipment operators. All personnel within the Exclusion Zone
should wear the level of protection required by the Site Safety Plan.
Within the zone, different levels of protection may be justified based
on the degree of hazard presented. The level of personal protection
required in each sub area should be specified and marked.
• The required level of protection in the Exclusion Zone varies

according to job assignment. For example, a worker who collects
samples from open containers might require Level B protection, while
one that performs walk-through ambient air monitoring might only
need Level C protection. When appropriate, different levels of
protection within the Exclusion Zone should be assigned to promote a
more flexible, effective, and less costly operation, while still
maintaining a high degree of safety.
Establishing the Hot Line
The following considerations are helpful in

the establishment of a Hot Line.
• Visually survey the immediate site environs
Determine the locations of:

• - hazardous substances
• - drainage, leachate, and spilled material
• - visible discolorations
Evaluate data from the initial site survey

indicating the presence of:
• - combustible gases-organic and inorganic
gases, particulates, or vapors
• - ionizing radiation
3
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Establishing the Hot Line (cont’d)
• Evaluate the results of soil and water

sampling
• Consider the distances needed to prevent

an explosion or fire from affecting
personnel outside the Exclusion Zone
• Consider the distances that personnel

must travel to and from the Exclusion
Zone
• Consider the physical area necessary for
site operations including meteorological
conditions and the potential for
contaminants to be blown from the area
• Secure or mark the Hotline
• Modify its location, if necessary, as more

information becomes available
Establishing the Hot Line (cont’d)
The hot line is not permanent; it is subject to

change as more information about the Exclusion
Zone becomes available. The hot line should be
clearly marked with signs, placards or hazard
tape and/or it should be enclosed by physical
barriers such as fencing.
The Exclusion Zone can be subdivided into

different areas of contamination based on the
type and degree of hazard and possible
chemical incompatibilities. This allows for more
flexibility in safety requirements, operations and
decontamination. The required level of
protection may vary according to the type and
location of the task. For example, a worker
collecting samples from open containers would
need different protection than a worker
monitoring ambient (i.e., background) air.
The Buddy System
• Most activities in contaminated or otherwise

hazardous areas should be conducted with a
buddy who is able to:
• Provide his or her partner with assistance
• Observe his or her partner for signs of chemical

or heat exposure
• Periodically check the integrity of his or her

partner's protective clothing
• Notify the Command Post Supervisor or others if

emergency help is needed
4
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The Buddy System (cont’d)
• The Access Control Point for personnel

entrance to the Exclusion Zone is a convenient
location for enforcing the buddy system for two
reasons: enforcement is the responsibility of
the Project Team Leader, who is stationed in
the CRZ, and all personnel who enter the
contaminated area must pass through the
control point.
• The buddy system alone may not be sufficient

to ensure that help will be provided in an
emergency. At all times, workers in the
Exclusion Zone should be in line-of-sight
contact or communications contact with the
Command Post Supervisor or backup person in
the Support Zone.
Contamination Reduction Zone
• The Contamination Reduction Zone (CRZ) is

the transition area between the contaminated
area and the clean area. This zone is designed
to reduce the probability that the clean
Support Zone will become contaminated or
affected by other site hazards.
• The distance between the Exclusion and

Support Zones provided by the CRZ, together
with decontamination of workers and
equipment, limits the physical transfer of
hazardous substances into clean areas.
• The boundary between the CRZ and the

Exclusion Zone is called the Hotline. The
degree of contamination in the CRZ decreases
as one moves from the Hotline to the Support
Zone, due both to the distance and the
decontamination procedures.
Contamination Reduction Zone (cont’d)
• Decontamination procedures take place in a

designated area within the CRZ called the
Contamination Reduction Corridor (CRC). They
begin at the Hotline.
• At least two lines of decontamination stations

should be set up within the CRC: one for
personnel and one for heavy equipment. A
large operation may require more than two
lines.
• Access into and out of the CRZ from the

Exclusion Zone is through Access Control
Points: one each for personnel and equipment
entrance, one each for personnel and
equipment exit, if feasible.
5
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• The boundary between the Support Zone and the
CRZ, called the Contamination Control Line,
separates the possibly low contamination area from
the clean Support Zone. Access to the CRZ from the
Support Zone is through two Access Control Points if
feasible: one each for personnel and equipment.
Personnel entering the CRZ should be required to
wear the personal protective clothing and equipment
prescribed for working in the CRZ.
• To reenter the Support Zone, workers should remove

any protective clothing and equipment worn in the
CRZ, and leave through the personnel exit Access
Control Point.
• The personnel stationed in the CRZ are usually the

Site Safety Officer, a Personnel Decontamination
Station (PDS) Operator, and the emergency
response personnel. Additional personnel may assist
the PDS Operator by conducting abbreviated
decontamination procedures for sample containers.

• The CRZ must be well designed to facilitate:
• Decontamination of equipment, PDS operators, personnel, and
samples
• Emergency response: transport for injured personnel (safety harness,
stretcher), first-aid equipment (such as bandages, blankets, eye wash,
splints, and water), containment equipment (absorbent, fire
extinguisher)
• Equipment resupply: air tank changes, personal protective clothing
and equipment (such as booties and gloves), sampling equipment
(such as bottles and glass rods), and tools
• Sample packaging and preparation for onsite or offsite laboratories
• Worker temporary rest area: toilet facilities, bench, chair, liquids, and
shade. Water and other potable liquids should be clearly marked and
stored properly to ensure that all glasses and cups are clean. Wash
facilities should be located near drinking facilities to allow employees
to wash before drinking. Drinking, washing, and toilet facilities should
be located in a safe area where protective clothing can be removed.
Facilities should be cleaned and inspected regularly. Appropriate
protective measures should be taken by maintenance workers.
• Drainage of water and other liquids that are used during
decontamination

• Personnel within the CRZ should be required
to maintain internal communications, line-
of-sight contact with work parties, work
party monitoring (e.g., for air time left,
fatigue, heat stress, hypothermia), and site
security.
6
7/15/2013
Module Quiz
The Safety Officer is normally found in the ______.
A) Command Post
B) Exclusion Zone
C) Twilight Zone
D) Contamination Reduction Zone or Support Zone

Your answer:

completely
continuing
The support zone typically has the following.
A) Chemical resistant suits

B) Support staff
C) Supplies
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
7
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
8
7/15/2013
Module 9
HAZWOPER Support Zones
HAZWOPER Support Zones
• The Support Zone is the location of the

administrative and other support functions
needed to keep the operations in the Exclusion
and Contamination Reduction Zones running
smoothly. Any function that need not or cannot
be performed in a hazardous or potentially
hazardous area is performed here. The
Command Post Supervisor should be present in
the Support Zone. Other personnel present will
depend on the functions being performed, and
may include the Project Team Leader and field
team members who are preparing to enter or
who have returned from the Exclusion Zone.
• Personnel may wear normal work clothes within

this zone. Any potentially contaminated
clothing, equipment, and samples must remain
in the CRZ until decontaminated.
HAZWOPER Support Zones (cont’d)
• Support Zone personnel are responsible for alerting

the proper agency in the event of an emergency. All
emergency telephone numbers, change for the
telephone (if necessary), evacuation route maps,
and vehicle keys should be kept in a conspicuous
place in the Support Zone.
To place these facilities, consider factors such as:

• Accessibility
• Topography, open space available, locations of
highways and railroad tracks, ease of access for
emergency vehicles
• Resources
• Adequate roads, power lines, telephones, shelter,
and water
• Visibility
• Line-of-sight to all activities in the Exclusion Zone
• Wind direction - upwind of the Exclusion Zone, if
possible
• Distance - as far from the Exclusion Zone as
practicable
1
7/15/2013
Site Security
Site security is necessary to:
• Prevent the exposure of unauthorized,

unprotected people to site hazards
• Avoid the increased hazards from
vandals or persons seeking to abandon
other wastes on the site
• Prevent theft
• Avoid interference with safe working
procedures
Site Security (cont’d)
To maintain site security during working hours:
• Maintain security in the Support Zone and at Access Control Points

• Establish an identification system to identify authorized persons
and limitations to their approved activities
• Assign responsibility for enforcing authority for entry and exit

requirements
• Erect a fence or other physical barrier around the site
• If the site is not fenced, post signs around the perimeter and use
guards to patrol the perimeter. Guards must be fully apprised of
the hazards involved and trained in emergency procedures.
• Have the Project Team Leader approve all visitors to the site. Make
sure they have a valid purpose for entering the site. Have trained
site personnel accompany visitors at all times and provide them
with the appropriate protective equipment.
Site Security (cont’d)
To maintain site security during off-duty hours:
• If possible, assign trained, in-house

technicians for site surveillance. They will be
familiar with the site, the nature of the work,
the site's hazards, and respiratory protection
techniques.
• If necessary, use security guards to patrol

the site boundary. Such personnel may be
less expensive than trained technicians, but
will be more difficult to train in safety
procedures and will be less confident in
reacting to problems around hazardous
substances.
• Enlist public enforcement agencies, such as

the local police department, if the site
presents a significant risk to local health and
safety.
• Secure the equipment.
2
7/15/2013
Communication Systems
• Two sets of communication systems should be

established: internal communication among
personnel on site, and external communication
between onsite and offsite personnel.
• Internal communication is used to:

• Alert team members to emergencies
• Pass along safety information, such as the
amount of air time left before the next rest
period, air change, heat stress check, etc
• Communicate changes in the work to be
accomplished
• Maintain site control
Communication Systems (cont’d)

• Verbal communication at a site can be impeded by onsite
background noise and the use of personal protective
equipment. For example, speech transmission through a
respirator can be poor, and hearing can be impaired by
protective hoods and respirator air flow. For effective
communication, commands must be pre-arranged. In
addition, audio or visual cues can help convey the
message. The most important thing is that signals are
agreed to in advance.
• Listed below are common internal communication devices.

Both a primary and backup system is necessary. A set of
signals should be established for use only during
emergencies.
• Radio
• Compressed Air Horn
• Signal Board
• Flares
• Visual Signs (Flags)
• Hand Signals

• Effective internal communication also
requires the identification of individual
workers so that commands can be
addressed to the right worker.
• The worker's name should be marked on the

suit and, for long-distance identification,
color coding, numbers, or symbols can be
added. Flags may be used to help locate
personnel in areas where visibility is poor
due to obstructions such as accumulated
drums, equipment, and waste piles.
• All communication devices used in a

potentially explosive atmosphere must be
intrinsically safe and not capable of
sparking, and should be checked daily to
ensure that they are operating.
3
7/15/2013

• An external communication system between
onsite and offsite personnel is necessary to:
• Coordinate emergency response

• Report to management
• Maintain contact with essential offsite
personnel
• The primary means of external

communication are telephone and radio. All
team members should know the location of
the nearest telephone, and necessary
telephone numbers should be readily
available in the Support Zone.
Module Quiz
Which of the following is not true about the Support Zone?
A) Area where field team members suit up.

B) Requires only Level D protection.
C) Should be accessible to emergency vehicles.
D) Should be as close to the Exclusion Zone as possible.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
4
7/15/2013
Site security is necessary to prevent the exposure of unauthorized, unprotected people to site
hazards.
A) True
B) False

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
Module 10
General Health and Safety Plan Guidelines
General Health and Safety Plan Guidelines
Introduction
• Seperate health and safety procedures

should be developed for the
Contamination Reduction Zone and the
Exclusion Zone if the hazards are
sufficiently different.
• Sample health and safety guidelines are

given in the following sections.
General Health and Safety Plan Guidelines (cont’d)
• To ensure that everyone who enters the site

is aware of these orders and that a high
degree of familiarity with their content is
maintained, the list should be:
• Distributed to everyone who enters the site
• Posted conspicuously at the Command Post
• Posted conspicuously at the entrance Access

Control Points into the Contamination
Reduction Zone and/or the Exclusion Zone
• Reviewed by the Field Team Leader or Project

Team Leader with the field crew at the
beginning of each work day. In this way,
personnel are immediately informed of any
new standing orders resulting from a change
in site conditions or work activities.
1
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The following precautions will help preclude injuries due

to such hazards:
• Train personnel in proper operating procedures

• Install adequate onsite roads, signs, lights, and devices
• Install appropriate equipment guards and engineering
controls on tools and equipment. These include roll-
over protective structures, seat belts, emergency
shutoff in case of rollover, and backup warning lights
and signals
• Provide equipment such as cranes, derricks, and power
shovels with signs saying "Unlawful to operate this
equipment within 10 feet of all power lines."Use
equipment and tools that are intrinsically safe and not
capable of sparking, and pneumatically and
hydraulically driven equipment
• In addition to the standing orders, a

hazardous substance information form that
lists the names and properties of chemicals
present on site should be prepared and
posted conspicuously. Employees should be
briefed on the chemical information at the
beginning of the project or whenever they
first join the work team. Daily safety
meetings should be held for all employees.
• Working with tools and heavy equipment is

a major hazard at sites. Injuries can result
from equipment hitting or running over
personnel, impacts from flying objects,
burns from hot objects, and damage to
protective equipment such as supplied-air
respirator systems.
• Where portable electric tools and appliances can be

used, (i.e., where there is no potential for flammable
or explosive conditions), use three-wire grounded
extension cords to prevent electric shocks
• In hydraulic power tools, use fire-resistant fluid that is

capable of retaining its operating characteristics at the
most extreme temperatures
• At the start of each work day, inspect brakes,

hydraulic lines, light signals, fire extinguishers, fluid
levels, steering, and splash protection
• Keep all non-essential people out of the work area
• Prohibit loose-fitting clothing or loose long hair around

moving machinery
2
7/15/2013
• Keep cabs free of all non-essential items and secure all

loose items
• Do not exceed the rated load capacity of a vehicle
• Instruct equipment operators to report to their
supervisors any abnormalities such as equipment failure,
oozing liquids, unusual odors, etc
• When an equipment operator must negotiate in tight
quarters, provide a second person to ensure adequate
clearance
• Have a signalman direct backing as necessary
• All onsite internal combustion engines should have spark
arrestors that meet requirements for hazardous
atmospheres. Refuel in safe areas. Do not fuel engines
while vehicle is running. Prohibit ignition sources near a
fuel area.
For Personnel Entering the Contamination Reduction Zone
• No smoking, eating, drinking, or application of cosmetics

• No matches or lighters
• Check in at the entrance Access Control Point before you enter this
zone
• Check out at the exit Access Control Point before leaving
For Personnel Entering the Exclusion Zone
• No smoking, eating, drinking, or application of cosmetics

• No matches or lighters
• Check in at the entrance Access Control Point before you enter this
zone
• Check out at the exit Access Control Point before leaving
• Always have your buddy with you.
• Wear an SCBA
Module Quiz
3
7/15/2013
The safety plan must be reviewed and implemented prior to entering a HAZWOPER site.
A) True
B) False

Your answer:

completely
continuing
The purpose of a site safety and health plan is to...
A) respond more effectively to the incident.

B) protect the safety and health of responders.
C) reduce the toxic effects on the environment.
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
4
7/15/2013
5
7/15/2013
Module 11
Part 1
Medical Surveillance Program
Introduction
• The Medical Surveillance Program

is a regulatory requirement
designed to ensure that the health
of employees working on
hazardous waste sites is, at a
minimum, monitored and
documented before, during, and at
termination of work on the site.
Medical Surveillance Program (cont’d)
Workers on hazardous waste sites face a variety

of harmful conditions. Their daily tasks may
expose them to toxic chemicals, safety hazards,
biologic hazards, radiation, or temperature
extremes. In order to protect the health of
hazardous waste site workers, 29 CFR 1910.120
requires employers to develop an employee
Medical Surveillance Program. All employees who
are exposed or who may be exposed to
hazardous substances or health hazards at or
above the permissible exposure limits or
published exposure levels must be covered by
the medical surveillance program.
The program applies to employees regardless of

respirator use. Employees who are injured, who
become ill, or who develop signs or symptoms
due to possible overexposure involving hazardous
substances are also to be included in the
program. The primary purpose of a medical
surveillance program is to assess and monitor a
worker's health before employment as well as
during the course of employment.
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7/15/2013
The program also should include procedures for

emergency and non-emergency medical treatment
and for maintenance of accurate records for future
reference.
Employee records may be used to:

- Conduct future epidemiological studies
- Provide evidence in litigation
- Report workers' medical conditions to federal,
state, and local agencies, as required by law
- Assess the effectiveness of engineering controls,
work practices, and PPE
• The medical surveillance requirements

were derived from numerous
fundamentally sound sources and
general accepted work practices. The
medical surveillance program
requirements include:
• Baseline or pre-assignment
examination
• Periodic monitoring
• Examination after illness or injury
• Termination examination
• Maintenance of medical records
• Medical surveillance programs

are designed to establish the
baseline medical condition of
employees and fitness for
duty, determine the ability to
work while wearing protective
equipment, track the
physiological conditions of
employees on an established
schedule and at termination of
the project or employment,
and ensure documentation of
employee exposure and
medical conditions is provided
and maintained as a part of
the employee's medical record.
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Information for the Medical Program
• The Medical Program Administrator should be

provided with the following information by the
Site Safety and Health Officer (SSHO) for
technical evaluation by a physician prior to an
employee examination:
• - all data related to expected or known
employee exposure levels to hazardous and
radiological substances
• - a description of Personal Protective Equipment
(PPE) expected to be worn by the employee
• - a description of the duties expected to be
performed by the employee
• - available information from previous medical
surveillance examinations
• - updated medical and occupational history
Developing a Site Specific Medical Program
A medical surveillance program should be developed

for each site based on the specific needs, location, and
potential exposures of employees at the site. The
director of a site medical program should be a qualified
physician who has had extensive experience in
occupational health services or has assistance from an
occupational medical consultant. To ensure that the
physician understands the OSHA and EPA medical
surveillance requirements, the employer must provide
a copy of the standard and its appendices to the
physician. Substance specific standards (e.g.. for lead
and asbestos) should also be provided, if appropriate.
The employer is also responsible for describing to the

physician each employee's duties relative to potential
exposure levels. Additionally, the physician must be
provided with information from the employee's
previous medical exams and a complete description of
the types of PPE that the employee will be expected to
wear. This information is required so that the physician
can adequately assess the employee's capacity to wear
PPE and other required equipment.
Developing a Site Specific Medical Program (cont’d)
When developing an individual program, site conditions must be

considered and the monitoring needs of each worker should be
determined based on the worker's medical and occupational
history, as well as current and potential exposures on site. The
routine job tasks of each worker should be considered. While it is
often impossible to identify every toxic substance that exists at
each hazardous waste site, certain types of hazardous
substances or chemicals are more likely to be present than
others.
Some of the hazardous chemicals that need to be identified are:

- Aromatic hydrocarbons
- Asbestos
- Dioxin
- Halogenated aliphatic hydrocarbons
- Heavy metals
- Herbicides
- Insecticides, organochlorines, organophosphates and
carbamates
- Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB)
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Developing a Site Specific Medical Program (cont’d)
In compiling a testing protocol, bear in mind that standard

occupational medical tests were developed in factories and
other enclosed industrial environments. The tests were
based on the presence of specific identifiable toxic
chemicals and the possibility of a significant degree of
exposure. Some of these tests may not be totally
appropriate for hazardous waste sites, because these sites
tend to have numerous chemicals present. It is possible
that site workers could have low level exposures to many
chemicals concurrently (i.e., at the same time) while they
could also have high-level exposure to some chemicals. In
addition, most testing recommendations, even those for
specific toxic substances, have not been critically evaluated
for effectiveness.
Another important factor to consider is that risk can vary.

Risk is not simply determined according to the type,
amount, and duration of occupational exposure. It is also
determined according to individual factors such as age, sex,
weight, stress, diet, susceptibility to allergic-type reactions,
medications taken, and off-site exposures (e.g., in hobbies
such as furniture refinishing and automotive body work).
Employees included in the Medical Surveillance Program
Employers must follow these key OSHA provisions with

respect to employees.
• - all employees who are exposed to hazardous substances

or health hazards above published exposure limits (e.g.,
OSHA PELs, ACGIH TLVs, NIOSH RELs) without regard to
the use of respirators, for 30 days or more a year
• - all employees who wear a respirator for 30 days (or
fractions of days) or more a year or as required by 29 CFR
1910.134
• - all employees who are injured, become ill, or develop
signs or symptoms due to possible overexposure involving
hazardous substances or health hazards from an emergency
response or hazardous waste operation and members of
HAZMAT teams.
• Each employer should implement Quality Assurance and
Records Management requirements with respect to medical
records and medical surveillance records. In addition, the
physician(s) should document that they have a copy of the
OSHA regulations, 29 CFR 1910.120, HAZWOPER, and 29
CFR 1910.20, Access to Employee Exposure and Medical
Records.
Examination Content
• Medical examinations should include a medical and

work history with special emphasis on symptoms
related to exposure to hazardous substances or
radiological materials and their health effects, and
on fitness for duty when conducting project tasks.
• The content of the medical examinations should be

based on applicable laws, regulations, and known
or potential exposure to contaminants. Where
possible, the content should be determined by a
licensed physician certified in Occupational
Medicine by the American Board of Preventive
Medicine. However, at a minimum, the physician
making the determination should be
knowledgeable and experienced in occupational
medicine screening and surveillance.
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Pre-employment Screening
Pre-employment screening has two major functions:
1. Determination of an individual's fitness for duty,

including the ability to work while wearing protective
equipment.
2. Provision of baseline data for comparison with future

medical data.
Workers at hazardous waste sites are often required to

perform strenuous tasks while wearing personal
protective equipment, such as respirators and protective
clothing. If a worker is not physically fit, the strain may
result in heat stress and other various health problems.
To ensure that prospective employees are able to meet
work requirements, the pre-employment screening
should focus on the worker's occupational and medical
history and include a physical examination. The
information gathered then becomes a baseline for
comparison with future exams.
Baseline (Initial) Examination
• The employee should receive a

baseline or initial medical
examination based on an activity
hazard assessment prior to being
assigned to a hazardous or
potentially hazardous activity (e.g.,
exposure to toxic substances or
radiological materials, repetitive
motion, heat/cold stress).
Baseline (Initial) Examination (cont’d)
Occupational and Medical History

Each worker should fill out an occupational and medical
history questionnaire. The physician should review and
discuss the questionnaire with the worker prior to the
physical.
Special attention should be given to prior occupational

exposures to chemical and physical hazards. The
physician should also review:
- Past illnesses and chronic diseases, particularly topical
diseases such as eczema and asthma, lung diseases,
and cardiovascular disease.
- Symptoms, especially shortness of breath or labored
breathing on exertion, other chronic respiratory
symptoms, chest pain, high blood pressure, and heat
intolerance.
- Vulnerability to particular substances (e.g., someone
with a history of severe asthmatic reaction to a specific
chemical).
The history should also record relevant lifestyle habits

(e.g., cigarette smoking, alcohol and drug use) and
hobbies.
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Baseline/Periodic Medical Examination Parameters
The physical examination should be comprehensive

covering all body organs and focus on the pulmonary,
cardiovascular, and musculoskeletal systems. Pertinent
observations should be noted such as conditions that
could increase susceptibility to heat stroke (e.g., obesity,
lack of physical exercise) and conditions that could affect
or limit respirator use, such as missing or arthritic
fingers, facial scars, dentures, poor eyesight, or
perforated ear drums. The examination should include at
least the following:
• Height, weight, temperature, pulse, respiration, and

blood pressure
• Head, nose, and throat
• Eyes. Include vision tests that measure refraction, depth
perception, and color vision
• Ears. Include audiometric tests as required in 29 CFR
1910.95. The integrity of the eardrum should be
established since perforated eardrums can provide a
route of entry for chemicals into the body and may
preclude respirator use.
Module Quiz
The primary purpose of a medical surveillance program is to _____________.
assess and monitor a visitors health before a visit as well as

A)
during the course of a visit.
B) assess and monitor a worker's health before employment as well
as during the course of employment.
C) assess and monitor a worker's health at all times of their work

career.
D) none of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
6
7/15/2013
The integrity of the eardrum should be established since perforated eardrums can provide a
_______for chemicals into the body and may preclude respirator use.
A) route of entry
B) notice
C) toxicity
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Medical program management should encourage employees to...
A) ...exercise and diet properly.
B) ...avoid tobacco, alcohol and drug abuse.
C) ...provide a complete and detailed medical history.
D) All of the above.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Which statement about medical exams is false?
A) All medical conditions must be reported to the employer by the

examining physician whether or not they affect work
performance.
B) Workers have a legal right to copies of their individual medical

results.
C) Workers must have a medical exam if they wear a respirator.
D) Special tests are available for exposure to some substances.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
7
7/15/2013
Any hazardous waste site worker that wears a respirator more than 30 days a year must enter
into the medical surveillance program.
A) True
B) False

Your answer:

completely
continuing
How often should a team member be examined, according to federal regulations?
A) Only upon entering and exiting a position with a Hazardous

Materials Team
B) As deemed necessary by individual jurisdiction
C) Annually, beginning within two years of start on the Hazardous

Materials Team
D) Upon entering, on a periodic basis; following appearance of

symptoms that indicate exposure; and, upon termination from a
Hazardous Materials Team

Your answer:

completely
continuing
A hazardous waste site medical program is essential for...
A) ...assessing workers health prior to assignment.
B) ...monitoring workers health and fitness during the course of

work.
C) ...keeping accurate medical records for future reference.
D) all of the above.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
8
7/15/2013
A site-specific medical program should provide the following components:
A) Surveillance
B) Treatment
C) Record Keeping
D) Program Review
E) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Which of the following should an employer provide to the physician for medical surveillance?
A) A copy of the OSHA standard.
B) Substance specific standards (e.g. lead and asbestos) if

appropiate.
C) A description of the employee's duties relative to potential

exposure levels.
E) None of the above.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
9
7/15/2013
10
7/15/2013
Module 12
Part 2
Baseline/Periodic Medical Examination Parameters (cont’d)
• Chest (heart and lungs)

• Peripheral vascular system
• Abdomen and rectum (including hernia exam)
• Musculoskeletal system, especially the spine.
• Genito-urinary system
• Skin
• Nervous system
• Blood tests
• Urine test
Posterior/anterior view chest x-ray, with lateral or

oblique views only if indicated or if mandated by state
regulations. Note: Chest x-rays taken in the last 12-
month period, as well as the oldest chest x-ray
available, should be obtained and used for comparison.
Chest x-rays should NOT be repeated more than once a
year, unless otherwise determined by the examining
physician.
The physical may include both medical screening tests and

biologic monitoring tests. The latter (e.g., blood lead level) may
be useful for ascertaining pre-exposure levels of specific
substances to which the worker may be exposed and for which
reliable tests are available. Given the problem in predicting
significant exposures for these workers, there are no clear
guidelines for prescribing specific tests.
The following identifies the types of tests that may be indicated:

1. A battery of tests based on the worker's past occupational and
medical history and an assessment of significant potential
exposures.
2. Standard established testing for specific toxicants in situations
where workers may receive significant exposures to these
agents. For example, long-term exposure during cleanup of a
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) waste facility can be monitored
with pre-employment and periodic serum PCB testing. Standard
procedures are available for determining levels of other
substances (e.g., lead, cadmium, arsenic, and organophosphate
pesticides).
3. Where applicable, pre-employment blood specimens and serum
are frozen for later testing.
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To determine a worker's capacity to perform while wearing

protective equipment, additional tests may be necessary. For
example:
Pulmonary Function Testing

Measurement should include forced expiratory volume in 1
second (FEV1), forced vital capacity (FVC), and FEV1-to-FVC
ratio, with interpretation and comparison to normal predicted
values corrected for age, height, race, and sex. Other factors
such as FEF, MEFR, MVV, FRC, RV, and TLC1 may be included for
additional information. A permanent record of flow curves should
be placed in the worker's medical records. The tests should be
conducted by a certified technician and the results interpreted by
a physician.
Electrocardiogram (EKG)
A "stress test" (graded exercise) may be
administered at the discretion of the examining
physician, particularly where heat stress may occur.
The physician should make a written assessment of

the worker's capacity to perform while wearing a
respirator, if wearing a respirator is a job
requirement. Note that the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) respirator standard
(29 CFR Part 1910.134) states that no employee
should be assigned to a task that requires the use
of a respirator unless it has been determined that
the person is physically able to perform under such
conditions.
The baseline medical examination

parameters are determined by the
Medical Program Administrator or
the physician, after review of the
activity hazard assessment.
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It may be beneficial to develop a table of hazardous

substances expected at the work site, the target organs
affected, the potential health effects, and the medical
monitoring to be performed.
An example is provided in a table of the following section.

(The information in the table should be consistent with
information in the hazard assessment.)
Hazardous Substances Expected to be Encountered, the Target Organ, Potential

Health Effects, and Recommended Medical Monitoring
Hazardous Substance Target Organ Potential Health Effects Recommended Medical
Monitoring
Toluene Central Nervous System CNS depression, dermatitis History of physical exam skin
dermatitis focusing on nervous
(CNS) and skin
system and changes in skin.
Trichloroethene Liver, CNS, kidneys, Liver disease and kidney History for pre-existing liver disease
or decreased lung functions,
respiratory, skin injury, dermatitis, CNS,
measurement of liver enzymes and
depression, cancer, liver function, urine screen, physical
ventricular arrhythmias exam focusing on nervous system,
skin and respiratory system.
Lead Kidney, blood, CNS, GI tract Renal system disfunction, Urine screen, measurement of
kidney function where relevant,
general CNS impairment.
Complete Blood Count (CBC),
history and physical exam focusing
on CNS.
Herbicides Skin Chloracne, peripheral History and physical exam focusing

on skin nervous system, urinalysis.
neuropathy
• Employees working on hazardous waste

sites, which may include chemical, physical
and/or radiological hazards, should be
provided with medical examinations every
12 months, unless the physician believes a
shorter or longer duration is needed or
required.
The content of the examination is:

• Based on applicable laws and regulations
• Determined by the physician
• Designed to detect change from the
baseline examination
• Designed to identify physiological changes
Employee site-specific exposure data,

parameters identified above, official
dosimeter records, and a hazard
assessment should be provided to the
examining physician.
3
7/15/2013
Periodic medical examinations should be developed and

used in conjunction with pre-employment screening
examinations. The periodic exam reports may be
compared to the baseline data, which helps to determine
early signs of adverse health effects. Detection of early
signs promotes the development of appropriate
protective measures.
The frequency and content of examinations will vary,

depending on the nature of the work and exposures.
Generally, medical examinations have been
recommended at least yearly. More frequent
examinations may be necessary, depending on the extent
of potential or actual exposure, the type of chemicals
involved, the duration of the work assignment, and the
individual worker's profile. For example, workers
participating in the cleanup of a PCB-contaminated
building were initially examined monthly for serum PCB
levels.
Periodic Medical Monitoring (cont’d)
Review of the data from the first few months revealed no

appreciable evidence of PCB exposure. The frequency of PCB
testing was then reduced. Periodic screening exams can include:
- Interval medical history, focusing on changes in health status,

illness, and possible work-related symptoms. The examining
physician should have information about the worker's interval
exposure history, including exposure monitoring at the job site,
supplemented by worker reported exposure history and general
information on possible exposures at previously worked sites.
- Physical examination
- Additional medical testing, depending on available exposure

information, medical history, and examination results. Testing
should be specific for the possible medical effects of the worker's
exposure. Multiple testing for a large range of potential
exposures is not always useful; it may involve invasive
procedures (e.g., tissue biopsy), be expensive, and may produce
false positive results.
Periodic Medical Monitoring (cont’d)
- Pulmonary function tests should be administered if the

individual uses a respirator, has been or may be
exposed to irritating or toxic substances, or has
breathing difficulties, especially when wearing a
respirator
- Blood and urine tests when indicated
- Audiometric tests. Annual retests are required for

personnel subject to high noise exposures, required to
wear hearing protection, or as otherwise indicated.
- Vision tests. Annual retest is recommended to check for

vision degradation.
4
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Examination after Illness or Injury (cont’d)
In the case of injury or illness, the Site

Safety and Health Officer (SSHO) or
his/her designated alternate is responsible
for notifying the Medical Program
Administrator of the incident and the
suspected substance involved. If the
substance is unknown, it should be
identified as such.
The examination will be carried out by a

licensed occupational medical provider.
The scope of the examination will be
determined by the physician. The
employee will not return to work until the
physician certifies that the employee is fit
to return to work, activity restrictions are
identified, and documentation of fitness for
duty is provided.
Non-Emergency Medical Treatment
Arrangements should be made for non-

emergency medical care for hazardous waste site
workers who experience health effects resulting
from an exposure to hazardous substances. In
conjunction with the medical surveillance
program, off-site medical care should ensure that
any potential job-related symptoms or illnesses
are evaluated in the context of the worker's
exposure.
Off-site medical personnel should also investigate

and treat non-job-related illness that may put the
worker at risk because of task requirements
(e.g., a bad cold or flu that might interfere with
respirator use). A copy of the worker's medical
records should be kept at the site (with
provisions for security and confidentiality) and,
when appropriate, at a nearby hospital. Treating
physicians should have access to these records.
Termination Examination
The employer should provide a

termination medical examination when
an employee is terminated or reassigned
to an area or activity where the
employee is not exposed to hazardous
substances or radiological constituents.
The termination examination content will

be determined by the physician. If
termination occurs within six months of
a periodic examination, the physician
may determine that an additional
examination is not necessary.
Documentation of the decision not to

provide a termination examination, and
its basis, should be provided in the
medical file for the employee.
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Maintenance and Availability of Medical Records
• The employee should be notified of

recommended limitations upon his/her
assigned work. The physician should provide a
written opinion to the records indicating that
the employee has been informed of the results
of the exam and of any medical conditions
which require further examination or
treatment. In addition, the following specific
records should be maintained:
• Name and Social Security number of employee

• Physician's written opinion, recommended
limitations and results of exam
• Employee medical complaints related to
exposure to hazardous substances
• Information provided to the physician from the
employer (not standard or appendices)
Engineering controls, work practices and PPE
for employee protection
Maintenance and Availability of Medical Records (cont’d)
• Employee medical records and exposure

monitoring records should be maintained
according to the requirements of 29 CFR
1910.120 (f)(8) and 29 CFR 1910.20. Access
to medical records should be consistent with
the requirements of 29 CFR 1910.20.
• The employee medical records will be held in

confidence by the employer to the extent
permitted by law.
Record Keeping
Since employees might work at numerous hazardous

waste sites during their careers, and since adverse effects
from long-term exposure may not become apparent for
many years, proper medical surveillance record keeping
is essential. Records enable subsequent medical care
providers to be informed about workers' previous and
current exposures. Maintain and preserve medical records
on exposed workers for 30 years after they leave
employment (29 CFR Part 1910.20). Exposure records
must be kept for 30 years. Background data for exposure
records, such as laboratory reports and work sheets,
need to be kept only for 1 year.
Records of employees who have worked for less than 1

year need not be retained after employment, but the
employer must provide these records to the employee
upon termination of employment. Make available to
workers, their authorized representatives, and authorized
OSHA representatives the results of medical testing and
full medical records and analyses (29 CFR Part 1910.20).
6
7/15/2013
Record Keeping (cont’d)
First aid records of one-time treatment

need not be retained for any specified
period. Maintain records of occupational
injuries and illness, and post a yearly
summary report (29 CFR Part 1904). The
employer must inform each employee of
the existence, location, and availability of
these records.
When an employer plans to stop doing

business and there is no successive
employer to receive and maintain these
records, the employer must notify
employees of their right to access of their
records at least 3 months before the
employer ceases to do business. At the
same time, the employer also must inform
the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health.
Program Review
Regular evaluation of the medical program is important to ensure its effectiveness. Maintenance and review of medical
records and test results aid medical personnel, site officers, and the parent company and/or agency managers in
assessing the effectiveness of the health and safety program.
The Site Safety Officer, medical consultant, and/or management representative should, at least annually:
1. Ascertain that each accident or illness was promptly investigated to determine cause and to make necessary changes
in health and safety procedures
2. Evaluate the efficiency of specific medical testing in the context of potential site exposures
3. Add or delete medical tests as suggested by current industrial hygiene and environmental data
4. Review potential exposures and Site Safety Plans at all sites to determine if additional testing is required
5. Review emergency treatment procedures and update lists of emergency contacts. The effectiveness of a medical
program depends on active worker involvement. In addition, management should have a firm commitment to worker
health and safety.
Program Review (cont’d)
Management is encouraged to express this

commitment not only by medical surveillance and
treatment but also through management directives
and informal encouragement of employees to
maintain good health through exercise, proper diet,
and avoidance of tobacco, alcohol abuse, and drug
abuse.
In particular, management should:

- Urge prospective employees to provide a complete
and detailed occupational and medical history
- Assure employees of confidentiality
- Require workers to report any suspected exposures,
regardless of degree
- Require workers to bring any unusual physical or
psychological conditions to the physician's attention.
The medical program and training should emphasize
that vague ailments or apparently minor complaints,
such as skin irritation or headaches, may be
important.
7
7/15/2013
Module Quiz
Under the record-keeping requirements of the OSHA Hazardous Waste Standard, the employer
must maintain and preserve medical records of a worker's exposure to hazardous materials for
what period of time?
A) For 1 year, and then the records are sent to NIOSH.

B) For 1 year, and then the records can be discarded.
C) For the term of employment, plus 30 years.

D) For the term of employment, plus 10 years.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
8
7/15/2013
Workers enrolled in medical surveillance programs must have medical examinations at the
following times:
A) Before and after assignment.

After any possible over exposure to a hazardous substance in an
B)
emergency situation.
Annually or at more frequent times if necessary according to the
C)
physician.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Who is required to pay for work-related medical surveillance exams?
A) The worker
B) The employer
C) The worker's insurance
D) None of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Why is assessment of the cardiovascular system an important part of a baseline medical

surveillance exam?
A) It is not important with respect to HAZWOPER.
B) It identifies people with cardiovascular risk factors so that they

will not be permitted to use personal protective equipment
including respirators.
C) It is used to determine whether someone may safely undergo

diagnostic medical testing.
D) It determines the probability of cardiac arrest.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
9
7/15/2013
Periodic medical examinations should be developed and used in conjunction with pre-
employment screening examinations.
A) True
B) False

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Wearing the types of PPE required on a hazardous waste site adds a lot of stress to the
workers.
A) True
B) False

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
10
7/15/2013
11
10/6/2014
Module 13
Hazard Recognition
Injury Prevention
Overview
• This module will address how to identify

various hazardous substances. People
should never rely on their senses in
identifying hazards of hazardous
substances. Many hazardous substances
are odorless, colorless, and tasteless.
• To begin this module, an overview of

physical properties of chemicals is
needed. These will include Boiling Point,
Vapor Pressure, Flash Point, Density, pH,
Vapor Density, Oxidizers, and
Lower/Upper Explosive Limits. A review of
toxicological fundamentals will be
provided in another module.
• Most chemicals can exist in more than one

state: gas, liquid, solid, or aerosol
Aerosols
• Aerosols are mixtures of solid or liquid particles dispersed

in a gas.
– Often generated by spray cans or bottles
– Examples: spray paints, bug sprays, deodorants
1
10/6/2014
Types of Aerosols
• Dusts - produced from solids by mechanical means such as

grinding, crushing. Usually spherical in shape.
• Mists - small liquid droplets suspended in air or gas.

Formed by spraying or splashing or when a vapor
condenses. Visible mists often call fog.
• Fumes - hot gases from heated solids cool and condense

to form very small solid particles in air. Formed by heating
metals (welding), waxes, polymers
• Smoke - complex mixture of particles, vapors, and gases

produced as a result of incomplete combustion
• Smog - combination of smoke and fog
Boiling Point
Any liquid will boil at the temperature at which its vapor

pressure equals the pressure being exerted by the
environment onto the surface of the liquid. This is why
water boils at a lower temperature in high elevations. So
boiling points are related to the pressure exerted on the
chemical.
Liquids in sealed containers (barrels, tanks) will remain as

liquids when heated above their normal boiling points
although their vapor pressures may become very
dangerously high. If heating continues and the pressure is
not adequately relieved by a safety device, the pressure
and temperature within the tank may eventually rise to the
point that some part or all of the container may burst or
rupture.
Water will boil when heated to the boiling point in an open

pan on a stove, but if water is sealed inside a container
and heated to its boiling point, the water will cause the
container to burst.
Boiling Point (cont’d)
This is why firefighters will take steps to cool a tank near a

fire - to prevent a violent tank failure. When a tank bursts
under this scenario, the liquid tends to vaporize almost
instantly, and if flammable, burn almost instantly. One of
the dangers associated with a tanker of propane is a BLEVE,
Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion. A BLEVE is a
catastrophic explosion of a flammable fuel.
If a spilled liquid is in an environment above its boiling

point, it will rapidly boil and expand, sometimes explosively.
An example of this is Ammonia. Ammonia boils at -28.17
degrees Fahrenheit. If Ammonia spills, there may be a
second phase reaction, which can cause a cloud of Ammonia
to expand and move very quickly. Ammonia is lighter than
air, and once it warms up, it tends to move up and way into
the atmosphere.
Often, the available data about a chemical will indicate its

boiling point, but, just like water, a chemical in liquid form
will evaporate at temperatures far below the boiling point.
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Vapor Pressure
• To begin with, a vapor enters the

atmosphere when a liquid evaporates. This
is a function of the temperature. As the
temperature rises, more vapors are formed
and released into the air. Vapor pressure is
the measure of how many vapors are
formed from a liquid.
• Chemicals with high vapor pressures are

more likely to volatilize and contaminate the
ambient air than chemicals with low vapor
pressures.
Vapor Pressure (cont’d)
• Examples of Chemicals with High Vapor

Pressures: (Vapor pressures above 10-
millimeter [mm] mercury [Hg] at room
temperature) Acetone (180 mmHg), Methyl
Alcohol (96 mmHg), Benzene (75 mmHg)
• Examples of Chemicals with Moderate Vapor

Pressures: (Vapor Pressures between 1 and
10 mmHg at room temperature) Turpentine
(5 mmHg), Nitric Acid (10mmHg)
• Examples of Chemicals with Low Vapor

Pressures: (Vapor Pressures of less than 1
mmHg at room temperature) Sulfuric Acid
(0.001 mmHg), Nicotine (0.08 mmHg)
Vapor Pressure (cont’d)
• Vapor pressures can tell us which chemicals

are more likely to become airborne hazards
and possibly become explosive hazards.
Using the above examples from the previous
section, we can see that if equal
concentrations of acetone and sulfuric acid
were released into the ambient air, acetone
would become more of a hazard from a
vapor pressure standpoint.
• Be sure to read Safety Data Sheets (SDS)

on vapor pressures of the hazardous
substances you are dealing with.
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Flashpoint
• The flashpoint of a chemical or hazardous substance is the

lowest possible temperature at which enough vapors will be
emitted to create a fire from an ignition source.
• An ignition source could be a fire, match, spark, etc. For
example, gasoline has a flashpoint of -45 degrees
Fahrenheit. At room temperature (68 degrees Fahrenheit)
gasoline would give off enough vapors into the air so that
the vapors would ignite and burn if an ignition source was
present.
• Let us now make a distinction between flammable and
combustible chemicals with respect to flashpoints. A
flammable liquid is a liquid with a flashpoint less than 100
degrees Fahrenheit e.g., gasoline. A combustible liquid has
a flashpoint higher than 100 degrees Fahrenheit e.g.,
kerosene.
• Flammable liquids are high fire risks whereas combustible
liquids are moderate fire risks.
Density
• Density is the mass of a substance

per unit volume
– For example g/cm3, g/m3
Specific Gravity
• Specific gravity (SG) is a ratio of the mass of

a material to the mass of an equal volume of
water at 4 degrees Celsius (39 degrees
Fahrenheit).
• The specific gravity of water is 1.0.
• Because specific gravity is a ratio, it is a unit

less quantity. For example, the specific
gravity of water at 4 degrees Celsius is 1.0
while its density is 1.0 g/cm3
• Substances with a specific gravity of 1 are

neutrally buoyant in water, those with SG
greater than one are denser than water, and
so (ignoring surface tension effects) will sink
in it, and those with an SG of less than one
are less dense than water, and so will float.
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Melting Point
• The melting point is the

temperature at which a solid
changes to a liquid.
• Also the freezing point is the

temperature where a liquid
changes to solid.
Water Solubility
• Water solubility is the maximum amount of a chemical that

will dissolve in pure water at a specified temperature.
• Units of solubility:
– Weight of solute per weight of solvent (ppm, ppb, g/kg)
– Weight of solute per volume (mg/L, ug/L) of solvent
– Molarity (moles/L)
– Percent solution (g/100 mL x 100).
• similar chemicals will dissolve in one another (like dissolves

like)
• Water miscible - mixes with water in all proportions.
Water Solubility (cont’d)
The following are examples of solubility of a substance at a given

temperature.
• Sodium chloride = 360 g/L at 25 degrees Celsius

• Silver chloride = 2 mg/L at 25 degrees Celsius
• Methanol = water miscible
• Phenol = 83 g/L at 25 degrees Celsius
• Benzene = 1780 mg/L at 25 degrees Celsius
• Hexachlorobenzene = 0.006 mg/L at 25 degrees Celsius
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Viscosity
• Viscosity is the measure of how well a liquid pours
• Measured in Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS)
• Determined by heating liquid to standard temperature then

pouring it though an opening of specified size. Number of
seconds required to fill 60 mL flask is its SUS viscosity
rating.
• Non-viscous liquids: gasoline, isopropyl alcohol
• Viscous liquids: molasses, lubricating oils
Octanol/Water Partition Coefficient
• Kow = Coctanol/Cwater = Poct
• The Octanol/Water Partition Coefficient

(Kow) is a measurement of how a
chemical is distributed at equilibrium
between octanol and water. It is an
important parameter and is used often in
the assessment of environmental fate
and transport for organic chemicals.
Additionally, Kow is a key variable used in
the estimation of other properties.
• C from the above equation is the molar

concentration of the solute in octanol or
water at a specified temperature
• Provides the operational definition of

chemical hydrophobicity (water fearing)
pH
For purposes of this training, the pH of a

chemical or substance below 7 is
considered to be an acid; the pH of a
chemical or substance above 7 is
considered to be a base or caustic. A
chemical with a pH of 7 is considered to
be neutral on the pH scale. Either an acid
or basic solution can cause a severe burn
to an individual's skin, or produce a
violent chemical reaction if the two are
mixed.
The Resource Conservation and Recovery

Act (RCRA) regulates a chemical with a pH
<2 and pH > 12.5 as a hazardous waste.
Common acids that are encountered by
workers are hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric
acid, sulfuric acid, and nitric acid.
Common bases encountered are
carbonates, hydroxides, and oxides.
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pH (cont’d)
Acids
• Highly reactive with living tissues
• React with most all materials
• Toxic reaction products may be formed
• Reactions with metals (Mg, Al) may
generate hydrogen gas
• React with bases to produce salts – heat
Bases
• Strong affinity for water
• Slippery feeling
• Attacks mucous membranes
• Burn more seriously
Sulfuric acid is the most commonly used

acid and sodium hydroxide is the commonly
used base in the United States. Therefore,
we will examine the characteristics of each
of these.
Characteristics of Sulfuric Acid and Sodium Hydroxide
Sulfuric Acid
• Oily liquid, twice as dense as water
• Reactive, moderately strong oxidizer
• Dehydrates skin
• Reacts with copper or lead, generating toxic sulfur
dioxide
• Releases heat with water - boiling, splattering
Sodium Hydroxide
• Caustic, caustic soda, caustic lye
• White flakes, pellets, beads
• Water - much heat released
• Dissolves fatty acids, severe burns
• Corrosive to aluminum, zinc, lead
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Vapor Density
• Vapor Density is the measure of how dense or

"heavy " a vapor or gas is. The density of the vapor
or gas in question is determined by comparing the
weight of the gas or vapor to the weight of air.
• Air has a vapor density of 1. A vapor density of less

than 1 indicates that the gas or vapor will rise
because it is lighter than air. This is important to
know because any vapor or gas that falls into this
category can collect in pockets near ceilings.
• A vapor density of greater than 1 indicates that the

gas or vapor is heavier than air and will sink
towards the floor. This is important to know
because these vapors can pool in the corners or
other areas of low-lying spaces.
Why is Vapor Density Important?
• Vapor Density can tell us which chemicals are more

likely to become airborne and cause explosion
hazards, or displace oxygen from a work area.
• Vapor Density can be calculated from the following

equation to the right. Note: The resulting answer
will be unit less as you are dividing weight by
weight.
• Very dense vapors can be dangerous because they

can collect in low areas and confined spaces and
displace the oxygen present in these areas. If
enough oxygen is displaced, a worker could die.
Also, dense vapors could travel far from their
source and concentrate in areas where you might
not expect them. A good example of this
phenomenon is atmospheric inversion of a gas.
• Always know the vapor density of chemicals in a

confined space prior to entry! The vapor densities
of hazardous substances can be found on a SDS.
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Oxidizers
• Chemically speaking, an oxidizer is a chemical that

takes electrons from a reducing agent in a chemical
reaction. Think about it, the paint on your car after a
period of time becomes dull because the oxygen in
the air is stripping away electrons of paint. Another
example is when nitric acid comes in contact with
skin. The nitric acid oxidizes the organic matter
(skin) and produces a burn or rash. Most oxidizers
contain oxygen. However, some do not.
Some common characteristics of oxidizers are the

following:
• Oxygen releasing materials
• React chemically with a large group of substances
• Are exothermic, and heat can initiate ignition of
combustibles
• Does not have to have oxygen in the compound
Common Oxidizers
Common Oxidizers include the

following.
• Hydrogen Peroxide, Fluorine,

Chlorine, Chromates, Nitric Acid,
Sulfuric Acid, Ammonium Nitrate
(fertilizer), Oxygen, Ozone,
Ammonium Perchlorate, Perchloric
Acid.
• Why is it important to know about

oxidizers? Oxidizers should never
be stored near flammable or
combustible materials as they can
react violently with water or in a
fire.
Flammability
Flammability is the capacity of a material to ignite and burn

rapidly.
As a general rule of thumb, flammable liquids are:

• A liquid having a flash point of ≤ 60.5º C (141º F)
• Any material in a liquid phase with a flash point ≤

37.8º C (100º F) that is intentionally heated and
offered for transport or transported at or above its
flash point in bulk packaging.
• Combustible liquids are a liquid that does not meet the

definition of any other hazard class and has a flash
point of > 60.5º C (141º F) and ≤ 93º C (200º F).
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Flammability (cont’d)
The definitions of "flammable liquid" and "combustible liquid" in NFPA 30 differ from those used by the U.S.
Department of Transportation. Why?
• Definition and classification of flammable and combustible liquids are addressed in Subsection 3.3.33 and Chapter 4 of
NFPA 30. A flammable liquid is defined as a liquid whose flash point does not exceed 100°F, when tested by closed‐cup
test methods, while a combustible liquid is one whose flash point is 100°F or higher, also when tested by closed‐cup
methods. These broad groups are further classified as follows:
Class IA ‐ Flash Point less than 73°F; Boiling Point less than 100°F
Class IB ‐ Flash Point less than 73°F; Boiling Point equal to or greater than 100°F
Class IC ‐ Flash Point equal to or greater than 73°F, but less than 100°F
Class II ‐ Flash Point equal to or greater than 100°F, but less than 140°F
Class IIIA ‐ Flash Point equal to or greater than 140°F, but less than 200°F
Class IIIB ‐ Flash Point equal to or greater than 200°F
• Notice that boiling point is only used to distinguish between Class IA and Class IB. Class IA liquids are extremely
volatile, but there are few liquids that are so classed. Note also that, theoretically, there is no upper limit to Class IIIB.
Flammability (cont’d)
• These definitions and classifications were agreed to years ago by NFPA, the U. S. Department of Transportation (DOT),
and the U. S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in an attempt to remove inconsistencies in the
definitions used at the time. Since then, DOT has changed its definition of "flammable liquid" by raising the upper limit
to 141°F (60.5°C). This was done because the United States is a partner to a world‐wide set of hazardous materials
regulations sponsored by the United Nations and must use the UN definitions, at least for international transportation.
Note, however, that DOT regulations include a so‐called "domestic exemption" that allows a shipper to redesignate as a
combustible liquid any liquid whose flash point is in the NFPA Class II range and which does not meet any other
hazardous material definition.
Flammable liquids are:

• A liquid having a flash point of ≤ 60.5º C (141º F)
• Any material in a liquid phase with a flash point ≤ 37.8º C (100º F) that is intentionally heated and offered for transport
or transported at or above its flash point in bulk packaging.
• Combustible liquids are a liquid that does not meet the definition of any other hazard class and has a flash point of >
60.5º C (141º F) and ≤ 93º C (200º F).
Lower/Upper Explosive Limits
• A Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) is the minimum

concentration of gas or vapor in air below which burning
does not occur when exposed to an ignition source.
Generally speaking, the mixture is too lean to burn.
• An Upper Explosive Limit (UEL) is the maximum

concentration of gas or vapor in air which burning does
not occur when exposed to an ignition source. The
mixture is too rich to burn.
• Flammable Range is the concentration range in between

the LEL and UEL where a fuel can ignite and sustain a
fire. The mixture is just right for a fire or explosion.
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Flammability of Some Organic Liquids
Lower/Upper Explosive Limits (cont’d)
Now that we have defined LEL, UEL and Flammable

Range, let's look at what fires and explosions need in
order to happen.
The three elements needed for fires and explosions are:
• Enough oxygen must be present

• An ignition source must be available (flame, spark, or
heat)
• A source of fuel must be present (certain chemicals and
hazardous substances)
Lower/Upper Explosive Limits (cont’d)
• Many fires can be extinguished by removing or rendering

useless one of these elements. Water is a good
extinguishing agent because it removes heat; foam is
good because it removes available oxygen from the
immediate atmosphere.
• Personnel handling/managing hazardous materials should

always be aware of the LEL, UEL and Flammable Range of
a specific chemical. It is important to note that the UEL
and LEL of a chemical are dynamic and can change in a
work zone. For example, a chemical that is too rich can
disperse itself in a work area and be within the flammable
range; thereby, becoming a fire hazard in the work area.
• Always, before entering a site with a spill, measure the

fuel to air ratio with a monitor (Combustible Gas
Indicator) to observe if the chemical concentration is
within the Flammable Range. Understandably one should
avoid producing a vapor or gas that could readily ignite if
subjected to an ignition source. Be sure to review the
SDS at your facility!
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Module Quiz
The three components essential for a fire are:
A) Oxygen, fuel, ignition source.

B) Oxygen, fuel, primer.
C) Oxygen, fuel, oxygen enriched environment.
D) Oxygen, fuel, a liquid.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Flammable gases with a wide flammable range, such as hydrogen or acetylene, are
____________ than a material with a narrow flammable range.
A) Easier to ignite
B) More difficult to ignite
C) Less toxic
D) More difficult to cool

Your answer:

completely
continuing
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Gases and vapors that are heavier than air:
A) Have vapor densities less than 1.
B) Pose a hazard because they can displace air especially in low

lying areas.
C) Are usually not reactive.
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
A Safety Data Sheet (SDS) tells us that a material has a pH of 1.2. This chemical data tells us
that the material is:
A) Flammable
B) A base
C) An acid
D) Neutral

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Which type of physical hazard causes or supports fire in other materials?
A) Combustible liquid
B) Pyrophoric
C) Flammable liquid
D) Oxidizer

Your answer:

completely
continuing
13
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Your Score {score}

Attempts
14
7/15/2013
Module 14
Respiratory Protection Part 1

Respirator Protection Program
Respiratory Protection
Introduction
When engineering controls alone do not mitigate the

exposure to hazardous substances, the next step is to
provide workers with adequate respiratory protection.
Respiratory protection is key in protecting workers
from dangerous exposures to hazardous substances
that are released into the air.
Many different types and levels of inhalation hazards

exist on a hazardous waste site. Waste site workers
need to thoroughly understand the different types of
respiratory equipment available, protection factors,
and fit testing so they can select the best respirator
for the hazards they will encounter.
Respiratory Protection Program - 29 CFR 1910.134
Under 29 CFR 1910.134, OSHA requires employers to have

a respiratory protection program that covers all employees
whose job requires the use of respirators.
This program must meet the following requirements:

1. Written standard operating procedures covering the
selection and use of respirators must be established.
2. Respirators will be selected based on hazards to which the
worker is exposed.
3. The user will be instructed and trained in the proper use of
respirators and their limitations.
4. Respirators must be regularly cleaned and disinfected.
Those used by more than one worker must be thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected after each use.
5. Respirators will be stored in a convenient, clean, and
sanitary location.
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Respiratory Protection Program - 29 CFR 1910.134 (cont’d)
6. Respirators used routinely will be inspected during

cleaning. Worn or deteriorated parts will be
replaced.
7. Appropriate surveillance of work area conditions
and degree of employee exposure or stress shall
be maintained.
8. A local physician will determine if a user is
physically able to perform the work and use the
equipment. This medical status should be
reviewed periodically (suggested annually). See
Lesson on Medical Surveillance for more details.
9. The user should be properly fit tested and taught
how to check face piece fit before each use. See
the section on fit testing at the end of this lesson.
10. The effectiveness of the program should be
evaluated on a regular basis.
Respirator Types
Respirators vary in type, size, and protection factors.

However, there are two primary types of respirators - air
purifying respirators (APR) and supplied air respirators.
Air Purifying Respirators provide workers with

protection by purifying the air before it enters a worker's
lungs. As air is drawn into the respirator it crosses a
gradient which collects contaminants, thus rendering the
air acceptable for breathing. There are many types of
these respirators. Usually, an APR will consist of a
respirator with a cartridge(s) on the outside and a
motorized device for delivering fresh ambient air across
a filter gradient and then into the respirator for
breathing.
Supplied Air Respirators or Atmosphere-Supplying

Respirators provide protection by supplying air from a
pressurized tank, or from an air compressor. The most
common type of supplied air respirator is the Self-
Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA).
Respirator Types (cont’d)
Atmosphere-Supplying Respirators
Atmosphere-supplying respirators are respirators with
an air source and consist of two types:
- Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA), which

supplies air from a source carried by the user, and
- Supplied Air Respirator (SAR), which supplies air

from a source located some distance away and
connected to the user by an air line hose. Supplied air
respirators are sometimes referred to as air line
respirators.
Air-Purifying Respirators
Air-purifying respirators (APRs), on the other hand,
do not have a separate air source. Instead, they
utilize ambient (i.e., surrounding) air which is
"purified" through a filter before inhalation.
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Selection of Respiratory Equipment
Respiratory protection is of primary

importance since inhalation is one of the major
routes of exposure to chemical toxicants.
Respiratory protective devices (i.e.,
respirators) consist of a face piece connected
to either an air source or an air-purifying
device.
Positive and Negative Pressure Airflow

Different types of airflow may influence the
selection of a respirator:
- Positive Pressure Airflow
- Negative Pressure Airflow
Positive-Pressure Airflow
Positive-pressure respirators maintain a
positive pressure in the face piece during both
inhalation and exhalation. The two main types
of positive-pressure respirators are pressure-
demand or continuous flow.
Selection of Respiratory Equipment (cont’d)
Pressure-Demand
In pressure-demand respirators, a pressure
regulator and an exhalation valve on the mask
maintain the mask's positive pressure, except
possibly during high breathing rates. If a leak
develops in a pressure-demand respirator, the
regulator sends a continuous flow of clean air
into the face piece, preventing penetration by
contaminated ambient air.
Continuous-Flow
Continuous-flow respirators including some
supplied air respirators (SARs) and all powered
air-purifying respirators (PAPR), send a
continuous stream of air into the face piece at all
times. With SARs the continuous flow of air
prevents infiltration (i.e., invasion) by ambient
air but uses the air supply much more rapidly
than with pressure demand respirators.
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Selection of Respiratory Equipment (cont’d)
Powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs) are operated in

a positive-pressure continuous flow mode utilizing filtered
ambient air. However, maximal (i.e., highest) breathing
rates may create a negative pressure in the face piece of a
PAPR.
Negative-pressure Airflow
Negative-pressure respirators draw air into the face piece
via the negative pressure created by user inhalation. The
main disadvantage of negative-pressure respirators is that
if any leaks develop in the system (i.e., a crack in the hose
or an ill fitting mask or face piece), the user draws
contaminated air into the face piece during inhalation.
When atmosphere-supplying respirators are used, only
those operated in the positive-pressure mode are
recommended for work at hazardous waste-sites.
Module Quiz
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Select the most correct statement relating to supplied air respirators.

Supplied air respirators provide the best protection against
A)
respiratory hazards.
B) Supplied air respirators do not have air lines.
A self-contained breathing apparatus does not provide any
C)
respiratory protection.
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
What three variables must be identified before air-purifying respirators can be considered for
use?
A) Identity of hazard, concentration, oxygen content.

B) Hazard, open or confined space, work to be done
C) Hazard, oxygen content, environmental impact
D) Concentration, temperature, humidity

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Gases and vapors that are heavier than air:
A) Have vapor densities less than 1.
B) Pose a hazard because they can displace air especially in low lying areas.
C) Are usually not reactive.
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
5
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Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
Module 15

Air-Purifying Respirators
Air-Purifying Respirators (APR )
Prior to deciding to use an air-purifying respirator,

there are a number of things that need to be
assessed. The oxygen content must be checked
prior to entering a work zone requiring respiratory
protection. At least 19.5 % oxygen must be
present in the proposed work area in order to use
an air-purifying respirator. Assuming that enough
oxygen is present, the next step is to accurately
identify the chemical and its concentration. Please
remember that air-purifying respirators do not
supply oxygen - they only clean the air.
It is imperative that the chemical be identified to

select the correct canister. The next step is to
make sure that the chemical has adequate warning
properties i.e., taste, odor, and irritation. This is
critical because the warning properties of chemicals
will let a worker know if the respirator is not sealed
properly or if the canister has exceeded its life.
Air Purifying Respirators (cont’d)
Things to keep in mind when using an APR are as

follows.
• An odorless chemical does not have effective or

adequate warning properties
• A chemical or hazardous substance that cannot be

smelled at levels below the OSHA Permissible
Exposure Limit (PEL) does not have sufficient nor
reliable warning properties
• Any chemical that we become sensitized to (loss of

smell after a period of time) does not have
adequate warning properties
• Note: Different people or workers will have

different smelling thresholds for certain chemicals
or hazardous substances
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Air-Purifying Respirators (APR)
Air-purifying respirators consist of a face piece and an air

purifying device. The air-purifying device is either a
removable component of the face piece or an apparatus
worn on a body harness and attached to the face piece by
a corrugated breathing hose.
APRs selectively remove specific airborne contaminants

(particulate, gases, vapors, and fumes) from ambient air
by filtration, absorption, adsorption, or chemical reactions.
APRs are approved for use in atmospheres containing
specific chemicals up to designated concentrations. APRs
are NOT approved for IDLH (immediately dangerous to life
and health) atmospheres.
Air-Purifying Respirators (APR) (cont’d)
Air-purifying respirators usually operate only in

the negative-pressure mode except for
powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs),
which maintain a positive face piece pressure
(except at maximal breathing rates).
There are three types of air-purifying devices:

- Particulate filters
- Cartridges and canisters, which contain
sorbents for specific gases and vapors
- Combination devices
Cartridges
Cartridges usually attach directly to the respirator face piece. The larger volume canisters attach to the chin of the
face piece or are carried with a harness and attached to the face piece by a breathing tube. Cartridges have maximum
use concentrations (M.U.C.) specified on the cartridge or in the package in which the cartridge is sealed.
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Combination Canisters and Cartridges

Combination canisters and cartridges contain layers of
different sorbent materials and remove multiple chemicals
or multiple classes of chemicals from the ambient air.
Though approved for more than one substance, the
combination canisters and cartridges are tested
independently against single substances. Thus, the
effectiveness of these canisters against two or more
substances has not been demonstrated.
Filters may also be combined with cartridges to provide

additional protection against particulates. A number of
standard cartridges and canisters are commercially
available. They are color coded to indicate the general
chemicals or classes of chemicals against which they are
effective (29 CFR Part 1910.134(g)).
Respirators should be used only for those substances for

which they have been approved. For a limited number of
specific chemicals, MSHA and NIOSH have granted
approvals for manufacturers' specific assemblies of air-
purifying respirators. It should be noted that approval
testing is performed at a given temperature and over a
narrow range of flow rates and relative humidities; thus,
PROTECTION MAY BE COMPROMISED IN NONSTANDARD
CONDITIONS.
The assembly that has been approved by MSHA and NIOSH

to protect against organic vapors is tested against only a
single challenge substance, carbon tetrachloride; the
assembly's effectiveness in protecting against other vapors
has not been demonstrated.
The efficiency of APRs varies considerably, even for closely

related materials. Use of a sorbent shall NOT be allowed
when there is reason to suspect that it does not provide
adequate sorption efficiency against a specific contaminant.
If a canister or cartridge is to be used against gases or

vapors, the appropriate device shall be used only if the
chemical(s) have "adequate warning properties" (30 CFR
Part 11.150). NIOSH considers a substance to have
adequate warning properties when its odor, taste, or irritant
effects are detectable and persistent at concentrations
below the recommended exposure limit (REL). A substance
is considered to have poor warning properties when its odor
or irritation threshold is above the applicable exposure limit.
Recently the Respiratory Standards have changed to

emphasize that contaminant breakthrough should not be
relied upon as a signal or indicator of possible sorbent
exhaustion. Canisters or cartridges should be changed out
in accordance with a change schedule. Change schedules
can be obtained through the OSHA web site, manufacturer's
schedule, and trade associations; if these are not
applicable, then according to the company's policy.
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OSHA permits the use of air-purifying respirators for

protection against specific chemicals with poor warning
properties provided that one of the following is true:
- The service life of the sorbent is known and a safety

factor has been applied
- The respirator has an approved end-of-service life
indicator
Most chemical sorbent canisters are imprinted with an

expiration date. They may be used up to that date as
long as they were not opened previously. Once opened,
they begin to absorb humidity and air contaminants
whether or not they are in use. Since efficiency and
service life decrease, they should be used immediately.
Cartridges should NOT be used for longer than one
shift. Cartridges must be changed prior to
breakthrough (detection of the chemical through odor,
taste, or irritant effects). They should be discarded
after use.
Types of APR Face Pieces
Different types of face pieces are available for use with the various
types of respirators. The types generally used at hazardous waste
sites are full face piece masks and half masks. Full face piece masks
cover the face from the hairline to below the chin, providing eye
protection. Half masks cover the face from below the chin to over
the nose and do not provide eye protection.
Federal regulations require the use of respirators that have been

tested and approved by the Mine Safety and Health Administration
(MSHA) and NIOSH. Testing procedures are described in 29 CFR
1910.134 Appendix A. Approval numbers are clearly written on all
approved respiratory equipment. However, not all respiratory
equipment that is marketed is approved. Periodically, NIOSH
publishes a list, entitled NIOSH Certified Equipment List, of all
approved respirators and respiratory components.
Module Quiz
4
7/15/2013
The cartridge on your respirator should be changed out:
A) Prior to breakthrough occuring.
B) Based on the cartridge manufacturer's expiration date only.
C) Based on employer's change schedule.
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
APRs are NOT approved for ___________
A) Asbestos removal
B) Confined spaces
C) IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) atmospheres.
D) ADLH (acutely dangerous to life and health) atmospheres.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
The class of respiratory protection that is NOT recommended for use in hazardous atmosphere
containing less than 19.5% oxygen is the:
A) Air-purifying respirator.
B) Supplied-air respirator.
C) Closed-circuit SCBA.
D) Open-circuit SCBA.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
5
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
Module 16

Supplied Air and Self Contained Breathing Apparatus
Supplied – Air Respirators
• These respirators can be either

demand (negative pressure) or
pressure demand (positive pressure).
The self-contained breathing
apparatus (SCBA) can function as
both. With pressure demand there is a
flow of oxygen or air at all times.
• With demand, the oxygen or air is

available when a person inhales.
• Pressure demand SCBAs have a

protection factor of 10,000.Demand
SCBAs have a protection factor of
1000.
Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)
A self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) usually

consists of a face piece connected by a hose and a regulator
to an air source (compressed air, compressed oxygen, or an
oxygen-generating chemical) carried by the wearer. SCBAs
offer protection against most types and levels of airborne
contaminants. However, the duration of the air supply is an
important planning factor in SCBA use. This is limited by the
amount of air carried and its rate of consumption. In
addition, SCBAs are bulky and heavy; thus, they increase
the likelihood of heat stress and may impair movement in
confined spaces. Under MSHA regulations in 30 CFR Part
11.70(a), SCBAs may be approved for both entry into and
escape from a hazardous atmosphere or escape only.
Escape-Only SCBA Respirators

Escape-only SCBAs are frequently continuous-flow devices
with hoods that can be donned to provide immediate
emergency protection. Employers should provide and
ensure that employees carry an escape SCBA where such
emergency protection may be necessary.
1
7/15/2013
Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) (cont’d)
Entry-and-Escape SCBA Respirators

Entry-and-escape SCBA respirators include an air tank worn
by the worker. Entry and escape SCBAs give workers
untethered (i.e., unrestricted) access to nearly all portions
of the work site. However, they decrease worker mobility,
particularly in confined areas, because of the bulk and
weight of the units. Their use is particularly advisable when
dealing with unidentified and unquantified airborne
contaminants. Generally, these SCBAs are required of
workers operating in oxygen deficient atmospheres (under
19.5 percent), in contaminated zones, and in atmospheres
that are Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH).
Two types of entry-and-escape SCBAs are:

- (Open-circuit) In an open-circuit SCBA, air is exhaled
directly into the ambient atmosphere
- (Closed-Circuit) In a closed-circuit SCBA, exhaled air is
recycled by removing the carbon dioxide with an alkaline
scrubber and by replenishing the consumed oxygen with
oxygen from a solid, liquid, or gaseous source
As required by MSHA/NIOSH 30 CFR Part 11.80, all

compressed breathing gas cylinders must meet minimum
U.S. Department of Transportation requirements for
interstate shipment. (For further information, see 49 CFR
Part 173 and 178.)
All compressed air, compressed oxygen, liquid air, and

liquid oxygen used for respiration shall be of high purity and
must meet all requirements of OSHA 29 CFR Part
1910.134(d). In addition, breathing air must meet or
exceed the requirements of Grade D breathing air as
specified in the Compressed Gas Association pamphlet G-
7.1 and ANSI Z86.1-1973.
Deciding the Appropriate Use of SCBA Key questions should

be asked when considering whether an SCBA is appropriate:
- Is the atmosphere IDLH or is it likely to become IDLH? If

yes, a positive-pressure SCBA should be used. A positive-
pressure SAR with an escape SCBA may also be used.
- Is the duration of air supply sufficient for accomplishing the

necessary tasks? If no, a larger cylinder should be used, a
different respirator should be chosen, and/or the work plan
should be modified.
- Will the bulk and weight of the SCBA interfere with task
performance or cause unnecessary stress? If yes, use of a
SAR may be more appropriate if conditions permit.
- Will temperature effects compromise respirator

effectiveness or cause added stress in the worker? If yes,
the work period should be shortened or the mission
postponed until the temperature changes.
2
7/15/2013
- When the work zone contains hazardous

substances that are unknown
- The hazardous substance or chemical does not

have adequate warning properties
- When an air-purifying respirator protection factor is

not sufficient for the chemical concentration in the
work area
Supplied-Air Respirators (SARs)
Supplied-air respirators, also known as air line

respirators, supply air, never oxygen, to a face piece via
a supply line from a stationary source. SARs are
available in positive-pressure and negative-pressure
modes. Pressure-demand SARs with escape provisions
provide the highest level of protection (among SARs)
and are the only SARs recommended for use at
hazardous waste sites. SARs are NOT recommended for
entry into IDLH atmospheres (MSHA/NIOSH 30 CFR Part
11) unless the apparatus is equipped with an escape
SCBA.
The air source for supplied-air respirators may be

compressed air cylinders or a compressor that purifies
and delivers ambient air to the face piece. SARs suitable
for use with compressed air are classified as "Type C"
supplied-air respirators as defined in MSHA/NIOSH 30
CFR Part II. All SAR coupling must be incompatible with
the outlets of other gas systems used on-site to prevent
a worker from connecting to an inappropriate
compressed gas source (OSHA 29 CFR 1910.134(d)).
Supplied-Air Respirators (SARs) (cont’d)
SARs enable longer work periods than do SCBAs and are

less bulky. However, the air line impairs worker mobility
and requires workers to retrace their steps when leaving
the area. Also, the air line is vulnerable to puncture from
rough or sharp surfaces, chemical permeation, damage
from contact with heavy equipment, and obstruction
from falling drums, etc. To the extent possible, all such
hazards should be removed prior to use. When in use,
air lines should be kept as short as possible (300 feet or
90 meters is the longest approved hose length for
SARs). Other workers and vehicles should be kept away
from the air line.
The use of air compressors as the air source for an SAR

at a hazardous waste site is severely limited by the
same concern that requires workers to wear respirators.
The questionable quality of the ambient air. On-site
compressor use is limited by OSHA standards (29 CFR
Part 1910.134(d)).
3
7/15/2013
Deciding the appropriate use of SAR - Key questions to ask

when considering SAR use are:
- Is the atmosphere IDLH or likely to become IDLH? If yes,

SAR/SCBA combination or SCBA is necessary
- Will the hose significantly impair worker mobility? If yes,

the work task should be modified or other respiratory
protection should be used.
- Is there a danger of the air line being damaged or

obstructed (e.g., by heavy equipment, falling drums, rough
terrain, or sharp objects) or permeated and/or degraded by
chemicals (e.g., by pools of chemicals)? If yes, either the
hazard should be removed or another form of respiratory
protection should be used.
- If a compressor is the air source, is it

possible for airborne contaminants to
enter the air system? If yes, have the
contaminants been identified, and are
efficient filters and/or sorbents available
that are capable of removing those
contaminants? If no, either cylinders
should be used as the air source or
another form of respiratory protection
should be used.
- Can other workers and vehicles that might

interfere with the air line be kept away
from the area? If no, another form of
respiratory protection should be used.
Combination SCBA/SAR
- A relatively new type of respiratory protection is available that uses a

regulator to combine the features of an SCBA with an SAR. The user can
operate the respirator in the SCBA or SAR mode, through either the
manual or automatic switching of air sources. This type of respirator
allows entry into and exit from an area using the self-contained air
supply, as well as extended work periods within a contaminated area
while connected to the air line. It is particularly appropriate for sites
where workers must travel an extended distance to a work area within a
hot zone and remain within that area for relatively long work periods
(e.g., drum sampling).
- In such situations, workers would enter the site using the SCBA mode,
connect to the air line during the work period, and shift back to the SCBA
mode to leave the site. The combination SCBA/SAR should not be
confused with an SAR with escape provisions. The primary difference is
the length of air time provided by the SCBA. The combination system
provides up to 60 minutes of self-contained air, whereas the escape
SCBA contains much less air, generally enough for only 5 minutes.
NIOSH certification of the combination unit allows up to 20 percent of
the available airtime to be used during entry, while the SAR with escape
provision is certified for escape only.
4
7/15/2013
Module Quiz
In an atmosphere which is immediately dangerous to life and health, your best respiratory
protection is:
A) Supplied air respirator, negative pressure.
B) Powered air purifying respirator.
C) Self-contained, pressure demand breathing apparatus.

Air-purifying respirator, with combination cartridge for organic
D)
vapors and acid gases.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
When should you wear an SCBA?
When an air-purifying respirator protection factor is sufficient for

A)
the chemical concentration in the work area.
When a half mask respirator is sufficient for the chemical
B)
concentration in the work area.
C) When oxygen is present.
When an air-purifying respirator protection factor is not sufficient
D)
for the chemical concentration in the work area.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
5
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
Module 17

Protection Factors
Chemical Concentration
So, how do we measure the chemical concentration?
After the oxygen content has been determined, and after the chemical
has been identified and the warning properties have been assessed, the
chemical concentration needs to be determined to decide if an air-
purifying respirator can be used.
An air-purifying respirator cannot be used in an immediately dangerous to

life or health (IDLH) atmosphere. (If you were on a different planet that
did not have an oxygen rich atmosphere, you could not use an air-
purifying respirator)! An IDLH atmosphere is defined as a condition(s) that
will cause severe injury or death without warning. The IDLH of every
chemical that you could be exposed to must be determined prior to entry
into a work area.
The next step in determining the use of an air-purifying respirator is to

determine the life limit or service limit of the canister. When this limit has
been reached, the canister can no longer provide sufficient protection. The
service life of the canister is normally written on the canister. If it is not
provided on the canister, call the manufacturer to obtain the service life.
Respirator Canisters
Items that shorten the life span of a canister:
• Storage of the canisters in a very dry or very

humid environment
• Breathing rates of humans vary from one person to
another - a person who breathes faster than
another will find their canister to clog faster
• The higher the concentration of the contaminant,
the sooner the canister will become clogged
• A canister that has exceeded its shelf life should
not be used
• Never use a canister that has not been wrapped in
a protective package
1
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Respirator Protection Factor
The level of protection that can be provided by a respirator is

indicated by the respirator's protection factor. The Protection
Factor (PF) is determined experimentally by measuring face
piece seal and exhalation valve leakage. The number
indicates the relative difference in concentrations of
substances outside and inside the face piece.
Determining the Protection Factor of a Respirator:
The protection factor (PF) is the level of protection that a

respirator provides. In essence, it tells a worker if the
respirator selected is adequate for protection from the
chemical concentration in the work zone.
For example, a respirator with a PF of 10 can be used when

the concentration of the contaminant is up to but not more
than 10 times the chemical OSHA PEL. If the chemical
concentration is more than the PF multiplied by the OSHA
PEL, then a respirator with a higher protection factor must be
selected.
Determination of Respirator Protection Versus a Known Chemical Concentration
• Multiply the PF for the respirator in question by the

chemical's OSHA PEL or threshold limit value (TLV).
• Here is the equation: (PF) (PEL or TLV) = Maximum

Value Limit.
• The value calculated is known as the maximum value

limit (MVL). This value is the highest concentration of
a chemical(s) for which the respirator is acceptable.
• If the chemical concentration is above the MVL

calculated, a higher respiratory protection is required
i.e., a better respirator is required.
(PF) (PEL or TLV) = Maximum Value Limit
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OSHA General Protection Factors for Various Respirators
OSHA General Protection Factors for Various Respirators (cont’d)
Module Quiz
3
7/15/2013
____________ is determined experimentally by measuring face piece seal and exhalation valve
leakage.
A) The OSHA PEL
B) The Protection Factor (PF)
C) The NIOSH Factor (NF)
D) The Type Factor (TF)

Your answer:

completely
continuing
An air purifying respirator provides more protection than a supplied air respirator.
A) True
B) False

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
4
7/15/2013
5
7/15/2013
Module 18

Respirator Fit Test and Maintenance
Respirator Fit
A reduction in protection may result from low or high ambient

temperatures. For example, at very low temperatures, the
exhalation valve and regulator may become ice-clogged due to
moisture in the breath and air. At high temperatures, excessive
sweat may cause a break in the face-to-face piece seal. A poor
face piece seal may also be associated with the lack of (or
improper) fit testing as well as with scars, missing teeth, and
facial hair.
Facial hair and long hair interfere with respirator fit and wearer
vision. Any facial hair that passes between the face and the
sealing surface of the respirator is prohibited. Even a few days'
growth of facial hair will allow excessive contaminant
penetration. Long hair must be effectively contained within
protective hair coverings.
Respirator Fit (cont’d)
Eyeglasses with conventional temple pieces

(earpiece bars) will interfere with the
respirator-to-face seal of a full face piece. A
spectacle kit should be installed in the
facemasks of workers requiring vision
correction. When a worker must wear
corrective lenses as part of the face piece, the
lenses shall be fitted by qualified individuals
to provide good vision, comfort, and a gas-
tight seal.
Contact lenses may trap contaminants and/or

particulates between the lens and the eye,
causing irritation, damage, absorption, and an
urge to remove the respirator. Gum and
tobacco chewing should be prohibited during
respirator use since they may cause ingestion
of contaminants and may compromise the
respirator fit.
1
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Respirator Fit Testing
The "fit" or integrity of the face piece to face seal of a respirator affects
its performance. A secure fit is important with positive-pressure
equipment and is essential to the safe functioning of negative-pressure
equipment, such as air-purifying respirators. Most face pieces fit only a
certain percentage of the population; thus, each face piece must be
tested on the potential wearer in order to ensure a tight seal.
Recall that facial features such as scars, mustaches, beards, hollow

temples, very prominent cheekbones, deep skin creases, dentures or
missing teeth, and the chewing of gum and tobacco may interfere with
the respirator-to-face seal. A respirator shall not be worn when such
conditions prevent a good seal. A worker's diligence in observing these
factors shall be evaluated by periodic checks.
Respirator Fit Testing (cont’d)
Two types of fit tests can be performed. The first is a

qualitative fit test, which exposes the wearer to irritants
(stannic chloride) or substances that have distinctive odors
or tastes (banana oil or saccharin mist). If the face piece fit
is good, the wearer should experience no reactions or
sensations related to the substance used.
This fit test is a qualitative analysis and typically requires a

person to recite "The Rainbow Passage" as stated in the
OSHA regulations while wearing a respirator and being
placed in an enclosure with a chemical concentration.
The second type of test is the quantitative fit test, which is

much more complicated and designed to produce a numerical
value or fit factor indicating the degree of fit. The wearer is
placed in an enclosure containing a known concentration of a
contaminant. A sample is taken from inside the face piece,
and the concentration of the contaminant is determined. The
airborne concentration is divided by the concentration inside
the face piece to get the fit factor.
Respirator Fit Test (cont’d)
The next step in selecting a respirator is to

make sure the respirator is approved.
The National Institute for Occupational

Safety (NIOSH), OSHA, and Mine Safety
and Health Administration approve
respirators.
OSHA is the governing regulation that

enforces respirators to be approved prior to
their use. The other two agencies merely
recommend that respirators be approved.
2
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Recommendation for Using Respirator Canisters
• Respirator canisters will eventually become

saturated with contaminants and must be
replaced. The major question is: How soon
should I replace my respirator canister?
• The following guidelines should help in

answering this question and protect your
health and safety.
• A. NIOSH recommends that respirator

canisters be replaced on a daily basis. This
may seem to be a bit conservative but
canisters usually do not cost much, and
your health and safety should always be the
prime consideration in working with
hazardous materials.
Recommendation for Using Respirator Canisters (cont’d)
• B. Make sure your company has a respirator

canister change out schedule and stick to it.
Proper documentation should be maintained
indicating when and how canisters are
replaced. This schedule should be
consistent with the manufacturer's data and
guidelines. It is extremely important to note
that you should not wait until a canister is
completely saturated before replacing.
• C. One thing that will shorten the service-

life of a canister is a storage environment
that is either too humid or too dry. Please
be sure to store the canisters in a dry,
shaded area.
How Cartridge Respirators Work
3
7/15/2013
Positive Pressure Fit Test
• The individual who uses a respirator is required to perform a

user seal check to ensure that an adequate seal is achieved each
time the respirator is put on.
• Either the OSHA required positive and negative pressure checks,

or the respirator manufacturer's recommended user seal check
method must be used.
• User seal checks are not substitutes for qualitative or

quantitative fit tests.
Positive Pressure Check Requirement

• 1. Close off the exhalation valve and exhale into the face piece.
• 2. The face fit is considered satisfactory if a slight positive
pressure can be built up inside the face piece without any
evidence of outward leakage at the seal.
• 3. For most respirators this method requires the wearer to first
remove the exhalation valve cover before closing off the
exhalation valve and then carefully replacing it after the test.
Negative Pressure Fit Test
Negative Pressure Check Requirement
• Close off the inlet opening of the canister or cartridge's

by covering with the palm of the hands or by replacing
the filter seals.
• Inhale gently so that the face piece collapses.
• Hold the breath for ten seconds.
• Warning: Some cartridge inlet designs cannot be

effectively covered with the palm of the hand.
• In this case, try covering the inlet with a thin latex or

nitrile glove to check the seal.
• If the face piece remains collapsed with no inward

leakage of air, the air-tightness is considered
satisfactory.
4
7/15/2013
Respirator Limits
At sites where the identity and concentration of

chemicals in air are known, a respirator should be
selected with a protection factor that is sufficiently high
to ensure that the wearer will not be exposed to the
chemicals above the applicable limits.
These limits include:

- American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists Threshold Limit Values (TLVs)
- OSHA's Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs)
- NIOSH Recommended Exposure Limits (RELs) These
limits are designed to protect most workers who may be
exposed to chemicals day after day throughout their
working life. The OSHA PELs are legally enforceable
exposure limits and are the minimum limits of protection
that must be met.
Respirator Limits
At sites where the identity and concentration of

chemicals in air are known, a respirator should be
selected with a protection factor that is sufficiently high
to ensure that the wearer will not be exposed to the
chemicals above the applicable limits.
These limits include:

- American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists Threshold Limit Values (TLVs)
- OSHA's Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs)
- NIOSH Recommended Exposure Limits (RELs) These
limits are designed to protect most workers who may be
exposed to chemicals day after day throughout their
working life. The OSHA PELs are legally enforceable
exposure limits and are the minimum limits of protection
that must be met.
Respirator Limits (cont’d)
It should be remembered that the protection provided by a

respirator can be compromised (i.e., threatened) in several
situations, most notably:
- If a worker has a high breathing rate

- If the ambient temperature is high or low
- If the worker has a poor face piece-to-face seal. At high breathing
rates, positive-pressure SCBAs and SARs may NOT maintain positive
pressure for brief periods during peak inhalation
In addition, at high work rates, exhalation valves may leak.

Consequently, positive-pressure respirators working at high flow
rates may offer less protection than when working at normal rates.
5
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Cleaning, Maintenance and Storage
Cleaning
Respirators are to be regularly cleaned and disinfected at a designated
respirator cleaning station located in an employee locker room.
Respirators issued for the exclusive use of an employee should be

cleaned as often as necessary, but at least once a day for those who use
them daily.
The following procedure should be used when cleaning and disinfecting

respirators
• Disassemble respirator, removing any filters, canisters, or cartridges.
• Wash the face piece and associated parts in a mild detergent with
warm water. Do not use organic solvents.
• Rinse completely in clean warm water.
• Wipe the respirator with disinfectant wipes (70% Isopropyl Alcohol) to
kill germs.
• Air dry in a clean area.
• Reassemble the respirator and replace any defective parts.
• Place in a clean, dry plastic bag or other airtight container.
Cleaning, Maintenance and Storage (cont’d)
Maintenance
Respirators are to be properly maintained at all times in order to ensure
that they function properly and adequately protect the employee.
Maintenance involves a thorough visual inspection for cleanliness and
defects. Worn or deteriorated parts must be replaced prior to use. No
components should be replaced or repairs made beyond those
recommended by the manufacturer. Repairs to regulators or alarms of
supplied air respirators should be conducted by the manufacturer.
Checklist for inspecting respirators:

• Face piece:
Cracks or holes
Facemask distortion
Cracked or loose lenses/face shield
• Head straps:
Breaks or rips
Broken buckles
• Valves:
Residue or dirt
Cracks or tears in valve material
• Filters/Cartridges:
Approval designation
Gaskets
Cracks or dents in housing
Proper cartridge for hazard
• Air Supply Systems:

Breathing air quality/grade
Condition of supply hoses
Hose connections
Settings on regulators and valves
6
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Storage
Respirators must be stored in a clean, dry area, and in

accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Each employee will clean and inspect their own air-purifying
respirator in accordance with the provisions of the
employers respirator program and should store their
respirator in a plastic bag in their own locker. Each
employee should have his/her name on the bag and that
bag will only be used to store that employee’s respirator.
Atmosphere supplying respirators must be stored in a

storage cabinet. These are considered combustible gas
cylinders and must be stored properly.
Module Quiz
Qualitative fit testing:
A) Is more reliable than quantitative fit-testing.
B) Cannot help detect problems with respirator seal.
C) Needs to be done only the first time a respirator is donned.
D) Methods include banana oil test, smoke test and saccharin test.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
7
7/15/2013
A respirator fit check consisting of covering the cartridge openings and inhaling for 5 to 10
seconds to feel the mask pulling snuggly against the face is called a negative pressure fit
check.
A) True
B) False

Your answer:

completely
continuing
The two types of respirator fit testing are:
A) Positive, negative.
B) Qualitative, quantitative.
C) Pressure, vacuum.
D) Subjective, objective.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
The primary purpose of fit testing is to identify the specific model, make, and size respirator
best suited for each person.
A) True
B) False

Your answer:

completely
continuing
8
7/15/2013
It is not permissible to adjust a respirator to make it fit better.
A) True
B) False

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
9
7/15/2013
Module 19
Personal Protective Equipment Part 1

Overview
Personal Protective Equipment: Clothing and Ensembles
Introduction
Knowledge of the different levels and types of
personal protective equipment (PPE) is important
because of the many different types of hazards found
on a hazardous waste site. The worker needs to know
how to properly select their PPE, as well as
understand the limitations of the PPE they are using.
In addition, knowing the signs and symptoms of heat
stress and how to prevent it is important to the
worker because of the PPE they are required to wear.
Anyone entering a hazardous waste site must be

protected against potential hazards. The purpose of
personal protective clothing and equipment (PPE) is to
shield or isolate individuals from waste site hazards.
The hazards may be chemical, physical, or biological.
Careful selection and use of adequate PPE should
protect the respiratory system, skin, eyes, face,
hands, feet, head, body, and hearing.
Personal Protective Equipment: Clothing and Ensembles (cont’d)
The first section of this module describes the written

PPE program. The following sections then describes
the various types of PPE that are appropriate for use
at hazardous waste sites. It also provides guidance
in PPE selection and use. Storage and maintenance
of PPE is discussed in the section describing the PPE
inspection program. The final section discusses heat
stress and other key physiological factors that must
be considered in connection with PPE use.
Use of PPE is required by OSHA in 29 CFR Part 1910.

The OSHA regulations are reinforced by the EPA in
40 CFR Part 300. The EPA regulations require all
private contractors working on Superfund sites to
conform to applicable OSHA provisions. Contractors
also must conform to any other federal or state
safety requirements deemed necessary by the lead
agency overseeing the activities.
1
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Personal Protective Equipment: Clothing and Ensembles (cont’d)
No single combination of equipment and clothing is

capable of protecting against all hazards. Thus PPE
should be used in conjunction with other protective
methods.
The use of PPE can itself create significant worker

hazards; for example:
-Heat stress
-Physical and psychological stress
-Impaired vision and reduced mobility (ability to move
around)
-Difficulties in communicating
* In general, the greater the level of PPE protection,

the greater are the associated risks.
Developing a PPE Program
A written PPE program should be established for work at all

hazardous waste sites. (OSHA requires a written program
for selection and use of respirators in 29 CFR Part
1910.134.) The two basic goals of a PPE program should be
(1) to protect the wearer from safety and health hazards,
and (2) to prevent injury to the wearer from incorrect use
and/or malfunction of the PPE. Therefore, a comprehensive
PPE program should include the following:
-Hazard Identification
-Medical Monitoring
-Environmental Surveillance
-Selection, Use, Maintenance and Decontamination of PPE
-Employee Training
The written PPE program should include policy statements,

procedures, and guidelines. Copies should be made
available to all employees, and a reference copy should be
available at each work site. Technical data on equipment,
maintenance manuals, relevant regulations, and other
essential information should also be made available.
Training
Training in PPE use is strongly recommended. Respirator

training is required by OSHA 29 CFR Part 1910 Subparts
I and Z.
Such training:
- Allows the user to become familiar with the equipment
in a non-hazardous situation
- Instills confidence of the user in his/her equipment
- Makes the user aware of the limitations and
capabilities of the equipment
- Increases the efficiency of operations performed by
workers wearing PPE
- May increase the protective efficiency of PPE use
- Reduces the expense of PPE maintenance
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Training (cont’d)
Training should be completed prior to actual PPE use in a hazardous

environment and should be repeated at least annually. The training
may occur in both the classroom, online and the field.
At a minimum, the training portion of the PPE program should spell

out the user's responsibilities and explain the following:
- OSHA requirements as delineated in 29 CFR 1910 Subparts I & Z
- The proper use and maintenance of the selected PPE, including
capabilities and limitations
- The nature of the hazards and the consequences of not using the
PPE
- The human factors influencing PPE performance
- Instruction in inspecting, donning, checking, fitting and using PPE
- Individualized respirator fit testing to ensure proper fit
- Use of PPE in normal air for a long familiarity period and, finally,
wearing PPE in a test atmosphere to evaluate its effectiveness
Training (cont’d)
- The user's responsibility (if any) for decontamination,

cleaning, maintenance, and repair of PPE
- Emergency procedures and self-rescue in the event of PPE
failure
- The buddy system
- The Site Safety Plan and the individual's responsibilities
and duties in an emergency
The discomfort and inconvenience of wearing PPE can

create a resistance to the conscientious use of PPE. One
essential aspect of training is to make the user aware of the
need for PPE and to instill motivation for the proper use and
maintenance of PPE.
Program Review and Evaluation
The PPE program should be reviewed at least annually.

Elements which should be considered in the review include:
- A survey of each site to ensure compliance with regulations
applicable to the specific site involved
- The number of person-hours that workers wear various
protective ensembles
- Accident and illness experience
- Levels of exposure
- Adequacy of equipment selection
- Adequacy of the operational guidelines
- Adequacy of decontamination, cleaning, inspection,
maintenance, and storage programs
- Adequacy and effectiveness of training and fitting programs
- Coordination with overall safety and health program elements
- The degree of fulfillment of program objectives
- The adequacy of program records
- Recommendations for program improvement and modification
- Program costs
3
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Module Quiz
Knowing the signs and symptoms of _________ and how to prevent it is important to the
worker because of the PPE they are required to wear.
A) breathing
B) discomfort
C) heat stress
D) sun stress

Your answer:

completely
continuing
The PPE program should be reviewed at least _______
A) monthly
B) annually
C) bi-annually
D) quarterly

Your answer:

completely
continuing
4
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Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
Module 20

PPE Levels of Protection
Personal Protective Equipment
The first and foremost protection from hazardous

substances/chemicals is to employ the
appropriate engineering controls to minimize the
hazards. Frequently though, this will not offer the
correct amount of worker protection and Personal
Protective Equipment (PPE) must be utilized.
In accordance with EPA guidelines, PPE to protect

the body from chemical hazards has been divided
into four categories – Level A, Level B, Level C
and Level D.
Personal Protective Equipment - Level A
Protection Provided:
The highest level of respiratory, skin, and eye protection
available.
Recommended:
Pressure-demand full-face piece SCBA or pressure-demand,
supplied-air respirator with escape SCBA. Fully encapsulating,
chemical-resistant suit, disposable coveralls to be used over
work clothes and under chemical resistant clothing. Inner and
outer chemical-resistant gloves. Chemical-resistant boots. Hard
hat.
1
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Personal Protective Equipment - Level A
Optional:
Disposable boot covers, taped seams, cooling unit
Limiting Criteria:
Fully-encapsulating suit material must be compatible with
chemicals involved. Site conditions, such as temperature, may
require close observation of workers' comfort.
This is the level recommended for site entries if

operations involve high potential for splash or for
exposure to vapors, gases or particles that have high
degree of hazard to the skin.
Level A
Level A should be worn when the highest

level of protection is needed for the entire
body (respiratory, skin, and eyes).
This ensemble consists of the following.
• Certified pressure-demand, Self-Contained

Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)
• Fully encapsulating chemical resistant suit -
commonly referred as a "Moon Suit”
• Two pairs of chemical resistant gloves. One
inner pair and one outer pair
• Steel toe and shank boots, which are
chemical resistant
• 2-way intrinsically safe radio
communication
Personal Protective Equipment - Level B
The highest level of respiratory protection but
limited skin protection from airborne hazards
(gases, vapors, dusts, mists).
Recommended:
Pressure-demand full-face piece SCBA or
pressure-demand supplied-air respirator with
escape SCBA. Chemical-resistant clothing: overalls
and long-sleeved jacket; hooded, one or two piece
chemical splash suit; limited use chemical-
resistant one piece suit. Disposable coveralls to be
used over work clothes and under chemical-
resistant clothing. Inner and outer chemical-
resistant gloves. Chemical-resistant boots. Hard
hat.
2
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Personal Protective Equipment - Level B
Optional:
Disposable boot covers, taped seams
Limiting Criteria:
Use only when the vapor or gases are NOT suspected of
containing high concentrations of chemicals that are harmful
to skin or capable of being absorbed through intact skin. Use
only when it is highly unlikely that the work being done will
generate either high concentrations of vapors, gases,
particles, or splashes of material that will affect exposed skin.
This is the minimum level recommended for initial site

entries until the hazards have been further identified.
Level B
• Level B should be selected when the

highest respiratory protection is
required with a lesser level of skin
protection.
• This level requires the same

respiratory protection as level A but
the skin protection requirement is
less than level A.
• Levels A and B ensembles are shown

in the picture to the right. The worker
wearing the white Tyvek suit is in
Level B while the workers in the
yellow suits are in Level A.
Level B (cont’d)
• Certified pressure demand, SCBA

• Chemical resistant clothing e.g., overalls
with long sleeved jacket; hooded overalls
that are disposable, chemical resistant
coveralls
• Two pairs of chemical resistant gloves.
One inner and one outer pair
• Steel toe and shank boots, which are
chemical resistant
communication
3
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Personal Protective Equipment - Level C
The limited level of respiratory
protection and skin protection from
airborne hazards (gases, vapors, dusts,
mists).
Recommended:
Full face, air-purifying respirator.
Chemical-resistant clothing: overalls
and long-sleeved jacket; hooded, one
or two piece chemical splash suit;
limited use chemical-resistant one piece
suit. Disposable coveralls to be used
over work clothes and under chemical
resistant clothing. Inner and outer
chemical-resistant gloves. Chemical-
resistant boots. Hard hat.
Personal Protective Equipment - Level C
Optional:
Disposable boot covers, taped Seams,
escape mask
Limiting Criteria:
Atmospheric concentrations of chemicals
must not exceed IDLH (immediately
dangerous to life and health) levels must
contain at least 19.5 percent oxygen.
This level can be used only when all

atmospheric contaminants have been
identified and their concentrations
measured and when it has been
determined that the air-purifying
respirator can remove the
contaminants.
Level C
Level C should be worn when the airborne

contaminants are known, the
concentrations are measured and the
requirements for using air-purifying
respirators are met.
• Full-face, Air Purifying Respirator (APR)

• Chemical resistant clothing e.g., overalls
with long sleeved jacket; hooded overalls
that are disposable, chemical resistant
coveralls
• One pair of outer chemical resistant gloves
• Escape Mask
communication
4
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Personal Protective Equipment - Level D
No respiratory protection and limited skin protection from airborne hazards
(gases, vapors, dusts, mists).
Recommended:
Disposable coveralls to be used over work clothes, work gloves, chemical-
resistant boots or shoes, safety glasses or goggles, hard hat
Optional:
Escape mask
Limiting Criteria:
Atmospheric concentrations of chemicals must not exceed IDLH (immediately
dangerous to life and health) levels must contain at least 19.5 percent oxygen.
This level can be used only when all atmospheric contaminants have
been identified and concentrations measured, and when it has been
determined that there is no hazard to the respiratory system or to the
skin.
Level D
Level D should be worn when a minimum level of

protection is needed from chemical hazards. This
equipment should not be worn in any area
requiring respiratory or skin protection. This level
is usually considered a work uniform offering the
minimum amount of protection.
• Industry standard coveralls

• Steel toe and shank boots/shoes, which are
chemical resistant
Level of Protection Selection
The level of protection should be selected based on the

type(s) and concentration(s) of the chemical
substance(s) present in the ambient air, potential for
splashes of liquids to the body or direct contact with the
hazardous material.
However, for situations where the type(s) of chemicals,

concentration(s) or other hazards are unknown, the
appropriate PPE must be selected based on professional
experience and judgment.
5
7/15/2013
Module Quiz
The EPA level of protection which provides the highest degree of respiratory and skin
protection against gases and vapors is _______.
A) Level A
B) Level B
C) Level C
D) Level D

Your answer:

completely
continuing
The primary difference between Level A and Level B PPE is:
A) Splash protection.
B) Respiratory protection.
C) Protection from exposure to vapors.
D) Foot protection.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
6
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When using Level C personal protective equipment:
A) You must wear a totally encapsulating suit.
B) You must wear an air-purifying respirator.
C) You must use Grade D air or better.
D) None of the above.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
The ensemble of equipment referred to as Level B protection is generally the minimum level
recommended for an initial entry until the site hazards have been further identified.
A) True
B) False

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
7
7/15/2013
8
7/15/2013
Module 21

Protective Clothing
Protective Clothing
Protective clothing is available in two basic types:

elastomers and non-elastomers.
• Elastomers: the majority of protective clothing falls

into this category. Elastomers are constructed of
plastic materials that can be stretched. Neoprene,
butyl rubber, nitrile, polyvinyl chloride, etc., are
elastomers.
• Non-elastomers: these are materials that cannot be

stretched. Tyvek suits are the most common non-
elastomer protective clothing available.
Personal Protective Clothing Use Table
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Inspection and Maintenance of Protective Clothing
• All chemical protective suits should be inspected

prior to their use and ideally on a monthly
maintenance program. The following provides
visual inspection techniques for protective clothing.
Completely unfold the protective suit and place on
a flat surface. Begin to examine the exterior of the
garment for defects as listed below.
• Abrasions from working in tight spaces, holes or
punctures from sharp objects or excessive wear
• Inspect seams for separation
• Check zippers, buttons, and other fastening devices
to ensure they seal properly
• Look for signs of incomplete decontamination e.g.,
discoloration, texture change, flaky material,
cracks, etc
• Check to ensure that elastic around appropriate
suit openings is flexible and in good condition
Inspection and Maintenance of Protective Clothing (cont’d)
Additional inspection of the following items is

required for Level A full-body suits:
• Inspect exhaust valves to be sure they are

functioning properly
• Observe face piece for cuts, debris, etc
• Make sure that waist belts, Velcro adjustments and
ankle straps are all present and in good condition
• Check condition of gloves, glove and boot gaiters
• If an inflatable device is available, zip up the suit
and inflate it, then place a bubble or soap solution
on the exterior of the suit to look for bubbles that
might develop from small pinhole leaks.
Protective Clothing
• In this module, personal protective clothing is

considered to be any article offering skin and/or
body protection. Personal protective clothing
includes:
• Fully encapsulating (i.e., enclosing) suits
• Non-encapsulating suits
• Aprons, leggings, and sleeve protectors
• Gloves
• Fire fighters' protective clothing
• Proximity, or approach, garments
• Blast and fragmentation suits
• Cooling garments
• Radiation-protective suits
Each type of protective clothing has a specific

purpose; many, but not all, are designed to protect
against chemical exposure.
2
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Selection of Chemical Protective Clothing
• Chemical Protective Clothing (CPC) is available in a variety

of materials that offer a range of protection against different
chemicals. The most appropriate clothing material will
depend on the chemicals present and the task to be
accomplished. Ideally, the chosen material resists
permeation, degradation, and penetration.
• Permeation is the process by which a chemical dissolves in

and/or moves through a protective clothing material.
Permeation occurs on a molecular level.
• Degradation is the loss of or change in the fabric's chemical

resistance or physical properties. Degradation may result
from exposure to chemicals, from use, or from ambient
conditions (e.g., sunlight).
• Penetration is the movement of chemicals through zippers

and fasteners (especially if they become brittle at cold
temperatures, exhalation valves (especially under hot or
cold temperatures), stitched seams, or imperfections (e.g.,
pinholes) in a protective clothing material.
Selection of Chemical Protective Clothing (cont’d)
Selection of chemical protective clothing is a complex task

and should be performed by experienced personnel. Under
all conditions, it is critical to select clothing by evaluating
(1) the performance characteristics of clothing material and
construction against (2) the needs and limitations of the
site as well as task specific conditions. Site needs and
limitations are, of course, determined from data gathered
during the site survey.
Before purchase, different kinds of garments available

should be analyzed with someone who has experience with
the clothing under consideration. The employer is
responsible for ensuring that the personal protective
clothing (and all PPE) is adequate and of safe design and
construction for the work to be performed (see OSHA's 29
CFR Part 1910.132-1910.137).
Permeation and Degradation
The selection of chemical protective clothing depends

greatly upon the type and physical state of the
contaminants. Contaminant information is, of course,
determined during site characterization. Once the chemicals
have been identified, chemical compatibility charts are
consulted to identify clothing materials that are resistant to
permeation and degradation by the known chemicals. One
excellent reference is the U.S. EPA Guidelines for the
Selection of Chemical Protective Clothing. This reference is
set up as a table (i.e., matrix), of clothing materials and
approximately 300 chemicals. The compatibility of the
chemicals with certain clothing materials is based on the
evaluation of permeation and degradation data. The data
has been drawn from independent tests, vendor literature,
and raw material suppliers.
Charts indicating the resistance of various clothing

materials to permeation and degradation are also available
from manufacturers and other sources.
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Permeation and Degradation (cont’d)
Important note: No clothing material protects against all

chemicals and combinations of chemicals. Furthermore, no
currently available clothing material is an effective barrier to
prolonged chemical exposure.
In reviewing vendor literature, it is important to be aware

that the data provided is of limited value. For example, the
quality of vendor test methods is inconsistent. Vendors
often rely on the raw material manufacturers for data rather
than conducting their own tests. That data may not be
updated. In addition, vendor data cannot address the wide
variety of uses and challenges to which CPC may be
subjected. Most vendors strongly emphasize this point in
the descriptive text that accompanies their data.
Permeation Rate
• Permeation rates and breakthrough time (the time from

initial exposure until hazardous material is detectable on the
inside of the CPC) may vary depending on these factors:
• Clothing material type and thickness
• Manufacturing method
• The concentration(s) of the hazardous
substance(s)temperature, pressure, and humidity
• The solubility of the chemical in the clothing material
• The diffusion coefficient (established through testing of the
permeating chemical in the clothing material)
Permeation Rate (cont’d)
Most hazardous wastes are mixtures; thus, specific data is not

available for making a good CPC selection. Because of lack of
testing, permeation data for multi-component liquids (i.e.,
mixtures) is limited.
Mixtures of chemicals can be significantly more aggressive

towards CPC materials than can any single component alone.
Even small amounts of a rapidly permeating chemical may
provide a pathway, which accelerates the permeation of other
chemicals. Formal research is being conducted on these
effects. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) is currently developing methods for evaluating
CPC materials against mixtures of chemicals and unknowns in
the field.
For hazardous waste site operations, CPC should be selected

that offers the widest range of protection against the
chemicals expected on site. Therefore, vendors are now
providing CPC material composed of two, or even three,
different materials laminated together. Laminated clothing is
capable of providing the best features of each material.
4
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Heat Transfer Characteristics
Under certain waste site conditions, the heat transfer

characteristics of CPC may be an important factor in selection.
Since most chemical protective clothing is virtually
impermeable (i.e., watertight) to moisture, evaporative cooling
is limited. The "clo" value of chemical protective clothing is a
measure of the capacity of CPC to dissipate heat loss through
means other than evaporation. (Clo value means thermal
insulation value.)
The larger the clo value, the greater the insulating properties of
the garment and, consequently, the lower the heat transfer.
Given other equivalent protective properties, clothing with the
lowest clo value should be selected in hot environments or for
high work rates. Unfortunately, clo values for clothing have so
far rarely been available.
Work Mission Duration
Before the workers actually begin work in

their PPE ensembles, the anticipated
duration of the work mission should be
established. Several factors limit mission
length.
These include:
- Air-supply consumption
- Suit/ensemble permeation and penetration
by chemical contaminants
- Ambient temperature
- Coolant supply
Module Quiz
5
7/15/2013
All chemical protective suits should be inspected prior to their use and ideally on a _____
maintenance program.
A) bi-annually
B) annually
C) monthly
D) quarterly

Your answer:

completely
continuing
_________ is the process by which a chemical dissolves in and/or moves through a protective
clothing material.
A) Degradation
B) Absorption
C) Permeation
D) None of the above.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
________ is the loss of or change in the fabric's chemical resistance or physical properties.
A) Degradation
B) Penetration
C) Permeation
D) Activation

Your answer:

completely
continuing
6
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The same chemical protective clothing can be used for all chemicals.
A) True
B) False

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Permeation of PPE is affected by:
A) Temperature
B) Material thickness
C) Chemical composition
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
7
7/15/2013
8
7/15/2013
Module 22

Considerations for Working in PPE
Air-Supply Consumption
The duration of the air supply must be

considered before planning any SCBA
assisted work activity. The anticipated
operating time of an SCBA is clearly
indicated on the breathing apparatus.
This designated operating time is based
on a moderate work rate (e.g., some
lifting, carrying, and/or heavy equipment
operation).
In actual operation, however, several

factors can reduce the rated operating
time. When planning an SCBA-assisted
work mission, the following variables
should be considered, and work actions
and operating time should be adjusted
accordingly: work rate, fitness, body
size, and breathing patterns.
Air-Supply Consumption (cont’d)
Work Rate
The actual in-use duration of SCBAs may be reduced by
one-third to one-half during strenuous work (e.g.,
considerable drum handling and lifting, or any task
requiring repetitive speed of motion).
Fitness
Well-conditioned individuals generally use oxygen more
efficiently and can extract more oxygen from a given
volume of air (particularly when performing strenuous
tasks) than do unfit individuals. This significantly increases
the SCBA operating time.
Body Size
Larger individuals generally consume air at a higher rate
than smaller individuals do, thereby decreasing the SCBA
operating time. Breathing patterns - quick, shallow, or
irregular breaths use air more rapidly than do deep,
regularly spaced breaths. Heat-induced anxiety and lack of
acclimatization (i.e., adjustment to the work climate) may
induce hyperventilation, resulting in decreased SCBA
operating time.
1
7/15/2013
Air-Supply Consumption (cont’d)
Ambient Temperature
The ambient temperature has a major influence on work
mission duration as it affects both the worker and the
protectiveness of the ensemble. Heat stress, which can occur
even in relatively moderate temperatures, is the greatest
immediate danger to a worker in a totally encapsulating
ensemble.
Hot and cold ambient temperatures also affect:

- Valve operation on suits and/or respirators
- The durability and flexibility of suit materials
- The integrity (i.e., condition) of suit fasteners
- The breakthrough time and permeation rates of chemicals
- The concentration of airborne contaminants
All these factors may decrease the duration of protection

provided by a given piece of clothing or respiratory equipment.
Coolant Supply
Under warm or strenuous work conditions,

adequate coolant (i.e., ice or gel packs) should be
provided to keep the wearer's body at a
comfortable temperature and to reduce the
potential for heat stress. If coolant is necessary,
the duration of the coolant supply will directly affect
mission duration. Upon finishing shifts, workers
must replace body fluids by drinking ample water to
prevent dehydration.
Other Considerations
In addition to permeation, degradation,
penetration, and heat transfer, several other factors
must be considered during clothing selection. These
affect not only chemical resistance, but also the
worker's ability to perform the required task. The
following checklist summarizes these
considerations.
Other Considerations Checklist
Durability:
- Does the material have sufficient strength to withstand the physical
stress of the task(s) at hand?
- Will the material resist tears, punctures, and abrasions?
- Will the material withstand repeated use after
contamination/decontamination?
Flexibility:
- Will the CPC interfere with a worker's ability to perform his or her
assigned tasks? (This is particularly important to consider for gloves).
Temperature effects:
- Will the material maintain its protective integrity and flexibility under
the extremes of heat and cold?
2
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Other Considerations Checklist (cont’d)
Ease of decontamination:
- Are decontamination procedures available on
site?- Will the material pose any decontamination
problems?- Should disposable clothing be used?
Compatibility with other equipment:

- Does the clothing prevent the use of another,
necessary piece of protective equipment (e.g.,
suits that preclude hardhat use in a hardhat
area)?
Duration of use:
- Can the required task be accomplished before
contaminant breakthrough occurs, or before
degradation of the CPC becomes significant?
Special Conditions
Fire, explosion, and radiation are

special conditions that require special
protective equipment. Unique problems
are associated with radiation, and it is
beyond the scope of this module to
discuss them properly.
A qualified health physicist should be

consulted if a radiation hazard exists.
Special protective equipment may NOT
protect against chemicals; therefore,
additional CPC may be necessary with
the special equipment.
Accessories
Additional accessories may be needed if

specific hazards exist. Life jackets, personal
monitoring dosimeters and flotation gear,
typically worn underneath chemical protective
clothing, may be used by personnel working
in areas where there is a drowning hazard.
Consideration of the added bulk and
restricted mobility must be weighed.
Various accessories exist which help protect

workers from exposures to extreme
temperatures. In cold temperatures helmet
liners and insulated clothing and gloves may
be worn. Care should be taken as these items
offer no chemical protection and may restrict
mobility. To reduce the risk of heat stress,
workers may wear jackets or vests with
pockets containing ice gel packs or which
contain circulating tubes supplied with
pumped chilled water. In each case, ice
storage may pose a problem, as well as the
reduced mobility of the accessory clothing.
3
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Accessories (cont’d)
If noise protection is needed, ear muffs or ear plugs may be used.

Both reusable and disposable ear plugs are available. The use of
ear plugs should be carefully reviewed by a health and safety
professional because of the danger of providing a route for
chemical contamination in the ear.
One must also consider the effect hearing protection has on the
ability to communicate with the worker. When using any
accessory, care must be taken to avoid compromising the
effectiveness of the PPE ensemble. In eliminating one hazard,
another may be created.
The following accessories might be used with a PPE ensemble:

• Knife
• Flashlight or lantern
• Personal locator beacon
• Personal dosimeters
• Two-way radio
• Safety belts and lines
Module Quiz
When planning an SCBA-assisted work mission, the following variables should be considered,
and work actions and operating time should be adjusted accordingly:
A) work rate
B) fitness
C) body size
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
4
7/15/2013
Upon finishing shifts, workers must replace body fluids by drinking ample _____ to prevent
dehydration.
A) beer
B) water
C) cocktails
D) none of the above.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
A qualified __________ should be consulted if a radiation hazard exists.
A) project manager
B) engineer
C) scientist
D) health physicist

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
6
7/15/2013
Module 23

PPE Inspections and Maintenance
Selection of Ensembles or Levels of Protection
The individual components of clothing and equipment must

be assembled into a full protective ensemble. The ensemble
must protect the worker from site-specific hazards, yet it
must not create hazards and drawbacks for the wearers. It
is important to assess the four major route(s) of entry of
each known or potential chemical so that the worker is
properly protected. If the primary concern is inhalation,
then proper respiratory equipment must be emphasized.
If the concern is skin/eye contact or absorption, then

compatibility of the chemical protective suit must be
emphasized. Although injection is not common, it can occur
in an accident. Protection from punctures, accidental cuts,
and pressure-injected materials is necessary through the
use of abrasion-resistant gloves, steel shanked boots,
protective clothing, and proper handling of pressurized
equipment.
Selection of Ensembles or Levels of Protection (cont’d)
The type of equipment used and the overall level of

protection should be re-evaluated periodically as the
amount of information about the site increases, and as
workers are required to perform different tasks.
Personnel should be able to upgrade or downgrade

their level of protection with concurrence of the Site
Safety Officer and approval of the Field Team Leader.
1
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Reasons to Upgrade/Downgrade PPE
Reasons to Upgrade PPE

• Known or suspected presence of dermal hazards
• Occurrence or likely occurrence of gas or vapor
emission
• Change in work task that will increase contact or
potential contact with hazardous materials
• Request of the individual performing the task
Reasons to Downgrade PPE

• New information indicating that the situation is
less hazardous than was originally thought
• Change in site conditions that decreases the
hazard
• Change in work task that will reduce contact with
hazardous materials
PPE Considerations
PPE can offer a high degree of protection only if it is

used properly. The following sections that will be
covered are:
• PPE Inspection Program

• Maintenance and Storage
• Donning of an Ensemble
• In-use Monitoring
• Doffing
• Clothing Reuse
PPE Inspection Program
An effective PPE inspection program will probably feature five different types
of inspection:
1. Inspection and operational testing of equipment received from the factory or
distributor.
2. Inspection of equipment as it is issued to workers.
3. Inspection after use or training and prior to maintenance.
4. Periodic inspection of stored equipment.
5. Periodic inspection when a question arises concerning the appropriateness of
the selected equipment, or when problems with similar equipment arise.
Each inspection will cover somewhat different areas in varying degrees of

depth. Detailed inspection procedures, where appropriate, are usually
available from the manufacturer.
Records must be kept of all inspection procedures. Individual identification

numbers should be assigned to all reusable pieces of equipment (respirators
may already have ID numbers), and records inspection should record the ID
number, date, inspector, and any unusual conditions or findings. Periodic
review of these records may indicate an item or type of item with excessive
maintenance costs or a particularly high level of "downtime."
2
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Storage
Clothing and respirators must be stored properly to prevent

damage or malfunction from exposure to dust, moisture,
sunlight, damaging chemicals, extreme temperatures, and
impact. Procedures must be specified for both pre-issuance
warehousing and, more importantly, post issuance (in-use)
storage. Many equipment failures can be directly attributed to
improper storage.
Clothing
• Potentially contaminated clothing should be stored in an area
separate from street clothing
• Different types and materials of clothing and gloves should be
stored separately to prevent issuing the wrong material by
mistake
• Protective clothing should be folded or hung in accordance with
manufacturers' recommendations
Respirators
SCBAs, supplied-air respirators, and air-purifying respirators
should be dismantled, washed, and disinfected after each use.
Maintenance
The technical depth of maintenance procedures

varies. Manufacturers frequently restrict the sale of
certain PPE parts to individuals or groups who are
specially trained, equipped, and "authorized" by the
manufacturer to purchase them. Only individuals
having manufacturers' specialized training should
perform PPE maintenance. Explicit procedures should
be adopted to ensure that the appropriate level of
maintenance is performed.
The following classification scheme divides

maintenance into three competency levels:
Level 1: User or wearer maintenance, requiring a

few common tools or no tools at all
Level 2: Shop maintenance that can be performed
by the employer's maintenance shop
Level 3: Specialized maintenance that can be
performed only by the factory or an authorized
repair person
Inspection and Donning of an Ensemble
A routine should be established and practiced periodically for

inspecting and donning level A and level B suits and SCBAs. Assistance
should be provided for donning and doffing since these operations are
difficult to perform alone. Solo efforts may increase the possibility of
suit damage.
Our exclusive HAZWOPER Hands-on Simulator will be used by you

later in this course for the donning, doffing and decontamination of the
three major levels of PPE for HAZWOPER work – A, B, and C.
Once the equipment has been donned, its fit should be evaluated. If
the clothing is too small, it will restrict movement. Restriction of
movement increases the likelihood of tearing the suit material and of
accelerating worker fatigue. If the clothing is too large, the possibility
of snagging the material is increased; furthermore, the dexterity and
coordination of the worker may be reduced. In either case, the worker
should not work in the suit until a better fit is provided.
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PPE Before Use Inspection Checklist
All Suits and Clothing:

Determine that the clothing material is correct for the specified task at
hand.
Visually inspect for:
• imperfect seams
• non-uniform coatings
• tears
• malfunctioning closures
Hold up to light and check for pinholes. Flex the material:

• observe for cracks
• observe for signs of self-deterioration
If the suit has been used previously, inspect inside and out for signs of
chemical attack:
• discoloration
• swelling
• stiffness
PPE Before Use Inspection Checklist (cont’d)
Gloves:
Pressurize the gloves to check for pinholes. Either
blow into the glove, and then roll gauntlet towards
fingers, or inflate the glove and hold under water.
In either case, no air should escape.
Fully Encapsulating Suits:

Check the operation of pressure relief valves.
Inspect the fitting of wrists, ankles and neck.
Check the face shield for:

• cracks or crazing
• fogginess
Module Quiz
4
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Wearing Chemical Protective Clothing (CPC) prevents what route of exposure to hazardous
materials?
A) Skin/eye
B) Skin
C) Inhalation
D) Injection

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Chemical suits must be ____before use.
A) inspected
B) photographed
C) new
D) colorful

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
6
7/15/2013
Module 24

Worker In Use Monitoring
In-Use Monitoring
The wearer must understand all aspects of the

clothing operation and its limitations. During
equipment use, workers should be encouraged to
report any perceived problems or difficulties to
their supervisor(s).
These malfunctions include, but are not limited

to:
- Degradation of the protective ensemble
- Perception of odors
- Skin irritation
- Unusual residues on PPE
- Discomfort
- Resistance to breathing
- Fatigue due to respirator use
- Interference with vision or communication
- Restriction of movement
- Personal responses such as rapid pulse, nausea,
and chest pain
Doffing an Ensemble
Exact procedures for doffing (i.e.,

removing) fully encapsulating
suit/SCBA ensembles must be
established and followed in order
to prevent contaminant migration
from the work area and transfer of
contaminants to the wearer's body,
the doffing assistant, and others.
The doffing procedures should be

integrated with the
decontamination program
(presented in a later lesson). They
require a suitably attired assistant.
Throughout the procedures, both
worker and assistant should avoid
any direct contact with the outside
surface of the suit.
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Clothing Reuse
Chemicals that have begun to permeate clothing during use may

not be removable during decontamination. They may continue to
diffuse through the material towards the inside surface, presenting
the hazard of direct skin contact to the next person who uses the
clothing. Where such potential hazards may develop, clothing should
be checked inside and out for discoloration or other evidence of
contamination (see upcoming paragraphs on PPE Inspection
Program). This is particularly important for fully encapsulating suits,
which are generally subject to reuse due to their higher cost. Note,
however, that negative test results (i.e., no chemical found) do NOT
necessarily prevent the possibility that some absorbed chemical will
reach the suit's interior.
At present, little documentation exists regarding clothing reuse.

Reuse decisions must consider the known factors of permeation
rates as well as the toxicity of the contaminant(s) to which the
clothing has been exposed. In fact, unless extreme care is taken to
ensure that clothing is properly decontaminated and that the
decontamination does not degrade the material, the reuse of
chemical protective clothing that has been contaminated with toxic
chemicals is NOT advisable.
Heat Stress
Wearing PPE puts a hazardous waste worker at

considerable risk of developing heat stress. This can
result in health effects ranging from short term heat
fatigue to serious illness or death. Heat stress is
caused by a number of interacting factors, including
environmental conditions, clothing, workload, and the
individual characteristics of the worker. Because heat
stress is probably one of the most common (and
potentially serious) illnesses at hazardous waste sites,
regular monitoring and other preventive precautions
are vital.
Reduced work tolerance and the increased risk of

excessive heat stress are directly influenced by the
amount and type of PPE worn. PPE adds weight and
bulk and increases energy expenditure. PPE also
severely reduces the body's normal heat exchange
processes (evaporation, convection, and radiation).
Therefore, in the selection of PPE, each item's benefit
should be carefully evaluated in relation to its potential
for increasing the risk of heat stress.
Heat Stress (cont’d)
Once PPE is selected, the safe duration of work

and rest periods should be determined based on
the:
- Anticipated work rate

- Ambient temperature and other environmental
factors
- Type of protective ensemble
- Individual worker characteristics and fitness
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Heat Stress Prevention
Since heat stress is such a common hazard at waste sites, the

key to prevention is prior planning. It is important to choose
the appropriate level of PPE, since higher levels of protection
reduce the body's natural ability to cool itself. Cooling vests
should be used when needed. Work and rest periods should be
regularly scheduled. Workers should be acclimatized over a
period of five to seven days, gradually increasing their work
and heat exposure schedules. Once acclimatized, workers
should be regularly monitored.
It is important to provide a shaded area for breaks, field

showers, or hose-down areas. The workers also play an
important role in heat stress prevention. Training should
include a presentation of the signs and symptoms as well as
the treatment of heat stress. Workers must be provided with
adequate fluids. Cool water is the best. Drinks with caffeine
should be avoided. Their daily intake must equal the
approximate amount of water lost in sweat. It is not
uncommon for workers to lose as much as 6-8 quarts of water
during a hot shift. Workers should also be encouraged to keep
themselves physically fit.
Heat Stress Monitoring
Because the incidence of heat stress depends on a variety of

factors, all workers, even those NOT wearing protective
equipment, should be monitored.
For workers wearing permeable clothing (e.g., standard cotton

or synthetic work clothes), follow recommendations for
monitoring requirements and suggested work/rest schedules
in the current American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) Threshold Limit Values for Heat
Stress.
If the actual clothing worn differs from the ACGIH standard

ensemble in insulation value and/or wind and vapor
permeability, change the monitoring requirements and
work/rest schedules accordingly.
Heat Stress Monitoring (cont’d)
For workers wearing semi-permeable or impermeable

encapsulating ensembles, the ACGIH standard CANNOT be used.
For these situations, workers should be monitored when the
temperature in the work area is above 70 degrees F (21 degrees
C). The frequency of monitoring workers is dependent on the
temperature. Consult an occupational physician for guidelines.
To monitor the worker, measure: Heart rate.

Count the radial pulse during a 30-second period as early as
possible in the rest period. If the heart rate exceeds 110 beats
per minute at the beginning of the rest period, shorten the next
work cycle by one-third and keep the rest period the same. If the
heart rate still exceeds 110 beats per minute at the next rest
period, shorten the following work cycle by one third.
Oral temperature. Use a clinical thermometer (3 minutes under

the tongue) or similar device to measure the oral temperature at
the end of the work period (before drinking). If oral temperature
exceeds 99.6 degrees F (37.6 degrees C), shorten the next work
cycle by one-third without changing the rest period.
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Heat Rash
Heat rash is a tiny raised blister-like rash

caused when skin is continuously exposed to
unevaporated sweat. The rash is aggravated by
chafing clothes. Heat rash decreases one's
ability to tolerate heat.
Treatment should include keeping the skin clean

to prevent infection as well as dry and cool to
allow healing.
Heat Cramps
Heat cramps are muscular pains and spasms in the

arms, legs, or abdomen occurring during or after
heavy exertion with profuse sweating. Heat cramps
are caused by the loss of body salt in sweat.
Treatment should include the replacement of salt

through salted liquids and an adequate salt intake
with meals. Salt tablets are not recommended.
Heat Exhaustion
Heat exhaustion occurs when fluid loss

causes blood flow to decrease in vital
organs. The usual signs and symptoms of
heat exhaustion are cool, pale, and moist
skin; heavy sweating; dilated pupils;
headache; nausea; dizziness; and
vomiting. Body temperature will be near
normal.
Treatment for heat exhaustion requires

that the person be immediately moved into
a cooler environment. The person should lie
on his or her back with feet elevated and
be fanned. Clothing should be loosened and
wet towels applied. The victim should drink
fluids only if fully conscious and able to
tolerate it.
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Heat Stroke
Heat stroke is a life-threatening situation, because

the body has lost its ability to cool itself. The body
temperature can rise so high that brain damage and
death can result if the person is not cooled quickly.
The signs and symptoms of heat stroke are hot, red,
and possibly dry skin; very small pupils; confusion;
unconsciousness; and very high body temperature.
Since heat stroke endangers life, medical help should
be called for immediately.
Treatment includes immediate cooling by removing

the victim from the heat, followed by immersion in a
cool bath or by being wrapped in wet sheets, plus
fanning. The victim should not take liquids by mouth.
Treatment for shock should continue until
emergency medical help arrives.
Urine Output Color
The color of your urine can help you tell if you are drinking enough water.
Body has plenty of fluids. Clear
Body has adequate fluids. Light yellow
Body is low on water. Dark

Drink more now! yellow
Module Quiz
5
7/15/2013
Pick the best treatment for heat stress.
A) cold soft drinks
B) coffee
C) cold water
D) caffeinated beverages

Your answer:

completely
continuing
If your urine output color is dark yellow what should you do?
A) call a doctor immediately
B) walk slower
C) drink more water
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
7
7/15/2013
Module 25

Face, Head, Foot, and Hand Protection
PPE: Face, Head, Foot, and Hand
Overview
Face, head, foot, and hand protection are
important PPE considerations because of the
many safety hazards associated with the type
of work required on hazardous waste sites.
In August 1989, a proposal to change the PPE

standards in Subpart I of 29 CFR 1910 was
published. Hearings were held and a final rule
was published in the Federal Register on April
6, 1994. The rule became effective July 5,
1994. The new rule updates standards to be
more consistent with the latest editions of the
ANSI standards. The previous OSHA
standards for head, eye and face, and foot
protection were adopted from the 1971 ANSI
standards; they are outdated and did NOT
reflect current technology and improvements
in PPE.
PPE: Face, Head, Foot, and Hand (cont’d)
This final rule provides guidance for the selection

and use of PPE, as well as performance oriented
requirements, where appropriate. Employers now
must perform a hazard assessment of the workplace
to determine the necessity for PPE. Based on this
assessment, the employer must select appropriate
PPE for the hazards identified and must provide
training to employees.
The new rule contains a section on hand protection.

This fills a gap in employee protection, since the
prior standard did not include a hand protection
requirement.
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General Requirements - 29 CFR 1910.132
The scope of Subpart I cover general industry and contain the

following requirements by paragraph:
a. Protective equipment must be provided, used, and maintained in

sanitary and reliable condition, as necessary, to protect
employees from workplace hazards.
b. When employees provide their own equipment, the employer
must assure the adequacy, including the proper maintenance and
sanitation, of such equipment.
c. All PPE must be of safe design and construction for the work to be
performed.
d. The employer must assess the workplace to determine if hazards
are present, or are likely to be present, which necessitate the use
of PPE. If such hazards are present, or are likely to be present,
the employer shall select, and have each affected employee use,
the types of PPE that will protect against the identified hazards.
PPE must properly fit each affected employee. The employer shall
verify the hazard assessment in writing. Employees obtaining
their own PPE must be made aware of the employer's selection
decisions and follow them when making their purchase.
General Requirements - 29 CFR 1910.132 (cont’d)
e. Defective or damaged personal protective equipment

shall NOT be used.
f. Employers must provide training to each employee
required to use PPE. Training will include the following
topics: when PPE is necessary; what PPE is necessary;
how to wear PPE; PPE limitations; and the proper care,
maintenance, useful life, and disposal of the PPE. The
employer must certify in writing that the employee has
received and understands the training.
The final rule requires that each affected employee

demonstrate an understanding of the training and the
ability to use the PPE properly before being allowed to
perform work requiring its use. If there are changes in
workplace conditions or in the types of PPE to be used
that make prior training outdated, then the standard
requires retraining. When an employee shows
inadequate knowledge or use of assigned PPE,
indicating a lack of retention of the understanding or
skill required, then the employer must retrain that
worker.
General Requirements - 29 CFR 1910.132 (cont’d)
The employer is clearly accountable both for the

quality of the hazard assessment and for the
adequacy of the PPE selected. Verification of
compliance can be shown through a written
certification record, which should include the
following: the workplace evaluated; the person
certifying that the evaluation was performed; the
date(s) of the hazard assessment; and a
statement that identifies the document as a
certification of hazard assessment.
Appendix B of the standard is a non-mandatory

compliance guideline for hazard assessment and
PPE selection. The appendix is intended to help
employers implement the requirements laid out
in the standard.
2
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Eye and Face Protection - 29 CFR 1910.133
Employees affected at a waste site must use appropriate

eye or face protection when exposed to eye or face hazards
from flying particles, molten metal, liquid chemicals, acids
or caustic liquids, chemical gases or vapors, or potentially
injurious light radiation. Side protection (e.g. clip-on or
slide-on side shields) is required when there is a hazard
from flying objects. The standard sets forth other
requirements for example, for workers with prescription
lenses.
Protective eye and face devices purchased after July 5,

1994, must comply with ANSI Z87.1- 1989 or be
demonstrated to be equally effective. Devices purchased
before that date must comply with ANSI Z87.1 1968 or be
equally effective. Particular care should be taken in fitting
devices for eye protection against dust and chemical splash
to ensure that the devices are sealed to the face. The chart
and its notes (on the following two pages) provide general
guidance for the proper selection of eye and face protection
for hazards associated with the listed hazard "source"
operations.
Eye and Face Protection Selection Chart
Notes to Eye and Face Protection Selection Chart:

(1) Care should be taken to recognize the possibility of multiple and
simultaneous exposure to a variety of hazards. Adequate
protection against the highest level of each of the hazards
should be provided - protective devices do not provide unlimited
protection
(2) Operations involving heat may also involve light radiation. As
required by the standard, protection from both hazards must be
provided
(3) If face shields are used, primary eye protection (spectacles or
goggles) must also be worn in combination with the face shields
(4) As required by the standard, filter lenses must meet the
requirements for shade designations in 1910.133(a)(5) - tinted
and shaded lenses are not filter lenses unless they are marked
or identified as such
(5) As required by the standard, persons whose vision requires the
use of prescription (Rx) lenses must wear either protective
devices fitted with prescription (Rx) lenses or protective devices
designed to be worn over regular prescription (Rx) eyewear
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Eye and Face Protection Selection Chart
(6) Wearers of contact lenses must also wear appropriate eye and face
protection devices in a hazardous environment - (It should be
recognized that dusty and/or chemical environments may represent an
additional hazard to contact lens wearers)
(7) Caution should be exercised in the use of metal frame protective
devices in electrical hazard areas
(8) Atmospheric conditions and the restricted ventilation of the protector
can cause lenses to fog - frequent cleansing may be necessary
(9) Welding helmets or face shields should be used only over primary eye
protection (spectacles or goggles)
(10) Non-side shield spectacles are available for frontal protection only, but
are not acceptable eye protection for the sources and operations listed
for "impact“
(11) Ventilation should be adequate, but well protected from splash entry-
eye and face protection should be designed and used so that it
provides both adequate ventilation and protects the wearer from
splash entry
(12) Protection from light radiation is directly related to filter lens density.
See note (4). Select the darkest shade that allows task performance
Head Protection – 1910.135
Waste site workers must wear

helmets designed to protect
against impact and penetration
from falling objects. Furthermore,
workers exposed to electrical
conductors must wear helmets
designed to reduce electrical shock
hazards.
Examples of situations requiring

helmets include: working below
other workers who are using tools
and materials; working around or
under conveyor belts that are
carrying materials; working below
machinery or processes that might
cause materials or objects to fall;
and working on exposed energized
conductors.
Head Protection – 1910.135 (cont’d)
Three classes of helmets provide different types of

protection. When selecting head protection, it is important
to know of potential electrical hazards, because protection
varies among the three classes.
Class A
Class A helmets provide impact and penetration resistance
as well as electrical protection from low-voltage conductors.
The helmets are proof-tested to 2,200 volts.
Class B
In addition to impact and penetration resistance, Class B
helmets provide electrical protection from high-voltage
conductors. The helmets are proof-tested to 20,000 volts.
Class C
Class C helmets provide impact and penetration resistance.
They are usually made of aluminum, which conducts
electricity, and therefore should NOT be used around
electrical hazards.
4
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Foot Protection – 1910.136
The nature of hazardous waste sites, with their hidden dangers,

makes them hazardous to feet. OSHA requirements state that
workers must wear protective footwear when working in areas where
there is a danger of foot injuries due to falling or rolling objects,
objects piercing the sole, and exposure to electrical hazards.
Protective footwear purchased after July 5, 1994 must comply with
ANSI Z41 - 1991 or be equally effective. Those purchased before that
date must comply with ANSI Z41.1 - 1967 or be equally effective.
Safety shoes and boots meeting the 1991 ANSI standards provide
both impact and compression protection. Impact injuries may result
from dropped or falling equipment and materials. Compression
injuries may result from heavy materials or equipment rolling over a
worker's feet (e.g., skid trucks or other material handling carts, bulk
rolls, heavy pipes, and drums).Special foot protection needs may be
necessary at a waste site; for example, especially designed shoes
that protect metatarsals (small foot bones) or that are insulated to
protect against electrical hazards. Safety shoes or boots are available
that provide puncture protection if a worker steps on a sharp object,
such as nails, wire, tacks, screws, large staples, and scrap metal.
Hand Protection – 1910.138
If workers hands are exposed to hazards (e.g., skin absorption

of harmful substances; severe cuts, lacerations, or abrasions;
punctures, chemical burns, and harmful temperature
extremes), then employers must select for their employees the
appropriate hand protection. The selection must be based on
an evaluation of the performance characteristics of the hand
protection in relationship to the task(s) to be performed,
conditions present, duration of use, and the hazards and
potential hazards identified.
OSHA is unaware of any gloves that provide protection against

all potential hand hazards. Commonly available glove materials
provide only limited protection against many chemicals.
Therefore, one must select the most appropriate glove for a
particular application. One must also determine how long the
glove can be worn and whether it can be reused. It is also
important to know the performance characteristics of gloves
relative to the specific hazard anticipated; for example,
chemical hazards, cut hazards, and thermal hazards.
Performance characteristics should be assessed by using
standard test procedures.
Hand Protection – 1910.138 (cont’d)
Before purchasing gloves, the employer should request documentation

from the manufacturer that the gloves meet the appropriate test
standard(s) for the hazard(s) anticipated. Other factors to be
considered for glove selection in general include:
- In certain circumstances, it may be cost-effective to regularly use and
dispose of cheaper gloves rather than reuse expensive gloves, as long
as the performance characteristics of the cheaper gloves are acceptable
- The work activities of the employee should be studied to determine the
degree of dexterity required, the duration, frequency, and degree of
exposure of the hazard, and the physical stresses that will be applied
- The toxic properties of the chemical(s) must be determined, especially
the ability of the chemical to cause local effects on the skin and/or to
pass through the skin and cause systemic effects
- Generally, a "chemical resistant" glove can be used for dry powders
- For mixtures and formulated products (unless specific test data are
available), a glove should be selected on the basis of the chemical
component with the shortest breakthrough time since it is possible for
solvents to carry active ingredients through polymeric materials-
Employees must be able to remove the gloves in such a manner as to
prevent skin contamination
5
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Module Quiz
Protective equipment must be provided, used, and maintained in sanitary and reliable
condition, as necessary, to protect employees from_________.
A) workers
B) workplace hazards
C) supervisors
D) heat

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Who is responsible for purchasing PPE?
A) employer
B) employee
C) union
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
6
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Which one of the following is a Class B helmet?
A) Provides impact and penetration resistance. They are usually

made of aluminum, which conducts electricity, and therefore
should NOT be used around electrical hazards.
B) In addition to impact and penetration resistance, Class B helmets

provide electrical protection from high-voltage conductors. The
helmets are prooftested to 20,000 volts.
C) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Which one of the following is a Class A helmet?
A) Provides impact and penetration resistance as well as electrical

protection from low-voltage conductors. The helmets are proof-
tested to 2,200 volts.
B) Provides impact and penetration resistance. They are usually

made of aluminum, which conducts electricity, and therefore
should NOT be used around electrical hazards.
C) none of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
7
7/15/2013
8
7/15/2013
Module 26
Decontamination Part 1
Decontamination Plan and Procedures
Introduction
All personnel and equipment leaving

the hazardous waste site must be
decontaminated to prevent the spread
of hazardous materials off of the site.
The method of decontamination used
depends on the hazardous materials
on the waste site.
Decontamination
Decontamination ("decon"), which is
critical to worker health and safety at
hazardous waste sites, is the process
of removing or neutralizing
contaminants that have accumulated
on personnel and equipment.
Decontamination procedures protect
workers from hazardous substances
that may contaminate and eventually
permeate the protective clothing,
respiratory equipment, tools, vehicles,
and other equipment used on site.
Introduction (cont’d)
These procedures:
- Protect all site personnel by reducing the transfer of
harmful materials into clean areas;
- Helps prevent mixing of incompatible chemicals;
- Protects the community by preventing uncontrolled
transportation of contaminants from the site
This module describes the types of contamination

that workers may encounter at a waste site, the
factors that influence the extent of contamination,
and methods for preventing or reducing
contamination. In addition, this chapter provides
general guidelines for designing and selecting
decontamination procedures at a site, and it
presents a decision aid for evaluating the health and
safety aspects of emergency decontamination
methods. (The decontamination of radioactively
contaminated personnel or equipment is not covered
in this module. A health physicist should be
consulted if this situation arises.)
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Decontamination Plan
A Decontamination Plan should be developed and set up before

any personnel or equipment enters the areas where the
potential exists for exposure to hazardous substances. The
Decontamination Plan is part of the Site Health and Safety
Program. The Decontamination Plan should:
- Establish methods and procedures to minimize worker contact
with contaminants during removal of personal protective
clothing and equipment
- Determine the appropriate decontamination methods
- Determine the number and layout of decontamination stations
- Establish procedures to prevent contamination of clean areas
- Determine the decontamination equipment needed
- Establish methods for disposing of clothing and equipment that
are not completely decontaminated
The Decontamination Plan should be revised whenever the type

of personal protective clothing or equipment changes, when
site conditions change, or when the site hazards are reassessed
based on new information.
Standard Operating Procedures
Minimizing Worker Contact with Hazardous Waste

The first step in decontamination is to establish Standard
Operating Procedures (SOPs) that minimize contact with waste
and thus the potential for contamination. For example:
- Emphasize work practices that minimize contact with hazardous
substances (for example, do not walk through areas of obvious
contamination; do not directly touch potentially hazardous
substances)
- Use remote sampling, handling, and container-opening
techniques (e.g., drum grapplers, pneumatic impact wrenches)
- Protect monitoring and sampling instruments by bagging. Make
openings in the bags for sample parts and sensors that must
contact site materials
- Wear disposable outer garments and use disposable equipment
where appropriate
- Cover equipment and tools with a strippable coating which can
be removed during decontamination
- Encase the source of contaminants with plastic sheeting or over
packs
Maximizing Worker Protection from Hazardous Waste
Standard Operating Procedures that maximize

worker protection should also be developed. Before
each use, the personal protective equipment (PPE)
should be checked to ensure that it contains no cuts
or punctures that could expose a worker's skin to
wastes.
Skin injuries, such as cuts and scratches, may allow

penetration into the body by chemicals or infectious
agents that directly contact the worker's skin. Thus
particular care should be taken to protect these
areas. Workers with large areas of damaged skin
should be kept from working on site until the skin
heals.
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Proper Dress Out Procedures
Procedures for dressing prior to entering the Exclusion

Zone (i.e., restricted zone) will reduce the potential for
contaminants to bypass the protective clothing, thus
escaping decontamination. In general, all fasteners
should be used (i.e., zippers fully closed, all buttons
closed, all snaps closed). Gloves and boots should be
tucked under the sleeves and legs of outer clothing,
and hoods (if not attached) should be worn outside the
collar. Another pair of tough outer gloves is often worn
over the sleeves.
All junctures should be taped to prevent contaminants

from running inside the gloves, boots, and jackets (or
suits, if one-piece construction).
Training and Retraining Initially, all personnel should

be trained on the SOPs for minimizing contact and
maximizing worker protection. If any significant
changes are made to the SOPs, the workers should be
retrained. These procedures should be enforced
throughout site operations.
Levels of Contamination
Contaminants might be either on the surface of the PPE

or may have permeated the PPE material. Surface
contaminants may be easy to detect and remove;
however, contaminants that have permeated a material
are difficult or impossible to detect and remove.
If contaminants that have permeated a material are not

removed by decontamination, they may continue to
permeate to the inner surface of the material and cause
an unexpected exposure.
Preliminary Considerations
Initial Planning
The initial decontamination plan assumes all personnel

and equipment leaving the Exclusion Zone (area of
potential contamination) are grossly contaminated. A
system is then set up for personnel decontamination to
wash and rinse, at least once, all the protective
equipment worn. This is done in combination with a
sequential doffing of protective equipment, starting at
the first station with the most heavily contaminated item
and progressing to the last station with the least
contaminated article. Each procedure requires a
separate station.
The spread of contaminants during the washing/doffing

process is further reduced by separating each
decontamination station by a minimum of 3 feet.
Ideally, contamination should decrease as a person
moves from one station to another further along in the
line.
3
7/15/2013
Initial Planning (cont’d)
While planning site operations, methods should be

developed to prevent the contamination of people and
equipment. For example, using remote sampling
techniques, not opening containers by hand, bagging
monitoring instruments, using drum grapplers, watering
down dusty areas, and not walking through areas of
obvious contamination would reduce the probability of
becoming contaminated and require a less elaborate
decontamination procedure. The initial decontamination
plan is based on a worst-case situation or assumes no
information is available about the incident.
Specific conditions at the site are then evaluated,

including:
• Type of contaminant
• The amount of contamination
• Levels of protection required
• Type of protective clothing worn
• Type of equipment needed to accomplish the work task
Initial Planning (cont’d)
The initial decontamination plan is

modified, eliminating unnecessary
stations or otherwise adapting it to
site conditions.
For instance, the initial plan might

require a complete wash and rinse of
chemical protective garments. If
disposable garments are worn, the
wash/rinse step could be omitted.
Wearing disposable boot covers and
gloves could eliminate washing and
rinsing these items and reduce the
number of stations needed.
Module Quiz
4
7/15/2013
All personnel and equipment leaving the hazardous waste site must be ________ to prevent
the spread of hazardous materials off of the site.
A) uncontrolled
B) contaminated
C) decontaminated
D) heated

Your answer:

completely
continuing
The ______________ is part of the Site Health and Safety Program.
A) Decontamination Plan
B) Contamination Plan
C) Savings Plan
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
6
7/15/2013
Module 27
Personal Decontamination Station
An area within the Contamination Reduction Zone

(CRZ) is designated the Personal Decontamination
Station (PDS). The PDS controls access into and out
of the Exclusion Zone and confines decontamination
activities to a limited area.
The size of the corridor depends on the number of

stations in the decontamination procedure, overall
dimensions of work control zones, and amount of
space available at the site. A corridor of 75 feet by 15
feet is the minimum area for full decontamination.
Whenever possible, it should be a straight path. The

CRZ boundaries should be conspicuously marked, with
entry and exit restricted. The far end is the hotline,
the boundary between the Exclusion Zone and the
CRZ. Personnel exiting the Exclusion Zone must go
through the PDS. Anyone in the PDS should be
wearing the Level of Protection designated for the
decontamination crew.
Another corridor may be required for heavy

equipment needing decontamination. Within the
PDS, distinct areas are set aside for
decontamination of personnel, portable field
equipment, removed clothing, etc. These areas
should be marked and personnel restricted to
those wearing the appropriate level of protection.
All activities within the corridor are confined to

decontamination. Personnel protective clothing,
respirators, monitoring equipment, and sampling
supplies are all maintained outside of the PDS.
Personnel don their protective equipment away
from the PDS and enter the Exclusion Zone
through a separate access control point at the
hotline.
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7/15/2013
Extent of Decontamination Required
Type of Contaminant
The extent of personnel decontamination depends on the
effects the contaminants have on the body. Contaminants
do not exhibit the same degree of toxicity (or other hazard).
Whenever it is known or suspected that personnel can
become contaminated with highly toxic or skin-destructive
substances, a full decontamination procedure should be
followed. If less hazardous materials are involved, the
procedure can be downgraded.
Amount of Contamination
The amount of contamination on protective clothing is
usually determined visually. If it is badly contaminated, a
thorough decontamination is generally required. Gross
material remaining on the protective clothing for any
extended period of time may degrade or permeate it. This
likelihood increases with higher air concentrations and
greater amounts of liquid contamination. Gross
contamination also increases the probability of personnel
contact. Swipe tests may help determine the type and
quantity of surface contaminants.
Extent of Decontamination Required (cont’d)
Level of Protection
The Level of Protection and specific pieces of clothing
worn determine on a preliminary basis the layout of the
decontamination line. Each Level of Protection
incorporates different problems in decontamination and
doffing of the equipment. For example: decontamination
of the harness straps and backpack assembly of the self-
contained breathing apparatus is difficult. A butyl rubber
apron worn over the harness makes decontamination
easier.
Clothing variations and different levels of protection may

require adding or deleting stations in the original
decontamination procedure.
Work Function
The work each person does determines the
potential for contact with hazardous materials.
In turn, this dictates the layout of the
decontamination line. For example, observers,
photographers, operators of air samplers, or
others in the Exclusion Zone performing tasks
that will not bring them in contact with
contaminants may not need to have their
garments washed and rinsed.
Others in the Exclusion Zone with a potential

for direct contact with the hazardous material
will require more thorough decontamination.
Different decontamination lines could be set up
for different job functions, or certain stations in
a line could be omitted for personnel
performing certain tasks.
2
7/15/2013
Location of Contamination
Contamination on the upper areas of protective clothing
poses a greater risk to the worker because volatile
compounds may generate a hazardous breathing
concentration both for the worker and for the
decontamination personnel. There is also an increased
probability of contact with skin when doffing the upper part
of clothing.
Reason for Leaving Site

The reason for leaving the Exclusion Zone also determines
the need and extent of decontamination. A worker leaving
the Exclusion Zone to pick up or drop off tools or
instruments and immediately returning may not require
decontamination. A worker leaving to get a new air cylinder
or to change a respirator or canister, however, may require
some degree of decontamination. Individuals departing the
PDS for a break, lunch, or at the end of day, must be
thoroughly decontaminated.
Effectiveness of Decontamination
There is no method to immediately determine how effective

decontamination is in removing contaminants. Discolorations, stains,
corrosive effects, and substances adhering to objects may indicate
contaminants have not been removed. However, observable effects only
indicate surface contamination and not permeation (absorption) into
clothing. Also many contaminants are not easily observed.
A method for determining effectiveness of surface decontamination is

swipe testing. Cloth or paper patches - swipes - are wiped over
predetermined surfaces of the suspect object and analyzed in a
laboratory. Both the inner and outer surfaces of protective clothing
should be swipe tested. Positive indications of both sets of swipes would
indicate surface contamination has not been removed and substances
have penetrated or permeated through the garment. Swipe tests can
also be done on skin or inside clothing. Permeation of protective
garments requires laboratory analysis of a piece of the material.
Both swipe and permeation testing provide after-the-fact information.

Along with visual observations, results of these tests can help evaluate
the effectiveness of decontamination.
Equipment
Decontamination equipment, materials, and
supplies are generally selected based on
availability. Other considerations are ease of
equipment decontamination or disposability. Most
equipment and supplies can be easily procured.
For example, soft-bristle scrub brushes or long-
handle brushes are used to remove
contaminants. Water in buckets or garden
sprayers is used for rinsing. Large galvanized
wash tubs or stock tanks can hold wash and rinse
solutions. Children's wading pools can also be
used. Large plastic garbage cans or other similar
containers lined with plastic bags store
contaminated clothing and equipment.
Contaminated liquids can be stored temporarily

in metal or plastic cans or drums. Other gear
includes paper or cloth towels for drying
protective clothing and equipment.
3
7/15/2013
Decontamination Solution
Personal protective equipment, sampling tools, and

other equipment are usually decontaminated by
scrubbing with detergent-water using a soft-bristle
brush followed by rinsing with copious amounts of
water. While this process may not be fully effective in
removing some contaminants (or in a few cases,
contaminants may react with water), it is a relatively
safe option compared with using a chemical
decontaminating solution.
This requires that the contaminant be identified. A

decon chemical is then needed that will change the
contaminant into a less harmful substance. Especially
troublesome are unknown substances or mixtures from
a variety of known or unknown substances. The
appropriate decontamination solution must be selected
in consultation with an experienced chemist.
Establishment of Procedures
Once decontamination procedures have been

established, all personnel requiring decontamination
must be given precise instructions (and practice, if
necessary). Compliance must be frequently checked.
The time it takes for decontamination must be

ascertained. Personnel wearing SCBA's must leave their
work area with sufficient air to walk to PDS and go
through decontamination.
Module Quiz
4
7/15/2013
The _________controls access into and out of the Exclusion Zone and confines
decontamination activities to a limited area.
A) fence
B) Personal Decontamination Station (PDS)
C) Unified Decontamination Station (UDS)

Your answer:

completely
continuing
A method for determining effectiveness of surface decontamination is _________.
A) swipe testing
B) wet testing
C) dry testing
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
6
7/15/2013
Module 28
Decontamination of Personnel and Equipment During Emergencies
Decontamination
Personnel with hazardous substance

incidents may become contaminated
in a number of ways including:
• Contacting vapors, gases, mists, or

particulates in the air
• Being splashed by materials while
sampling or opening containers
• Walking through puddles of liquids
or sitting or kneeling on
contaminated soil
• Also, using contaminated
instruments or equipment can
contaminate personnel
Decontamination (cont’d)
Protective clothing and respirators help

prevent the wearer from becoming
contaminated or inhaling contaminants. Good
work practices help reduce contamination on
protective clothing, instruments, and
equipment.
Even with these safeguards, contamination

may occur. Harmful materials can be
transferred to clean areas, exposing
unprotected personnel. During removal of
contaminated clothing, personnel may contact
contaminants on their clothing or inhale
them. To prevent such occurrences, methods
to reduce contamination, and
decontamination procedures must be
developed and established before anyone
enters a site and must continue (modified
when necessary) throughout site operations.
1
7/15/2013
Decontamination consists of physically removing

contaminants or changing their chemical nature
to innocuous substances. How extensive
decontamination must be depends on a number
of factors, the most important being the type of
contaminants involved. The more harmful the
contaminant, the more extensive and thorough
decontamination must be. Less harmful
contaminants may require less decontamination.
Combining decontamination, the correct method

of doffing personal protective equipment, and the
use of site work zones minimizes cross
contamination from protective clothing to wearer,
equipment to personnel, and one area to
another. Only general guidance can be given on
methods and techniques for decontamination.
The exact procedure to use must be determined
after evaluating a number of factors specific to
the incident.
Decontamination During Medical Emergencies
Basic Considerations
Part of overall planning for incident response is

managing medical emergencies.
Planning should include:
• Training of response team members in advanced first

aid and emergency lifesaving methods
• Arranging with the nearest medical facility for
transportation and treatment of injured, and for
treatment of personnel suffering from exposure to
chemicals
• Providing consultation services with toxicologists and
other medical specialists
• Having at the incident specialized equipment, for
example, emergency eye washes, showers, first aid
kits, blankets, stretcher, and a resuscitator
2
7/15/2013
Decontamination During Medical Emergencies (cont’d)
In addition, the plan should establish procedures for

decontaminating personnel with medical problems
and injuries. There is the possibility that the
decontamination may aggravate or cause more
serious health effects. If life threatening injuries are
received, prompt life-saving first aid and medical
treatment should be administered without
decontamination, or concurrently with it.
Whenever possible, response personnel should

accompany contaminated victims to the medical
facility to advise on matters involving
decontamination.
Physical Injury
Physical injuries can range from a sprained ankle to a

compound fracture, from a minor cut to massive
bleeding. Depending on the seriousness of the injury,
treatment may be given at the site by trained
response personnel. For more serious injuries,
additional assistance may be required at the site or
the victim may have to be treated at a medical
facility.
Life-saving care should be instituted immediately

without considering decontamination. The outside
garments can be removed (depending on the
weather) if they do not cause delays, interfere with
treatment, or aggravate the problem. Respirators and
backpack assemblies must always be removed. Fully
encapsulating suits or chemical-resistant clothing can
be cut away.
Physical Injury (cont’d)
If the outer contaminated garments cannot be

safely removed, the individual should be
wrapped in plastic, rubber, or blankets to help
prevent contaminating the inside of
ambulances and medical personnel. Outside
garments are then removed at the medical
facility. No attempt should be made to wash
or rinse the victim at the site.
One exception would be if it is known that the

individual has been contaminated with an
extremely toxic or corrosive material which
could also cause severe injury or loss of life.
For minor medical problems or injuries, the
normal decontamination procedure should be
followed.
3
7/15/2013
Heat Stress
Heat-related illnesses range from heat fatigue to

heat stroke, the most serious. Heat stroke requires
prompt treatment to prevent irreversible damage
or death. Protective clothing may have to be cut
off. Less serious forms of heat stress require
prompt attention or they may lead to a heat stroke.
Unless the victim is obviously contaminated,
decontamination should be omitted or minimized
and treatment begun immediately.
Chemical Exposure
Exposure categories:
• Injuries from direct contact, such as acid burns or inhalation
of toxic chemicals
• Potential injury due to gross contamination on clothing or
equipment
For inhaled contaminants treatment can only be by qualified

physicians. If the contaminant is on the skin or in the eyes,
immediate measures must be taken to counteract the
substance's effect. First aid treatment usually is flooding the
affected area with water; however, for a few chemicals,
water may cause more severe problems.  
When protective clothing is grossly contaminated,

contaminants may be transferred to treatment personnel or
the wearer and cause injuries. Unless severe medical
problems have occurred simultaneously with splashes, the
protective clothing should be washed off as rapidly as
possible and carefully removed.
Module Quiz
4
7/15/2013
During removal of contaminated clothing, personnel may contact contaminants on their

________.
A) caps
B) respirator
C) clothing or inhale them

Your answer:

completely
continuing
_________ should be instituted immediately without considering decontamination.
A) Life-saving care
B) Clocking out
C) Eating and drinking
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
6
7/15/2013
Module 29
Decontamination of Personnel and Equipment
Protection for Decontamination Workers
The level of protection worn by decontamination workers is

determined by:
• Expected or visible contamination on workers

• Type of contaminant and associated respiratory and skin
hazards
• Total vapor/gas concentrations in the contamination
reduction corridor
• Particulates and specific inorganic or organic vapors in the
PDS
• Results of swipe tests
Decontamination Procedures
Sampling devices
Sampling devices become contaminated, but monitoring

instruments, unless they are splashed, usually do not. Once
contaminated, instruments are difficult to clean without
damaging them. Any delicate instrument which cannot be
easily decontaminated should be protected while it is being
used. It should be placed in a clear plastic bag, and the bag
taped and secured around the instrument. Openings are made
in the bag for sample intake and exhaust
Tools
Wooden tools are difficult to decontaminate because they

absorb chemicals. They should be kept on site and handled
only by protected workers. At the end of the response,
wooden tools should be discarded.
1
7/15/2013
Decontamination Procedures (cont’d)
Heavy Equipment
Bulldozers, trucks, back-hoes, bulking chambers,

and other heavy equipment are difficult to
decontaminate. The method generally used is to
wash them with water under high pressure or to
scrub accessible parts with detergent/water solution
under pressure. In some cases, shovels, scoops,
and lifts have been sand blasted or steam cleaned.
Particular care must be given to those components

in direct contact with contaminants such as tires
and scoops. Swipe tests should be utilized to
measure effectiveness. Personnel doing the
decontamination must be adequately protected for
the methods used can generate contaminated mists
and aerosols.
Sanitizing of Personal Protective

Equipment
Respirators, reusable protective clothing,

and other personal articles not only must be
decontaminated before being reused, but
also sanitized. The inside of masks and
clothing becomes soiled due to exhalation,
body oils, and perspiration.
The manufacturer's instructions should be

used to sanitize the respirator mask. If
practical, protective clothing should be
machine washed after a thorough
decontamination; otherwise it must be
cleaned by hand.
Decontamination can be defined as the procedure to

eliminate hazardous substances that have come in
contact with protective clothing, equipment, or body.
There are two primary types of decontamination
methods – physical and chemical.
Physical Removal
In many cases, gross contamination can be removed by
physical means involving dislodging/displacement,
rinsing, wiping off, and evaporation. Physical methods
involving high pressure and/or heat should be used only
as necessary and with caution since they can spread
contamination and cause burns.
2
7/15/2013
Contaminants that can be removed by physical means can be

categorized as follows:
• Loose contaminants: Dusts and vapors that cling to

equipment and workers or become trapped in small openings,
such as the weave of the clothing fabrics, can be removed with
water or a liquid rinse. Coating the clothing or equipment with
anti-static solutions can enhance removal of electrostatically
attached materials. These are available commercially as wash
additives or anti-static sprays.
• Adhering contaminants: Some contaminants adhere by

forces other than electrostatic attraction. Adhesive
qualities vary greatly with the specific contaminants and
the temperature. For example, contaminants such as
glues, cements, resins, and muds have much greater
adhesive properties than elemental mercury and
consequently, are difficult to remove by physical means.
Physical removal methods for gross contaminants include
scraping, brushing, and wiping. Removal of adhesive
contaminants can be enhanced through certain methods
such as solidifying, freezing, (e.g., using dry ice or ice
water), adsorption or absorption (e.g., with powdered
lime or kitty litter), or melting.
• Volatile liquids: Volatile liquid contaminants can be

removed from protective clothing or equipment by
evaporation followed by a water rinse. Using steam jets
can enhance evaporation of volatile liquids. With any
evaporation or vaporization process, care must be taken
to prevent worker inhalation of the vaporized chemicals.
Chemical Removal
A wash/rinse process using cleaning solutions should follow physical
removal of gross contamination. These cleaning solutions normally
utilize one or more of the following methods:
Dissolving contaminants: Chemical removal of surface

contaminants can be accomplished by dissolving them in a solvent.
The solvent must be chemically compatible with the equipment being
cleaned. This is particularly important when decontaminating PPE
constructed of organic materials that could be damaged or dissolved
by organic solvents. In addition, care must be taken in selecting,
using, and disposing of any organic solvents that may be flammable
or potentially toxic. Organic solvents include alcohols, ethers,
ketones, aromatics, straight-chain alkanes, and common petroleum
products.
Halogenated solvents generally are incompatible with PPE and are

toxic. They should only be used for decontamination in extreme cases
where other cleaning agents will not remove the contaminant.
3
7/15/2013
Chemical Removal (cont’d)
Surfactants: Surfactants augment physical cleaning

methods by reducing adhesion forces between
contaminants and the surface being cleaned, and by
preventing redeposit of the contaminants.
Household detergents are among the most common
surfactants. Some detergents can be used with
organic solvents to improve the dissolving and
dispersal of contaminants into the solvent.
Solidfication: Solidfying liquid or gel contaminants

can enhance their physical removal. The
mechanisms of solidification are: (1) moisture
removal through the use of absorbents such as
grounded clay or powdered lime; (2) chemical
reactions via polymerization catalysts and chemical
reagents; and (3) freezing using ice water.
Chemical Removal (cont’d)
Rinsing: Rinsing removes contaminants

through dilution, physical attraction, and
solubilization. Multiple rinses with clean
solutions remove more contaminants than a
single rinse with the same volume of solution.
Continuous rinsing with large volumes will
remove even more contaminants than multiple
rinsings with a lesser total volume.
Disinfection/Sterilization: Chemical
disinfectants are a practical means of
inactivating infectious agents. Unfortunately,
standard sterilization techniques are generally
impractical for large equipment and for PPE.
For this reason, disposable PPE is
recommended for use with infectious agents.
Module Quiz
4
7/15/2013
There are two primary types of decontamination methods – _______________.
A) stare and wonder
B) physical and chemical
C) chemical and biological

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Chemical removal of surface contaminants can be accomplished by dissolving them in a

_______.
A) acid
B) base
C) solvent
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
6
7/15/2013
Module 30
Persistent Contamination
Persistent Contamination
In some instances, clothing and equipment will

become contaminated with substances that
cannot be removed by normal decontamination
procedures. A solvent may be used to remove
such contamination from equipment if it does
not destroy or degrade the protective material.
If persistent contamination is expected,
disposable garments should be used.
Testing for persistent contamination of

protective clothing and appropriate
decontamination must be done by qualified
laboratory personnel.
What If the Decontamination Procedure Has not Worked?
Sometimes you can tell by visual inspection that

contamination has been successfully removed.
However, there are two problems when looking
for visible contamination.
1) Many hazardous substances or chemicals do

not leave visible traces.
2) Some chemicals can permeate protective

clothing and additional testing is required to
ensure complete decontamination. When this
situation happens, laboratory analyses of the
articles must be done. Of course, economics
plays a part in this and you do not want to
decontaminate an item if it can easily be
replaced.
1
7/15/2013
Laboratory Testing of Contaminated Articles
Smear Tests
This process involves taking a cloth patch and
smearing the inside and outside of the article in
question. Then, following the proper chain of
custody procedure, submit the smear to an
analytical laboratory for analysis.
Permeation Analysis
A small portion of the protective clothing can be
removed and sent to an accredited laboratory for
analyses.
Decon Solution Analyses

The decon rinse solution can be submitted to a
laboratory for analyses.
The following fundamentals affect permeation of protective clothing:
Temperature: higher temperatures will result in

faster permeation of chemicals through
protective clothing.
Material Type: almost all chemicals are

permeable through protective clothing to some
degree. The type of material that the protective
clothing is made of will have a major influence on
the permeation of a hazardous substance.
Contact Time: there is a direct correlation

between permeation of a chemical through
protective clothing and its contact time. The
longer the chemical is in intimate contact with
the protective clothing article, the more readily
the chemical will permeate and be absorbed into
the clothing fabric.
The following fundamentals affect permeation of protective clothing (cont’d):
Contaminant Molecule Size: the smaller

the size of the contaminant molecule the
greater it will absorb into the protective
clothing material.
Contaminant Concentration: the higher the

concentration of the contaminant, the greater
the chances are that the chemical will absorb
into the protective clothing.
Mixtures of Chemicals: mixtures of different

chemicals can have a synergistic effect on the
time required to permeate protective clothing.
Contaminant Physical State: contaminants

present in a gaseous or liquid state will
absorb faster into protective clothing than
those in a solid state.
2
7/15/2013
Substances and Tools for Effective Decontamination
Substances used for decontamination (decontamination

fluids)
PPE and protective clothing are normally decontaminated

by rinsing with a detergent and water mixture to loosen
the contaminants. The theory behind this is that
detergents have excellent cleaning properties.
Detergents have a key ingredient called a surfactant that
literally makes potable water "wetter" and this is key in
cleaning surface-active contaminants.
Surfactants accumulate at the water to gas, solid, and

oils interface and generally remove most contaminants
easily. The decon water is then collected for treatment,
storage or disposal. While a detergent-water based
decon fluid will remove many contaminants, it will not
chemically inactivate certain constituents e.g. neutralize.
Substances and Tools for Effective Decontamination (cont’d)
When detoxifying an article you must know

the contaminants present to select the
appropriate chemical for the job. If the
contaminant of concern is unknown, chemical
detoxification is not recommended. Always
check with the manufacturer of the decon
solution for your particular application.
However, there are several decon solutions
available on the market today that will act on
a wide variety of contaminants. The following
examples illustrate this point.
Example 1
PPE and equipment are contaminated with
PCBs, oils, halogenated solvents e.g.,
Trichloroethylene, Toluene and Chloroform. A
solution containing 5 percent trisodium
phosphate can be used to decon the wide
range of contaminants from these articles.
Example 2
Contamination is present in the form of heavy
metals, pesticides, PCBs, dioxins, and
chlorinated phenols. To remove all
contamination simultaneously, a solution of 10
percent calcium hypochlorite can be used.
Example 3
A waste stream that consists of inorganic bases,
alkali, and caustic wastes can be
decontaminated with a diluted solution of acid
such as hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, etc.
3
7/15/2013
Radioactive Materials
For radioactive materials, prepare a
concentrated solution of detergent and water
mixed into a paste. Scrub with a brush and
rinse with water
Bloodborne Pathogens
For etiologic (bloodborne pathogens) materials,
mix 1 cup household bleach with 10 cups of
water or 1 cup hydrogen peroxide (3-4%) with
10 cups of water
Module Quiz
__________: the smaller the size of the contaminant molecule the greater it will absorb into
the protective clothing material.
A) Contaminant Molecule Size
B) Decontaminant Chemical
C) Chemical Plan

Your answer:

completely
continuing
4
7/15/2013
_______________: contaminants present in a gaseous or liquid state will absorb faster into
protective clothing than those in a solid state.
A) Contaminant State
B) Contaminant Physical State
C) solvent

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
Module 31
Disposal of Contaminated Equipment and Materials
Decontamination Tools, Devices and Equipment
The following items are very useful in

preparing checklists and establishing
decontamination procedures:
• Cloth and paper towels: these are useful for

drying protective clothing and various
equipment items
• Absorbents: pigs, booms, absorbent towels,

even cat litter are all fine for absorbing spills
and wiping contaminated articles
• Plastic drop cloths: great for catching spills
• Polyethylene bags: contaminated clothing

and equipment should be placed in bags
Decontamination Tools, Devices and Equipment (cont’d)
• Containers: such as plastic garbage

containers are excellent for holding
contaminated articles until disposal. Be
careful to use containers that are
compatible with specific contaminants
• Wash and Rinse Solutions (decon

solutions): these should be applied using
airless sprayers
• Brushes: soft (nylon) and hard bristle

brushes for scrubbing contaminated
articles
• Galvanized Wash Containers: - these are

great for holding decon solutions
• Shower Facilities: for rinsing workers
1
7/15/2013
Disposal of Contaminated Materials
All materials and equipment used for decontamination

must be disposed of properly. Clothing, tools, buckets,
brushes, and all other equipment that is contaminated
must be secured in drums or other containers and
labeled. Clothing not completely decontaminated on-
site should be secured in plastic bags before being
removed from the site.
Contaminated wash and rinse solutions should be

contained by using step-in-containers (for example,
child's wading pool) to hold spent solutions.
Another containment method is to dig a trench about 4

inches deep and line it with plastic. In both cases the
spent solutions are transferred to drums, which are
labeled and disposed of with other substances on site.
Disposal of Contaminated Materials
It is likely that decontamination solutions will be

considered a Hazardous Waste by the U.S. EPA.
Specifically, the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA) regulates the disposal of
solid and hazardous waste.
There are strict requirements on the generation,

storage and disposal of hazardous wastes. Please
be sure that your operation is aware of these
requirements to stay in compliance.
Health and Safety Hazards of Decontamination
While decontamination is performed to protect health and safety, it can

pose hazards under certain circumstances. Decontamination methods
may:
- Be incompatible with the hazardous substances being removed (i.e., a
decontamination method may react with contaminants to produce an
explosion, heat, or toxic products)
- Be incompatible with the clothing or equipment being decontaminated
(e.g., some organic solvents can permeate and/or degrade protective
clothing)
- Pose a direct health hazard to workers (e.g., vapors from chemical
decontamination solutions may be hazardous if inhaled, or they may be
flammable)
The chemical and physical compatibility of the decontamination solutions

or other decontamination materials must be determined before they are
used. Any decontamination method that permeates, degrades, damages,
or otherwise impairs the safe functioning of the PPE is incompatible with
such PPE and should not be used. If a decontamination method does
pose a direct health hazard, measures must be taken to protect both
decontamination personnel and the workers being decontaminated.
2
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Decontamination Facility Design
At a hazardous waste site, decontamination

facilities should be located in the
Contamination Reduction Zone (CRZ), which is
the area between the Exclusion Zone (the
contaminated area) and the Support Zone (the
clean area).
The level and types of decontamination

procedures required depend on several site-
specific factors including:
- The chemical, physical, and toxicological

properties of the wastes
- The presence of biological infectious wastes

such as blood, fecal matter, etc. that may be
pathogenic (i.e., capable of causing disease)
- The amount, location, and containment of

contaminants
Decontamination Facility Design
- A worker's assigned duties, activities, and functions with a potential

for exposure
- The potential for wastes to permeate, degrade, or penetrate

materials used for personal protective clothing and equipment,
vehicles, tools, buildings, and structures
- The proximity (i.e., nearness of placement) of incompatible wastes
- The movement of personnel and/or equipment among different zones
- Emergencies
- The methods available for protecting workers during decontamination
- The impact of the decontamination process and compounds on

worker safety and health
Decontamination Facility Design (cont’d)
Decontamination procedures must provide an

organized process by which levels of
contamination are reduced. The decontamination
process should consist of a series of procedures
performed in a specific sequence. For example,
outer, more heavily contaminated items such as
outer boots and gloves should be
decontaminated and removed first, followed by
decontamination and removal of inner, less
contaminated items such as jackets and pants.
Each procedure should be performed at a

separate station in order to prevent cross-
contamination. The sequence of stations or steps
is called the decontamination line. The steps
should be separated physically to prevent cross-
contamination and should be arranged in order of
decreasing contamination, preferably in a straight
line. The number of steps is dependent on the
level of chemical protective clothing used and the
decontamination procedures.
3
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Decontamination Facility Design (cont’d)
Separate flow patterns and stations should be

provided to isolate workers from different
contamination zones containing incompatible
wastes.
Entry and exit points should be conspicuously

marked, and the entry to the Contamination
Reduction Zone (CRZ) from the Exclusion Zone
should be separate from the entry to the Exclusion
Zone from the CRZ.
Dressing stations for entry to the CRZ should be

separate from redressing areas for exit from the
CRZ. Personnel who wish to enter clean areas of
the decontamination facility, such as locker rooms,
should be completely decontaminated.
Personal Protection for Decontamination Personnel
Decontamination workers who initially are exposed

to personnel and equipment leaving the Exclusion
Zone will require more protection from
contaminants than decontamination workers who
are assigned to the last station in the
decontamination line.
In some cases, decontamination personnel should

wear the same levels of PPE as workers in the
Exclusion Zone. In other cases, decontamination
personnel may be sufficiently protected by wearing
one level lower protection (e.g., wearing Level C
protection while decontaminating workers who are
wearing Level B).
The level of protection required will vary with the

type of decontamination equipment used. For
example, workers using a steam jet may need a
different type of respiratory protection than other
decontamination personnel because of the high
moisture levels produced by steam jets
Personal Protection for Decontamination Personnel (cont’d)
In some situations, the cleaning solutions used and

wastes removed during decontamination may
generate harmful vapors. A qualified health and
safety expert should select appropriate equipment
and clothing for protecting decontamination
personnel.
All decontamination workers are in a contaminated

area and must be decontaminated before entering
the clean Support Zone. The extent of their
decontamination should be determined by the types
of contaminants they may have contacted and the
type of work they performed.
4
7/15/2013
Module Quiz
Which of the following would be the hardest to remove during decontamination?
A) Dried solid materials caked onto PPE
B) Chemical permeated into PPE material
C) Liquid material spread into crevices and pleats of the PPE

Your answer:

completely
continuing
What is the minimum level of protection depending upon the chemical contaminants that
decontamination personnel should wear?
A) Level C protection.
B) The same level of PPE as workers in the Exclusion Zone.

The same level of PPE or one level lower protection as workers in
C)
the Exclusion Zone.
D) Level D protection.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
5
7/15/2013
Responders at hazardous substance incidents may become contaminated by...
A) ...contacting vapors, gases, or mists.
B) ...being splashed by materials.
C) ...using contaminated instruments.
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Decontamination takes place in the __________.
A) Hot Zone
B) Support Zone
C) Exclusion Zone
D) Contamination Reduction Zone

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
7
7/15/2013
Module 32
Handling Drums Part 1

Planning and Inspection
Handling Drums
Accidents may occur during handling of drums and other

hazardous waste containers. Hazards include detonations, fires,
explosions, vapor generation, and physical injury resulting from
moving heavy containers by hand and working around stacked
drums, heavy equipment, and deteriorated drums. While these
hazards are always present, proper work practices-such as
minimizing handling and using equipment and procedures that
isolate workers from hazardous substances-can minimize the risks
to site personnel.
This module defines practices and procedures for safe handling of

drums and other hazardous waste containers. It is intended to aid
personnel in setting up a waste container handling program. Also,
this module will give an understanding of incompatible chemicals
that should not be packaged together. Containers are handled
during characterization and removal of their contents and during
other operations.
A flow chart showing one set of possible procedures for drum

handling is given in the next section.
Drum Handling Chart
No
Sampling Characterize Bulking
Inspection Handling Opening
Develop Characterize Transfer drum
Inspect drums Necessary? Open drums
sampling plan wastes contents
Yes
No
Planning Handling Shipment
Staging
Develop a Orient drums Ship to TSDF
Necessary?
handling plan for sampling
Yes
Planning Staging Move drums to Move drums to Move drums to Bulking
Develop a Move drums to opening/sampling second staging final staging Transfer drum
staging plan first storage area area area area contents
Sampling Characterize
Opening
Sample drums Characterize
Open drums
contents wastes
1
7/15/2013
Inspection
The appropriate procedures for handling drums depend

on the drum contents. Thus, prior to any handling,
drums should be visually inspected to gain as much
information as possible about their contents.
The inspection crew should look for:

• Symbols, words, or other marks on the drum indicating
that its contents are hazardous, e.g., radioactive,
explosive, corrosive, toxic, flammable
• Symbols, words, or other marks on a drum indicating
that it contains discarded laboratory chemicals,
reagents, or other potentially dangerous materials in
small-volume individual containers
• Signs of deterioration such as corrosion, rust, and
leaks
• Signs that the drum is under pressure such as swelling
and bulging
• Drum type
• Configuration of the drumhead
Inspection (cont’d)
Conditions in the immediate vicinity of the drums may

provide information about drum contents and their
associated hazards. Monitoring should be conducted
around the drums using instruments such as gamma
radiation survey instrument, organic vapor monitors,
and a combustible gas meter.
• The results of this survey can be used to classify the

drums into preliminary hazard categories, for
example:
• Radioactive
• Leaking/deteriorated
• Bulging
• Explosive/shock-sensitive
• Contains small-volume individual containers of
laboratory wastes or other dangerous materials
Inspection (cont’d)
As a precautionary measure,
personnel should assume that
unlabelled drums contain hazardous
materials until their contents are
characterized. Also, they should bear
in mind that drums are frequently
mislabeled-particularly drums that are
reused. Thus, a drum's label may not
accurately describe its contents.
If buried drums are suspected,

ground-penetrating systems, such as
electromagnetic wave, electrical
resistivity, ground-penetrating radar,
magnetometer, and metal detection,
can be used to estimate the location
and depth of the drums.
2
7/15/2013
Planning
Since drum handling is fraught with danger, every

step of the operation should be carefully planned,
based on all the information available at the time.
The results of the preliminary inspection can be

used to determine (1) if any hazards are present
and the appropriate response, and (2) which
drums need to be moved in order to be opened
and sampled. A preliminary plan should be
developed which specifies the extent of handling
necessary, the personnel selected for the job, and
the most appropriate procedures based on the
hazards associated with the probable drum
contents as determined by visual inspection.
This plan should be revised as new information is

obtained during drum handling.
Handling
The purpose of handling is to (1) respond to any

obvious problems that might impair worker
safety, such as radioactivity, leakage, or the
presence of explosive substances, (2) unstack
and orient drums for sampling, and (3) if
necessary, to organize drums into different
areas on site to facilitate characterization and
remedial action. Handling may or may not be
necessary, depending on how the drums are
positioned at a site.
Handling (cont’d)
Over pack drums and an adequate volume

of absorbent should be kept near areas
where minor spills may occur. Where major
spills occur, a containment berm adequate
to contain the entire volume of liquid in the
drums should be constructed before any
handling takes place.
If the drum contents spill, personnel trained

in spill response should be used to isolate
and contain the spill. Over packs (i.e.,
drums containing individual containers of
laboratory materials normally surrounded
by cushioning absorbent material).
3
7/15/2013
Handling (cont’d)
Several types of equipment can be used to

move drums:
(1) A drum grappler attached to a hydraulic
excavator;
(2) a small front-end loader, which can be either
loaded manually or equipped with a bucket
sling;
(3) a rough terrain forklift;
(4) a roller conveyor equipped with solid rollers;
and
(5) drum carts designed specifically for drum
handling.
Handling (cont’d)
Drums are also sometimes moved manually. The drum

grappler is the preferred piece of equipment for drum
handling. It keeps the operator removed from the drums
so there is less likelihood of injury if the drums detonate
or rupture.
If a drum is leaking, the operator can stop the leak by

rotating the drum and immediately placing it into an over
pack. In case of an explosion, grappler claws help protect
the operator by partially deflecting the force of the
explosion.
Handling (cont’d)
The following procedures can be used to maximize worker

safety during drum handling and movement:
Train personnel in proper lifting and moving techniques to

prevent back injuries.
Make sure the vehicle selected has sufficient rated load

capacity to handle the anticipated loads, and make sure the
vehicle can operate smoothly on the available road surface.
Air condition the cabs of vehicles to increase operator

efficiency; protect the operator with heavy splash shields.
Supply operators with appropriate respiratory protective

equipment when needed. Normally either a combination
SCBA or air-purifying respirator with the tank fastened to
the vehicle, or an airline respirator and an escape SCBA are
used because of the high potential hazards of drum
handling. This improves operator efficiency and provides
protection in case the operator must abandon the
equipment.
4
7/15/2013
Handling (cont’d)
Have over packs ready before any attempt is made to

move drums.
Over packs (i.e., drums containing individual

containers of laboratory materials normally surrounded
by cushioning absorbent material). Before moving
anything, determine the most appropriate sequence in
which the various drums and other containers should
be moved. For example, small containers may have to
be removed first to permit heavy equipment to enter
and move the drums.
Exercise extreme caution in handling drums that are

not intact and tightly sealed.
Ensure that operators have a clear view of the roadway

when carrying drums. Where necessary, have ground
workers available to guide the operator's motion.
Module Quiz
What is an over pack?
A) Hot pack
B) Drums of laboratory materials.

Drums containing individual containers of laboratory materials
C)
normally surrounded by cushioning absorbent material.
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
5
7/15/2013
As a precautionary measure, personnel should assume that unlabeled drums contain

_________ until their contents are characterized.
A) nothing as they are empty
B) hazardous materials
C) water

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
Module 33

Opening Drums and Incompatible Chemicals
Opening
Drums are usually opened and sampled in

place during site investigations. However,
remedial and emergency operations may
require a separate drum opening.
Procedures for opening drums are the same,

regardless of where the drums are opened.
To enhance the efficiency and safety of
drum-opening personnel, the following
procedures should be instituted.
Other Containers and Incompatible Chemicals
Drums that May Contain Explosive or Shock-

Sensitive Waste
• If a drum is suspected to contain explosive or

shock-sensitive waste as determined by visual
inspection, seek specialized assistance before any
handling
• If handling is necessary, handle these drums with

extreme caution
• Prior to handling these drums, make sure all

non-essential personnel have moved a safe
distance away
1
7/15/2013
Other Containers and Incompatible Chemicals (cont’d)
Drums that May Contain Explosive or Shock-

Sensitive Waste (cont’d)
• Use a grappler unit constructed for explosive

containment for initial handling of such drums
• Palletize the drums prior to transport. Secure

drums to pallets
• Use an audible siren system, similar to that

employed in conventional blasting operations, to
signal the commencement and completion of
explosive waste handling activities
• Maintain continuous communication with the Site

Safety Health officer and/or the command post
until drum handling operations are complete
Bulging Drums
• Pressurized drums are extremely hazardous.

Wherever possible, do not move drums that
may be under internal pressure, as evidenced
by bulging or swelling
• If a pressurized drum has to be moved,

whenever possible handle the drum with a
grappler unit constructed for explosive
containment. Either move the bulged drum
only as far as necessary to allow seating on
firm ground, or carefully over pack the drum.
Exercise extreme caution when working with or
adjacent to potentially pressurized drums.
Drums Containing Packaged Laboratory Wastes (Lab Packs)
• Laboratory Packs (i.e., drums containing individual

containers of laboratory materials normally
surrounded by cushioning absorbent material) can
be an ignition source for fires at hazardous waste
sites. They sometimes contain shock-sensitive
materials. Such containers should be considered to
hold explosive or shock-sensitive wastes until
otherwise characterized. If handling is required, the
following precautions are among those that should
be taken:
• Prior to handling or transporting lab packs, make

sure all non-essential personnel have moved a safe
distance away
• Whenever possible, use a grappler unit constructed

for explosive containment for initial handling of
such drums
2
7/15/2013
Drums Containing Packaged Laboratory Wastes (Lab Packs) (cont’d)
• Maintain continuous communication with the Site Safety

Officer until handling operations are complete
• Once a lab pack has been opened, have a chemist

inspect, classify, and segregate the bottles within it,
without opening them, according to the hazards of the
wastes. The objective of a classification system is to
ensure safe segregation of the lab packs' contents. Pack
these bottles with sufficient cushioning and absorption
materials to prevent excessive movement of the bottles
and to absorb all free liquids, and ship them to an
approved disposal facility.
• If crystalline material is noted at the neck of any bottle,

handle it as a shock-sensitive waste, due to the potential
presence of picric acid or other similar material, and get
expert advice before attempting to handle it.
• Palletize the repacked drums prior to transport. Secure

the drums to pallets
Leaking, Open and Deteriorated Drums
• If a drum containing a liquid cannot be moved

without rupture, immediately transfer its
contents to a sound drum using a pump
designed for transferring that liquid
• Using a drum grappler, place immediately in

over pack containers: leaking drums that
contain sludges or semi-solids; open drums that
contain liquid or solid waste; and deteriorated
drums that can be moved without rupture
3
7/15/2013
Buried Drums
• Prior to initiating subsurface excavation, use ground

penetrating systems to estimate the location and
depth of the drums
• Remove soil with great caution to minimize the

potential for drum rupture
• Have a dry chemical fire extinguisher on hand to

control small fires
Certain chemicals will have a violent reaction or

adverse reaction when subjected to other chemicals
or different environments. It is imperative to
understand the basics regarding what type of
chemicals will undergo adverse reactions to avoid
these types of situations. The following tables will
help with this understanding.
Incompatible Chemicals
Incompatible Chemicals (cont’d)
CHEMICAL AVOID CONTACT WITH
4
7/15/2013
Flammability of Some Organic Liquids
5
7/15/2013
Module Quiz
If a drum is suspected to contain _____________ as determined by visual inspection, seek

specialized assistance before any handling.
A) harmful
B) explosive or shock-sensitive waste
C) water
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
If ______ material is noted at the neck of any bottle, handle it as a shock-sensitive waste.
A) yellow
B) frozen
C) crystalline

Your answer:

completely
continuing
6
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
7
7/15/2013
Module 34

Drum Sampling and Staging
Drum Sampling
When manually sampling from a drum, use the following

techniques:
• Keep sampling personnel at a safe distance while drums

are being opened. Sample only after opening operations
are complete.
• Do not lean over other drums to reach the drum being
sampled, unless absolutely necessary.
• Cover drum tops with plastic sheeting or other suitable
non-contaminated materials to avoid excessive contact
with the drum tops.
• Obtain samples with either glass rods or vacuum pumps.
Do not use contaminated items such as discarded rags
to sample. The contaminants may contaminate the
sample and may not be compatible with the waste in the
drum. Glass rods should be removed prior to pumping to
minimize damage to pumps.
• Never stand on drums. This is extremely dangerous. Use
mobile steps or another platform to achieve the height
necessary to safely sample from the drums.
Drum Sampling (cont’d)
Characterization
The goal of characterization is to obtain the data
necessary to determine how to safely and
efficiently package and transport the wastes for
treatment and/or disposal. If wastes are bulked,
they must be sufficiently characterized to
determine which of them can be safely combined
(see Bulking later in this module).
As a first step in obtaining these data, standard

tests should be used to classify the wastes into
general categories, including auto-reactives, water
reactives, inorganic acids, organic acids, heavy
metals, pesticides, cyanides, inorganic oxidizers,
and organic oxidizers. In some cases, further
analysis should be conducted to more precisely
identify the waste materials.
1
7/15/2013
Drum Sampling (cont’d)
When possible, materials should be characterized

using an onsite laboratory. This provides data as
rapidly as possible, and minimizes the time lag
before appropriate action can be taken to handle
any hazardous materials.
Also, it precludes any potential problems

associated with transporting samples to an offsite
laboratory (e.g., sample packaging).
Staging
If samples must be analyzed off site, samples should

be packaged on site in accordance with DOT
regulations (49 CFR) and shipped to the laboratory for
analysis.
Although every attempt should be made to minimize

drum handling, drums must sometimes be staged (i.e.
moved in an organized manner to pre-designated
areas) to facilitate characterization and remedial
action, and to protect drums from potentially
hazardous site conditions (e.g., movement of heavy
equipment and high temperatures that might cause
explosion, ignition, or pressure buildup).
Staging involves a trade-off between the increased

hazards associated with drum movement and the
decreased hazards associated with the enhanced
organization and accessibility of the waste materials.
Staging (cont’d)
The number of staging areas necessary depends on

site specific circumstances such as the scope of the
operation, the accessibility of drums in their original
positions, and the perceived hazards. Investigation
usually involves little, if any, staging; remedial and
emergency operations can involve extensive drum
staging.
The extent of staging must be determined

individually for each site, and should always be kept
to a minimum. Up to five separate areas have been
used. Please see diagram to the right.
2
7/15/2013
Bulking
Wastes that have been characterized are often mixed

together and placed in bulk containers such as tanks or
vacuum trucks for shipment to treatment or disposal
facilities.
Bulking is performed at the final staging area using the

following procedures:
• Inspect each tank trailer and remove any residual

materials from the trailer prior to transferring any bulked
materials. This will prevent reactions between incompatible
chemicals.
• To move hazardous liquids, use pumps that are properly

rated (see National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and
that have a safety relief valve with a splash shield. Make
sure the pump hoses, casings, fittings, and gaskets are
compatible with the material being pumped.
Shipment
Shipment of materials to offsite treatment, storage,

or disposal facilities involves the entry of waste
hauling vehicles into the site. U.S. Department of
Transportation (DOT) regulations (49 CFR Parts
171-178) and EPA regulations (40 CFR Part 263) for
shipment of hazardous wastes must be complied
with.
The following guidelines can enhance the safety of

these operations:
• Locate the final staging (bulking) area as close as

possible to the site exit.
• Prepare a circulation plan that minimizes conflict

between cleanup teams and waste haulers. Install
traffic signs, lights, and other control devices as
necessary.
Shipment (cont’d)
• Provide adequate area for onsite and hauling vehicles
to turn around. Where necessary, build or improve
onsite roads.
• Stage hauling vehicles in a safe area until ready for

loading with drivers remaining in cab.
• Minimize the time that drivers spend in hazardous

areas.
• Outfit the driver with appropriate protective equipment.
If drums are shipped, tightly seal the drums prior to

loading. Over pack leaking or deteriorated drums prior
to shipment. (Under most circumstances, over pack
drums used for hazardous wastes may not be reused
[49 CFR Part 173.3(c)]). Make sure that truck bed and
walls are clean and smooth to prevent damage to
drums. Do not double stack drums. Secure drums to
prevent shifting during transport.
3
7/15/2013
Shipment (cont’d)
• Keep bulk solids several inches below the top of the truck
container. Cover loads with a layer of clean soil, foam, and/or
tarp. Secure the load to prevent shifting or release during
transport.
• Weigh vehicles periodically to ensure that vehicle and road

weight limits are not exceeded.
• Decontaminate vehicle tires prior to leaving the site to ensure

that contamination is not carried onto public roads.
• Check periodically to ensure that vehicles are not releasing

dust or vapor emissions off site.
• Develop procedures for responding quickly to offsite vehicle

breakdown and accidents to ensure minimal public impact.
Module Quiz
4
7/15/2013
The goal of ________ is to obtain the data necessary to determine how to safely and efficiently
package and transport the wastes for treatment and/or disposal.
A) characterization
B) monitoring
C) checking
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Shipment of materials to offsite treatment, storage, or disposal facilities involves the entry of
waste hauling vehicles into the site. Which government agency regulates transportation?
A) Department of Transfer (DOT)
B) Department of Transportation (DOT)
C) OSHA

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
6
7/15/2013
Module 35
Placards and Labels
Placards and Labeling
Perhaps the most important section of HAZWOPER

training centers on the proper identification of hazardous
substances by the appropriate labels and placards. The
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and the
Department of Transportation (DOT) are the two primary
regulatory drivers governing the identification of
hazardous materials.
NFPA regulates the identification of stationary storage

tanks and smaller containers at facilities.
DOT provides a system of placards and labels used on

containers and tanks transported on commercial
interstates.
NFPA Hazardous Substance Identification
NFPA uses numbers and a color-coded diamond shaped label

to identify the Flammability, Reactivity, and Health Hazards
associated with hazardous substances.
NFPA Diamond Color Codes and what they mean:

Yellow – Reactivity
Red – Flammability
Blue - Health Hazard
White - Special Information
1
7/15/2013
NFPA Hazardous Substance Identification (cont’d)
Every person who works with or around chemicals must

understand the Labeling System.
Hazards - Four Basic Hazard Classifications for Chemicals
Health Hazards are those that can affect the immediate or long
term health of an employee if exposed to a specific chemical.
Acute effects of exposure are those that present symptoms
when exposure occurs, such as when skin is exposed to an
acid. Delayed or long term health effects can also occur from
chemical exposure, such as cancer. Health effects for any given
chemical will depend on the toxicity, duration of exposure and
amount of exposure.
NFPA Hazardous Substance Identification (cont’d)
Fire Hazard ratings range from non-flammable to highly

flammable. The NFPA ratings are based on the material
flashpoint - the temperature at which the chemical vapors
will ignite.
Reactivity ratings describe the hazards of the material

stability - some chemicals will explode or react violently if
exposed to heat or shock
Other Hazards - special markings are required if the material

is radioactive, an oxidizer, acid or base or will react when
exposed to other materials.
NFPA Color Codes and Numbers
2
7/15/2013
Department of Transportation Identification System
These regulations mandate that labels be placed

on small containers and placards placed on tanks
and trailers. These labels and placards must
clearly explain the hazard presented by the
containerized material. The DOT hazard
classification system is based on the United
Nations (UN) hazard classes.
Four sections to the DOT placard:

UN Identification number
UN hazard class number
Hazard symbol
Color of placard
Department of Transportation Identification System
There is a four digit UN Identification

Number that identifies the chemical name,
may refer to more than one chemical, and is
found on the placard or the orange
rectangular panel. The UN ID number should
also be placed on the manifest or shipping
papers.
The UN Hazard Class Number is located on

the bottom of the diamond and tells the type
or class of hazard. These numbers and their
corresponding hazards are listed in the
following sections. The symbols indicate a
visual warning of the particular type of
hazard by the chemical and the color helps
to identify the hazard.
DOT Color/Hazard Crosswalk
The UN Hazard Class Number is located on the bottom of the diamond and tells the type or class of hazard. These
numbers and their corresponding hazards are listed in the table below. The symbols indicate a visual warning of the
particular type of hazard by the chemical and the color helps to identify the hazard.
3
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DOT Hazard Class Number and Description
Module Quiz
The _______ are the two primary regulatory drivers governing the identification of hazardous
materials.
National Fire Prevention Association (NFPA) and the Department

A)
of Transfer (DOT)
B) Augusta National
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and the Department
C)
of Transportation (DOT)
D) American Board of Industrial Hygiene

Your answer:

completely
continuing
4
7/15/2013
What is the hazard classification for a label/placard that is red in color?
A) Flammability
B) Reactivity
C) Corrosive

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
Module 36
Excavations Part 1
Excavation Requirements
Excavations
Subpart P--(1926.650--1926.652) Primary Violation

of OSHA Excavation Standard
Lack or inadequacy of employee protection in excavations -

- 1926.652(a)(1)
Inspections by Competent Person -- 1926.651(k)(1)
Protection from falling/rolling materials and equipment --

1926.651(j)(2)
Egress from trench excavations -- 1926.651(c)(2)
Exposure to vehicular traffic/Warning garments --

1926.651(d).
OSHA Excavation Standard
The OSHA excavations standard became

effective March 5, 1990. The Standard is
explicit in intent and prescribes precautions
which should be applied to all excavation sites
for the safety of workers in or near the
excavation.
A trench (trench excavation) is defined by

OSHA as: "a narrow excavation (in
relation to its length) made below the
surface of the ground. In general, the
depth is greater than the width, but the
width of a trench is not greater than 15'."
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OSHA Excavation Standard (cont’d)
General Requirements of 29 CFR, Subpart P
Surface Encumbrances
Before excavation work is begun, the site should be
inspected for conditions requiring precautionary
measures, i.e., active roadways, utility structures,
trees, etc. Structures must be supported to prevent
hazard to any employee on the project site (in or out of
the excavation).
Underground Installations
Underground installations require that utilities be
located and marked. It may also be necessary to
temporarily support underground utilities during
excavation. When excavations approach the estimated
location of underground installations, the exact location
of the underground installations shall be determined by
means that are safe to employees, i.e., hand dig, test
pits, etc.
General Requirements of 29 CFR, Subpart P
Access and Egress
The standard requires a competent person to design

ramps (those used exclusively for employee
access/egress).Such ramps are constructed of wood, steel
or earth. Structural ramps, used for vehicle/equipment
access (steel or wood) must be designed by a competent
person qualified in structural design. Vehicle ramps built of
earth are not considered "structural ramps" under the
standard.
The standard also requires a ladder, stairway, ramp or

other safe means of access/egress any time personnel
enter excavations deeper than four feet (4'). The means of
egress must not be located more than 25 feet from
employees. Ladders must be securely anchored at the top
or bottom and must extend at least 3 feet above the
ground surface.
General Requirements of 29 CFR, Subpart P (cont’d)
Exposure to Vehicular Traffic - Employees

exposed to public traffic during excavation activities
must be provided with warning vests or other
suitable high visibility garments.
Exposure to Falling Loads - Employees are not

permitted under excavating or lifting equipment.
Warning System for Mobile Equipment - A

requirement to protect vehicle operators around
excavations and employees who may be working in
excavations. Stop logs, barricades or hand signals
must be used to notify equipment/vehicle operators
of their position relative to the excavation edge.
Does not apply during backfilling operations.
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Hazardous Atmospheres - Where oxygen deficiency or a

hazardous atmosphere (toxic or potentially flammable
gases) exist or could reasonably be expected to exist, the
atmospheres of excavations in excess of four feet (4')
must be tested. Such atmospheres could "reasonably be
expected to exist" in landfills, or in areas where hazardous
substances are stored (near tank farms, chemical
manufacturing facilities, etc.).
Personnel may not enter excavation atmospheres

containing more than 20% LEL flammable gases. Where
controls, such as forced ventilation, are used to mitigate
hazardous atmospheres, atmospheric testing must be
conducted "as often as necessary" to ensure the trench
remains safe. Whenever employees are required to work in
excavations where hazardous atmospheres exist,
emergency rescue equipment (SCBA, basket stretcher,
harness/lifeline, etc.) must be readily available.
Hazards of Water Accumulation - Employees

may not work in excavations in which there is
accumulated water or in which water is
accumulating unless adequate precautions are taken
to protect the employees. "Adequate" precautions
include support or shield systems to protect from
cave-ins, water removal to control accumulation or
use of safety harnesses/lifelines. All water removal
equipment and operations must be monitored by a
Competent Person. If excavations interrupt natural
drainage of surface waters, diversion ditches, dikes,
etc. must be used to prevent surface water from
entering the excavation.
Stability of Adjacent Structures - Any structure

away from the edge of the trench by a horizontal
distance equal to the excavation depth may require
shoring, bracing or underpinning. OSHA permits
excavations below structural foundations only in
stable rock, if underpinning is provided, or if a
Professional Engineer (P.E.) approves the work.
Loose Rock and Soil - Employees must be protected

from the hazards of falling soil. Soil piles, materials, etc.
must be kept at least 2 feet from the edge of
excavations.
Inspections - The competent person must make daily

inspections before employee entry, as needed throughout
the shift, and after every rainstorm or other hazard
increasing occurrence. Inspections are required only if
employees are working in the excavation. Employees
exposed to a hazardous condition detected during
inspection must be removed from the excavation until
adequate precautions have been taken to ensure their
safety. Competent Person inspections need not be
documented, although it is highly recommended.
Fall Protection - Standard guardrails are required on all

bridges or walkways used to cross excavations. All wells,
shafts, pits, etc. must be barricaded or covered and then
backfilled upon completion of work.
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The Competent Person
What is a "Competent Person" ?
(a) to be a Competent Person under the OSHA

Excavations standard, a person must have
had training in, and be knowledgeable about,
soils analysis, the use of protective systems
and the requirements of the Standard.
(b) the Competent Person having such training

and knowledge must be capable of identifying
existing and predictable hazards in excavation
work, and have the authority to take prompt
measures to abate these hazards. Thus, a
backhoe operator who would otherwise meet
the requirements of this definition is NOT a
Competent Person if the person lacks the
authority to take prompt corrective measures
to eliminate existing or potential hazards.
The Competent Person (cont’d)
Myth: OSHA does NOT require Competent Persons to be

"certified". Despite statements on certificates, cards,
letters, etc. provided by training sources, only the
employer can designate an individual as a Competent
Person. The Competent Person on excavation project must
have both: Capability and Authority
During excavation inspections, OSHA will spend

considerable time in establishing that the person serving
as the Competent Person truly possesses the capability of
identifying existing and potential hazards to workers and
understands the requirements of the Excavations standard.
The Competent Person (cont’d)
Who may serve as a Competent Person? Any

individual who has training, experience and
authority to stop work may serve as the Competent
Person.
When is a Competent Person required? A

Competent Person is required on the project site
only if workers will be entering the excavation.
Who is the Competent Person on a multi-employer

site? OSHA considers the general contractor on the
project site to have the primary responsibility for
providing, or ensuring the presence of, a
Competent Person. The creating employer
(excavation contractor) has co-responsibility and
will typically be cited along with the general
contractor if OSHA inspections find violations.
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Responsibilities of the Competent Person
• Design "structural ramps“

• Monitor water removal equipment and operations
• Inspect excavations, adjacent areas, and protective systems
daily; prior to the start of work, as needed throughout the shift,
and after every rainstorm or other hazard increasing occurrence
• Remove employees from the hazard until the necessary
precautions are taken
• Examine materials and equipment for continued use; if unusable
remove from service
• Classify the soil and if necessary, reclassify the soil after
changed conditions
• Reduce soil slope below maximum allowable slope when
surcharged loads are present
Module Quiz
What is the regulatory standard for trenching and excavation?
A) 29 CFR 1926.650
B) 29 CFR 1926.150
C) 29 CFR 1965.260
D) 29 CFR 1910.120

Your answer:

completely
continuing
5
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What is the OSHA definition of a trench?
Narrow excavation below the surface of the ground in which the

A)
depth is greater than the width - the width not exceeding 5 feet.
B) depth is greater than the width - the width not exceeding 15
feet.
C) depth is greater than the width - the width not exceeding 10
feet.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
Module 37
Excavations Part 2
OSHA Soil Classification
OSHA Soil Classification System
• The OSHA soil classification system outlined in the

Excavations standard recognizes FOUR basic soil types.
Stable Rock
• Stable rock is defined as "natural solid mineral matter that
can be excavated with vertical sides and remain intact while
exposed." The Competent Person must use his/her own
judgment to determine if rock is stable. There is no OSHA-
specified manual test for "stable rock.“
• Layered or fractured rock that can slide along clay seams

cannot be considered stable
• Unstable dry rock must be classified as type B soil
• Submerged rock must be classified as type C soil
OSHA Soil Classification System (cont’d)
• Type A (most stable) - Clay, silty clay, and

hardpan (resists penetration).
• No soil is Type A if it is fissured, is subject to

vibration of any type, has previously been
disturbed, or has seeping water.
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• Type B (medium stability) - Silt, sandy

loam, medium clay and unstable dry rock;
previously disturbed soils unless otherwise
classified as Type C; soils that meet the
requirements of Type A soil, but are
fissured or subject to vibration.
• Type C (least stable) - Gravel, loamy sand, soft

clay, submerged soil or dense, heavy unstable
rock, and soil from which water is freely seeping.
• Layered geological strata (where soils are

configured in layers) - The soil must be classified
on the basis of the soil classification of the
weakest soil layer.
• Each layer may be classified individually if a more

stable layer lies below a less stable layer, i.e.,
where a Type C soil rests on top of stable rock.
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OSHA Accepted Methods for Soil Classification
• In order for an appropriate protective system to be

selected, the competent person must classify soils
and rock deposits as Stable Rock, Type A, Type B or
Type C in accordance with OSHA definitions.
The classification of the deposits must be made on

the basis of at least
• One visual and
• One manual analysis
OSHA-Accepted Manual Field Test Methods
• The competent person in charge of the excavation

shall be responsible for determining whether the
soil is Type B or C. If the competent person wants
to classify the soil as Type C, no testing is needed.
• However, tests must be conducted to determine if

the soil can be classified as Type B. To do this, the
competent person shall use a visual test coupled
with one or more manual tests.
Visual Test
In addition to checking the items on the trench inspection form,

the competent person should perform a visual test to evaluate the
conditions around the site. In a visual test, the entire excavation
site is observed, including the soil adjacent to the site and the soil
being excavated. The competent person also checks for any signs
of vibration.
During the visual test, the competent person should check for
crack-line openings along the failure zone that would indicate
tension cracks, look for existing utilities that indicate that the soil
has been previously disturbed, and if so, what sort of backfill was
used and observe the open side of the excavation for indications
of layered geologic structuring.
This person should also look for signs of bulging, boiling, or

sloughing, as well as for signs of surface water seeping from the
sides of the excavation or from the water table.
In addition, the area adjacent to the excavation should be

checked for signs of foundations or other intrusions into the
failure zone, and the evaluator should check for surcharging and
the spoil distance from the edge of the excavation.
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Manual Tests
Thumb Penetration Test
Attempt to press the thumb firmly into the soil in question. If the
thumb penetrates no further than the length of the nail, it is
probably Type B soil. If the thumb penetrates the full length of
the thumb, it is Type C. It should be noted that the thumb
penetration test is the least accurate testing method.
Dry Strength Test

Take a sample of dry soil. If it crumbles freely or with moderate
pressure into individual grains, it is considered granular (Type C).
Dry soil that falls into clumps that subsequently break into
smaller clumps (and the smaller clumps can only be broken with
difficulty), it is probably clay in combination with gravel, sand, or
silt (Type B).
Plasticity or Wet Thread Test

Take a moist sample of the soil. Mold it into a ball and then
attempt to roll it into a thin thread approximately 1/8 inch in
diameter by two inches in length. If the soil sample does not
break when held by one end, it may be considered Type B.
A pocket penetrometer, shear vane, or torvane may also be used

to determine the unconfined compression strength of soils.
Module Quiz
The OSHA soil classification system outlined in the Excavations standard recognizes FOUR basic
soil types. What are they?
A) Stable Rock, Type A, Type C, Type E
B) Stable Rock, Type A, Type C, Type F
C) Stable Rock, Type A, Type B, Type C
D) Stable Rock, Type A, Type B, Type Z

Your answer:

completely
continuing
4
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It should be noted that the _________ test is the least accurate testing method.
A) manual core removal
B) core penetration
C) thumb penetration

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
Module 38
Excavations Part 3
Requirements for Protective Systems
Requirements for Protective Systems
When are Protective Systems Required in Excavations?
The OSHA Excavations standard, 29 CFR, section

1926.651(a) reads as follows:"Each employee in an
excavation shall be protected from cave-ins by an
adequate protective system designed in accordance
with paragraph (b) or (c) of this section except when:
1. excavations are made entirely in stable rock; or
2. excavations are less than 5 feet in depth and

inspection by a Competent Person provides no
indication of a potential for cave-in.
Requirements for Protective Systems (cont’d)
Expressed slightly different: All excavations

into which employees will enter require an
OSHA-specified protective system except
when: the excavation is made entirely in stable
rock, or the excavation is less than 5 feet in
depth and inspection by a Competent Person
provides no indication of a potential cave-in.
Myth: The OSHA Excavations standard doesn't

apply if the excavation is less than 5 feet deep.
FALSE! Re-read the preceding statement.
Technically, the OSHA Excavations standard
requires that ALL excavations be inspected by
a Competent Person prior to permitting
personnel entry. If a Competent Person found
evidence of a potential cave-in in a three foot
excavation, a protective system (slope, shore
or shield) would be required.
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Options for Protective Systems
Option 1 - Sloping and benching systems

Option 2 - Support systems, shield systems
and other protective systems
If no employees will enter the

excavation, then the sides do not have
to be sloped or shored, and no
Competent Person inspection is
required.
Protective systems must have the capacity

to resist without failure all loads that are
intended or could reasonably be expected to
be applied or transmitted to the system.
Sloping and Benching
Sloping/benching systems for excavations in excess of 20 feet must be

designed by a registered Professional Engineer. When sloping/benching is
selected as the preferred protective system, the OSHA standard provides four
options for determining the appropriate slope:
Slope the excavation at an angle not steeper than one and one half horizontal
to one vertical (1 1/2h:1v).
Slope in accordance with specifications for soil types as specified in Appendices
A and B of the OSHA standard.
Determine appropriate sloping or benching system in accordance with
tabulated data such as tables and charts. The tabulated data must be in
written form and must include the limitations of use, identification of the
parameters that affect the selection of the sloping or benching system drawn
from the data and must include the name of the PE who approved the data.
Design by a registered Professional Engineer. Such designs must include the
magnitudes and configurations determined to be safe, and the identity of the
PE who approved the design. Slopes in accordance with Appendix A and
Appendix B of the excavations standard are generally used. The soil must first
be classified under the OSHA classification system (Type A, Type B, etc.)
before this system can be utilized.
Maximum Allowable Slopes for OSHA Soil Types
Stable Rock - No slope required

Type A Soil - 3/4h:1v (53 degrees from
horizontal)
Type B Soil - 1h:1v (45 degrees from horizontal)
Type C Soil - 1 1/2h:1v (34 degrees from
horizontal)
Depending on soil type, excavations may be

sloped only, benched and sloped, multiple
benched or sloped with shoring or shielding at
lowest depths.
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Distressed Soils
Although OSHA specifies maximum slopes for

each soil type, it is the responsibility of the
Competent Person to inspect for signs of
distress.
"Distress" in OSHA parlance, means that a

cave-in is imminent or likely to occur. Distress
is evidenced by such phenomena as the
development of fissures in the face of or
adjacent to an open excavation; the
subsidence of the edge of an excavation; the
slumping of material from the face or the
bulging or heaving of material from the bottom
of an excavation; the spalling of material from
the face of an excavation; and raveling, i.e.,
small amounts of material such as pebbles or
little clumps of material suddenly separating
from the face of an excavation and trickling or
rolling down into the excavation.
Distressed Soils (cont’d)
When surcharge loads from soil piles, equipment or

traffic are present, the Competent Person must
decide the degree to which the slope must be
reduced below the maximum allowable slope.
The actual slopes must be less steep when there

are signs of distress. If distressed soils are
detected, the excavation slope must be cut back to
an actual slope which is at least 1/2h:1v less steep
than the maximum allowable slope for the soil
type. (i.e., when distress is observed in Type B
soils, slope must equal 1 1/2h:1v).
Shoring and Shielding Systems
Due to cost considerations, contractor preference or terrain, shoring or

shielding systems may be used as an excavation protective system. The
excavations standard contains specifications for trench boxes,
aluminum-hydraulic and timber shoring systems.
Options for Shoring and Shielding Systems
When shoring or shielding is required, the OSHA excavations standard

provides four primary options:
- Use design specifications for timber shoring using information in
Appendices A and C of 29 CFR 1926.652
- Use aluminum hydraulic shoring or trench boxes using information in
Appendices A and D or 29 CFR 1926.652
- Use tabulated data such as tables and charts for the design of support
or shield system. The tabulated data must be in written form and must
include the limitations of use, identification of the parameters that
affect the selection of a protective system drawn from such data and
must include the name of the P.E. who approved the data.
- Use shoring or shielding system designed by a registered Professional
Engineer
3
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Timber Shoring
In order to use the information contained in the shoring

Appendices, the soil must first be classified using the
OSHA Soil Classification System.
- Charts in 1926.652, Appendix C specify dimensions

and spacing of timbers used in shoring of trenches up to
20 feet in depth
- Saturated or submerged soils require tight sheeting
- Close sheeting is required for all Type C soils
- Horizontal and vertical spacing is measured center to

center
- Shoring systems for excavations in excess of 20 feet

must be designed by a registered Professional Engineer
Timber Shoring (cont’d)
Support systems must be installed in a manner that

protects employees from cave-ins, structural collapses
or from being struck by members of the support
system. Removal must begin at the bottom and work
towards the top.
Timber shoring is a complex task requiring sizable

wooden timbers, typically oak. Timber shoring is
typically encountered rarely compared to sloped
protective systems.
Be aware that if you see an excavation that has been

shored with two by fours and quarter inch plywood,
you are looking at a non-compliant and potentially
dangerous situation.
Aluminum-Hydraulic Shoring Systems
- As with sloping and timber shoring, the OSHA

soil type must first be determined prior to use of
aluminum-hydraulic shoring systems
- Charts in 1926.652, Appendix D specify
requirements for use of aluminum-hydraulic
shoring systems in trenches up to 20 feet in
depth
- Shoring systems for excavations in excess of 20
feet must be designed by a registered
Professional Engineer
- Individual members of support systems shall not
be subjected to loads exceeding those which the
members were designed to withstand
- Imposed loads must not exceed manufacturer's
tabulated data
- Appendix D contains specific requirements for
vertical aluminum-hydraulic shoring systems
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Trench Shields (Trench Boxes)
- Steel or aluminum boxes placed in a trench to provide a

safe work environment for workers
- Unlike sloping or shoring systems, shields do not
prevent cave-ins. To be protected by a trench box, the
worker must remain inside
- Shields must be installed to prevent side shift or lateral
movement
- A ladder must be within the box at all times it is
occupied
- Top of the shield must be as high, or higher than the
original ground surface
- Trench boxes may be stacked to increase height
- Trench boxes should match the width of the trench to
prevent lateral movement in the event of a cave-in
- Trench shields can't be used when anticipated soil
pressures will exceed manufacturer's design
Excavation Policy
Employee Entry/Evacuation - employees

should not enter trenches with vertical
sidewalls exceeding 5 feet in depth. If
employees observe situations which could
result in possible cave-ins, slides, failure of
protective systems or other hazardous
condition, they should not enter or will
immediately evacuate the trench or
excavation.
Employees should immediately report site

conditions to the project manager or their
supervisor.
Excavation Policy (cont’d)
The project manager (or senior-level

designee) is responsible for discussing
site conditions with the excavation
contractor and other personnel
responsible for the site. Senior engineers
who observe situations which could
potentially result in cave-in, failure of
protective systems or other hazardous
conditions should immediately report
their concerns to the excavation
contractor or other responsible party, and
order all work personnel out of the trench
or excavation.
The senior engineer should not permit

employees to enter or re-enter the trench
or excavation until the hazardous
condition has been eliminated.
5
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Module Quiz
Trench boxes or shields must be approved by a ________.
A) manager
B) engineer
C) health and safety officer
D) registered professional engineer

Your answer:

completely
continuing
"Distress," in OSHA parlance, means that a cave-in is imminent or likely to occur.
A) True
B) False

Your answer:

completely
continuing
6
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Your Score {score}

Attempts
7
7/15/2013
Module 39
Confined Space
Key Occupational Roles
Purpose
The purpose of this training is to identify confined

spaces, discuss work practices for injury
prevention, discuss protective devices and
controls - all of which are essential to know before
entry into a confined space. This training has been
developed to ensure the safety of personnel
required to enter and conduct work in confined
spaces.
The program contained herein describes

reasonable and necessary policies and procedures
for any and all facilities, industries, and individuals
who are associated with confined space entry
operations. The following discusses each
occupation (authorized entrant, safety attendant,
supervisor, and emergency rescue teams) as it
relates to training and responsibilities.
Key Occupational Roles - Supervisor
• The supervisor has overall responsibility for the

safety of all persons involved with entry operations
into confined spaces under his or her control. This
includes authorized entrants, safety attendants, and
emergency rescue personnel. The supervisor
authorizes entry into a confined space, approves
procedures for entry, and coordinates efforts of all
other key personnel.
• The supervisor ensures that all safety requirements

identified in the permit are met, all required
equipment is readily available, and all persons
involved in the entry are fully aware of their roles and
responsibilities.
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Safety Attendant
• The safety attendant continuously

observes authorized entrants working in a
confined space. The safety attendant must
be trained to recognize early symptoms of
oxygen depletion (anoxia), toxic effects,
and behavioral changes. The attendant
must not be exposed to the same hazard
as the entrants and must be trained,
equipped, and physically able to render
immediate and effective aid.
• He or she will keep track of the number of

people entering and leaving the confined
space to avoid exposing rescue personnel
to grave risks by searching for a person
who has previously left the confined space.
Authorized Entrant
• An authorized entrant is selected and trained

to safely enter, work in, and exit confined
spaces. Training includes a physical
examination, classroom training, and on-the-
job training in self-help techniques.
Authorized entrants must be trained to
recognize possible hazards in confined spaces
and to know what countermeasures are
available.
• They also need to be familiar with

lockout/tagout procedures, air sampling
techniques, use of protective equipment, and
know the limitations of the protective
equipment.
Emergency Rescue Team Training
• Emergency response team training

includes all training required for key
personnel plus annual practical
training in removing dummies,
mannequins, or actual persons from
actual or representative permit
spaces.
2
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Module Quiz
The ___________ has overall responsibility for the safety of all persons involved with entry
operations into confined spaces under his or her control.
A) operator
B) supervisor
C) shift superintendent
D) OSHA

Your answer:

completely
continuing
The __________ continuously observes authorized entrants working in a confined space.
A) safety attendant
B) supervisor
C) regulator
D) safety manager

Your answer:

completely
continuing
3
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
4
7/15/2013
Module 40
What is a Confined Space?
What is a Confined Space?
• A confined space is a space that is large enough and

configured so that an employee can bodily enter and
perform assigned work, has limited means for entry
or exit e.g., tanks, hoppers, bins, vaults, silos, pits,
vessels etc., and is not designed for continuous
employee occupancy.
• It also must be a vertical height of 4 feet or more.
Confined Space Fatalities
• Fatalities in confined space work areas have resulted

from:
• lack of and too much oxygen
• electrical shock
• toxic atmospheres
• falling objects
• engulfment by fumes and fire, and noise
• Prior to entry into a confined space, the oxygen

concentration in the area must be measured. If the
oxygen content is less than 19.5 percent, a supplied air
respirator must be used. Be sure to always measure the
oxygen concentration in the confined space prior to
entry!
1
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Types of Confined Spaces
• Confined spaces can be categorized generally

as those with open tops and with a depth
that will restrict the natural movement of air,
and enclosed spaces with very limited
openings for entry. In either of these cases,
the space may contain mechanical
equipment with moving parts.
• Any combination of these parameters will

change the nature of the hazards
encountered. Degreasers, pits, and certain
types of storage tanks may be classified as
open topped confined spaces that usually
contain no moving parts. However, gases
that are heavier than air (butane, propane,
and other hydrocarbons) remain in
depressions and will flow to low points where
they are difficult to remove.
Types of Confined Spaces (Cont’d)
• Open topped water tanks that appear

harmless may develop toxic atmospheres
such as hydrogen sulfide from the
vaporization of contaminated water.
• Therefore, these gases (heavier than air)

are a primary concern when entry into
such a confined space is being planned.
Other hazards may develop due to the
work performed in the confined space or
because of corrosive residues that
accelerate the decomposition of
scaffolding supports and electrical
components.
• Confined spaces such as sewers, casings, tanks,

silos, vaults, and compartments of ships usually
have limited access. The problems arising in
these areas are similar to those that occur in
open topped confined spaces.
• However, the limited access increases the risk of

injury. Gases which are heavier than air such as
carbon dioxide and propane, may lie in a tank or
vault for hours or even days after the containers
have been opened.
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• Because some gases are odorless, the hazard

may be overlooked with fatal results. Gases
that are lighter then air may also be trapped
within an enclosed type confined space,
especially those with access from the bottom
or side.
• Confined spaces include Aircraft Sections,

Wing Fuel Tanks, Pipelines, Tunnels,
Manholes, Sewers, Pits, Process Reactors,
Storage Vessels, Railroad Tank Cars, Ship
Holds, Holding Tanks, Ballast Tanks, Silos,
Grain Elevators, Tanks, Boilers, Vats, Wet /
Dry Wells, Lift / Pump Stations Rescue, and
many others.
Specific Confined Space Hazards
• Hazards specific to a confined space are

dictated by:
• (1) the material stored or used in the confined

space; as an example, damp activated carbon
in a filtration tank will absorb oxygen, thus
creating an oxygen deficient atmosphere;
• (2) the activity carried out, such as the

fermentation of molasses that creates ethyl
alcohol vapors and decreases the oxygen
content of the atmosphere; or
• (3) the external environment, as in the case of

sewer systems that may be affected by high
tides, heavier than air gases, or flash floods.
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Identification of Confined Spaces
• All confined spaces must be identified and

classified as either non-permit-required
confined spaces or permit-required confined
spaces.
• The degree of hazards that confront entrants

determines the classification of the confined
space. A hazard assessment should be
performed and documented by industrial safety
and hygiene personnel for each confined space.
Permit-required confined spaces shall be
posted.
Module Quiz
From the list below, select which ones that could be confined spaces.
A) a 55 gallon drum
B) open air tanks that are 3 feet tall
C) tanks, hoppers, bins, vaults, silos, pits, vessels
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
4
7/15/2013
Fatalities in confined space work areas have resulted from:
A) lack of and too much oxygen

B) electrical shock
C) toxic atmospheres
D) falling objects
E) engulfment by fumes and fire, and noise
F) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
Module 41
Part 1
Confined Space Pre-Entry Procedure
Confined Space Pre-Entry Procedure Part 1
Safe Entry Procedures
• Safe entry procedures must be developed for

permit-required spaces before personnel are
allowed to enter these spaces. It is important
to include any emergency that could occur in
the confined space in the safe entry procedure
emergency response and rescue procedures.
• The maximum number of authorized entrants

should be kept to a minimum. This number
should be spelled out in the approved
confined-space safe entry procedure required
to obtain the permit.
Confined Space Entry Plan
• The contents of a confined space entry plan should include

all items listed below. Detail to the extent necessary to
protect human health must be provided for each of the
following topics.
• Written program
• Identification of confined spaces
• Establishment and full implementation of a written entry
permit system
• Air monitoring
• Selection and training of key personnel
• Protective equipment
• Provisions for attendants and emergency response
Personnel selection, training, and motivation are the three

most important aspects of a confined-space safe entry
program. This program should be established through close
oversight by health and safety professionals and strong
support by management.
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Safe Entry Procedures (Cont’d)
• The duration of the permit may not exceed

the time required to complete the assigned
task or job. All lockout/tagout provisions, as
well as preparations for entry and
emergency response, need to be rechecked.
• All safeguards in the approved procedure

must be in place before the second crew
enters the confined space.
Pre-entry
• One should never enter a permit-required confined

space without a safety attendant on duty and
adequate air testing. To the extent practicable,
provisions should be made to expedite entry and exit
from the confined space.
• Permit-required confined spaces should be inspected

by a supervisor, industrial hygienist and/or safety
engineer prior to work entry.
Conduct Air Sampling
• Air in the confined space should be tested for oxygen

content, flammability, and toxic contamination. If no
dangerous air contamination, oxygen deficiency, or
enrichment is found and no other hazard exists, the
space can be safely entered. Under no circumstances
should an ignition source be introduced into the
confined space until test measures have ensured that
no flammable or explosive atmosphere exists or will
occur during entry operations.
• Tests for oxygen deficiency or enrichment,

flammability, and toxicity must be conducted by a
qualified person e.g., industrial hygienist. Because
work in confined spaces can create hazardous
atmosphere, these tests should be performed before
entry into a confined space, continuously during entry
into a confined space, or at intervals frequent enough
to ensure a safe atmosphere.
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Conduct Air Sampling (Cont’d)
• Atmospheric tests must be performed in the following

order: oxygen deficiency, flammability and, if necessary,
toxicity. Some flammability test instruments require an
adequate amount of oxygen to work properly.
• Use of sampling lines or containers is required to avoid

exposure to personnel during the initial testing
operations. It is also important to ensure that sampling
is representative of the total atmosphere in the space
(e.g., sample at different levels within a deep tank).
• Initial testing of the atmosphere inside the confined

space is always performed from the outside. Tests shall
be performed by a person who is trained in (1)
calibrating and operating test equipment, and (2)
confined space procedures.
• The atmosphere is tested for oxygen content, the

presence of toxic gases and vapors, and the presence of
explosive or flammable agents. Properly calibrated
testing instruments shall be used to determine what
types of gases are present.
• Test results that reveal the presence of toxic gases or

vapor, or that inform the worker of an oxygen-deficient
atmosphere, shall serve as a red flag to ventilate and
retest the space before worker entry takes place.
• Acceptable Limits - The atmosphere of the

confined spaces should be considered within
acceptable limits whenever the following
conditions are maintained:
• Oxygen - 19.5% to 23.5%,
• Flammability - less than 10% of the Lower

Flammable Limit (LFL), and
• Toxicity - less than recognized ACGIH exposure

limits or other published exposure levels (e.g.
OSHA PELs, NIOSH RELs).
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• Whenever testing of the atmosphere

indicates levels of oxygen, flammability, or
toxicity that are not within acceptable
limits, entry should be prohibited until
appropriate controls are implemented.
• If the source of the contaminant cannot be

determined, precautions should be
adequate to deal with the worst possible
condition in the confined space.
• If there is the possibility that the confined

space atmosphere can become
unacceptable while the work is in progress,
the atmosphere should be constantly
monitored and procedures and equipment
should be provided to allow the employees
to quickly and safely exit the confined
space.
Atmosphere Testing Equipment

Air Testing Equipment
• All air-testing equipment should be calibrated in accordance with

the manufacturer's instruction.
Oxygen Meters and Monitors
• The oxygen content of the air in a confined space is the first and
most important constituent to measure before entry is made. The
acceptable range of oxygen is between 19.5 and 23.5 percent. This
content is measured before flammability is tested because rich
mixtures of flammable gases or vapors give erroneous
measurement results. For example, a mixture of 90 percent
methane and 10 percent air will test nonflammable because there
is not enough oxygen to support the combustion process in the
flammability meters. This mixture will not support life and will soon
become explosive if ventilation is provided to the space.
• Before entry, spaces must be ventilated until both oxygen content

and flammability are acceptable.
Atmosphere Testing Equipment (Cont’d)
Flammability Meters
• Flammability meters are used to measure the amount

of flammable vapors or gases in the atmosphere as a
percent of the Lower Explosion Limit or LFL. The oxygen
content must be near 21 percent for results to be
meaningful.
Toxic Air Contamination Testers
• Tests for toxic contaminants must be specific for the

target toxin. The instrument manufacturer should be
consulted for interferences. Therefore, it is important to
know the history of the confined space so proper tests
can be performed. Part of a hazard assessment is to
identify all possible contaminants that could be in the
confined space.
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Eliminate or Control Hazards
• All hazards identified during the

assessment of a confined space,
must either be removed or
controlled prior to entry. Removal of
a hazard is the preferred method.
• However, if this is not feasible, the

hazard must be controlled. For
example, lockout/tagout of electrical
or mechanical devices. Ventilation of
the area is another control measure
to provide a safe atmosphere.
Ventilation (If required)

• If the confined space has contained hazardous substances,
it is important for the confined space to be emptied and
thoroughly flushed or purged before entry. Remove any
residue using proper flushing techniques. Starting at the
top, flush the space with water or steam to ensure proper
cleaning. If entry is required into the space, all personnel
shall wear suitable protective equipment.
• Provide a continuous supply of fresh air as close as

possible to the work area before and while personnel are
working in the confined space. Take care to place the inlet
upwind and at least 25 ft away from the confined space
and any other potential contaminant (e.g., vehicle
exhaust).
• Retest the atmosphere for any hazard(s) in question upon

completing the purging and ventilating procedures.
Continuously perform subsequent tests for oxygen
deficiency, flammability, and/or toxicity during entry into
the confined space or at intervals frequent enough to
ensure a safe atmosphere.
Ventilation (If required) – Cont’d

• Despite a purge, enough toxic substances may still remain in
pores and deposits may be released to recreate a hazardous
atmosphere. In addition, where air sampling indicates a need,
supplemental industrial mechanical ventilation must be
provided. Before forced ventilation is initiated, information such
as restricted areas within the confined space, voids, the nature
of the contaminants present, the size of the space, the type of
work to be performed, and the number of people involved
should be considered.
• The ventilation air should not create an additional hazard due

to recirculation of contaminants, improper arrangement of the
inlet duct, or by the substitution of anything other than fresh
(normal) air (approximately 20.9% oxygen, 78.1% nitrogen,
and 1% argon with small amounts of various other gases).
• The terms air and oxygen are sometimes considered

synonymous. However, this is a dangerous assumption, since
the use of oxygen in place of fresh (normal) air for ventilation
will expand the limits of flammability and increase the hazards
of fire and explosion.
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Module Quiz
One should never enter a permit-required confined space without a safety attendant on duty
and adequate air testing.
A) True
B) False
C) Entry depends on the temperature.
Sometimes you can enter a confined space without a safety
D)
attendant.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
If the confined space has contained hazardous substances, it is important for the confined
space to be _______________ before entry
A) emptied and thoroughly flushed or purged

B) filled and thoroughly flushed or purged
C) emptied and thoroughly rinsed with water or purged
D) emptied

Your answer:

completely
continuing
6
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
7
7/15/2013
Module 42
Part 2
Confined Space Pre-Entry Procedure
Confined Space Pre-Entry Procedure Part 2
Develop Entry Permits
• The Confined Space Entry Permit is the major tool in

assuring safety during entry into confined spaces with
known hazards or with unknown or potentially
hazardous atmospheres. The entry permit process
guides the supervisor and workers through a
systematic evaluation of the space to be entered. The
permit should be used to establish appropriate
conditions.
• Before each entry into a confined space, an entry

permit will be completed by a qualified person and
the contents communicated to all employees involved
in the operation and conspicuously posted near the
work location. In addition, all personnel involved with
the confined space entry must be given a briefing
before operations commence.
Crew Briefing and Training
• Training must be provided for all personnel

associated with a confined space entry. This training
must train personnel in the recognition of hazards,
and how to safely enter a confined space.
• The crew supervisor or lead man should always give

a safety briefing covering all protective measures,
emergency response plans and preparations, and
each person's role and responsibilities at the start of
each entry or shift change.
• He or she must perform a final inspection and

complete a checklist to ensure that all items required
by the permit are in place before an entry is made.
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7/15/2013
Elements of Confined Space Permit
• Permit space to be entered,

• Purpose of the entry,
• Date of the permit and the duration of the entry,
• Name of authorized entrants within the permit space,
• Personnel serving as attendants,
• Individual serving as entry supervisor,
• Hazards of space to be entered,
• Acceptable entry conditions,
• Results of initial and periodic tests performed, accompanied by
the names or initials of the testers,
• Rescue and emergency services that can be summoned,
• Communication procedures used by authorized entrants and
attendants to maintain contact during the entry,
• Equipment to be provided for compliance, and
• Other information that is necessary, given the circumstances of
the particular confined space, in order to ensure employee
safety.
Communications
• An effective means of communications

between employees inside a confined space
and the safety attendant must be used
whenever conditions in the space require
use of respirators or whenever entrants are
out of sight of the safety attendant at any
time.
• It is important that the communication

system be tested before each use, and
frequently thereafter, to ensure that it is
working properly.
Rescue Operations
• An approved harness and an attached line must be used.
The free end must be secured outside the confined space.
The line should be at least 0.5 inches in diameter and able
to withstand a 2,000 pound test. Exception: A line may be
eliminated in situations where it would further endanger
the worker or not contribute to rescue.
• At least one other employee who may have other duties

must be within calling distance to assist the safety
attendant in an emergency. If required by the entry
procedure, the safety attendant must have an appropriate,
NIOSH-approved, SCBA respirator available for immediate
use. The safety attendant may enter the confined space,
but only in case of emergency and after notifying another
employee.
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Rescue Operations
• This employee will then become the safety attendant and

assume all duties outside of the confined space. The safety
attendant must wear appropriate protective equipment,
including self-contained breathing apparatus, during the
emergency entry and ensure that another employee is
standing by outside.
Module Quiz
What must you have prior to entering a confined space?
A) CAA permit
B) Permit
C) Confined Space Entry Permit
D) RCRA Part B Permit

Your answer:

completely
continuing
3
7/15/2013
Other than a confined space entry permit, what else must you have prior to entry?
A) EPA representative present

B) Communications
C) Log Book
D) OSHA regulator present

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
4
7/15/2013
Module 43
Confined Space Entry
Confined Space Entry
• In previous modules we discussed

protective devices and controls needed for
safe operations within a confined space.
You must have a good understanding of
these concepts.
• However, it is now time to discuss the entry

of a confined space.
Preparing the Confined Space for Entry
• Once the entry has been planned and personnel have been trained
on conditions of the permit, the next step is to prepare the
confined space for entry.
• The following steps should be followed when preparing the

confined space for entry:
• If warning signs or barriers are to be used to prevent unauthorized

entry or to protect entrants from external hazards, they should be
placed on or around the confined space.
• Place all tools, communication devices, safety equipment,

monitoring equipment, etc., adjacent to the confined space.
• If needed, isolate all mechanical and/or electrical hazards as

planned and discussed in training with respect to lockout/tagout.
• Purge/ventilate the confined space as needed.
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Preparing the Confined Space for Entry (Cont’d)
• The entry supervisor will test the atmosphere as discussed

in training. If oxygen content is less than 19.5% or greater
than 23.5%, perform additional ventilation. Then, shut off
ventilation equipment and re-test the oxygen content.
• If oxygen content is between 19.5% and 23.5%, continue

entry preparation.
• The entry supervisor will test for flammable gas level as

planned and discussed in training.
• If the meter reading is less than 10% of the OSHA lower

explosive limit (LEL), continue entry preparations.
• If the meter reading is above 10% of the LEL, continue

ventilation of the confined space. Then, shut off the
ventilation and have the atmosphere re-tested.
Preparing the Confined Space for Entry (Cont’d)
• If the meter reading is still above 10% of the LEL, the

confined space must be cleaned before entry is permitted.
• The entry supervisor will determine the toxicity of the

atmosphere.
• If a toxic atmosphere is present, no person should be

permitted to enter the confined space at a level exceeding
the OSHA Permissible Exposure Limit without proper Personal
Protective Equipment.
• Assemble all personnel involved and conduct a simulated

rescue drill.
• The supervisor will then add any needed information, then

complete and sign the permit.
Entering a Confined Space
Employees who are granted permission to enter a

confined space should:
• Read and observe the entry permit requirements,
• Stay alert to the hazards that could be encountered in a

confined space,
• Use the protective equipment required by the permit,
• Immediately exit the confined space when: ordered to do

so by the attendant,
- automatic alarms sound,
- they perceive they are in danger, or
- they notice physiological stresses or changes in
themselves or co-workers.
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Confined Space Atmosphere
Flammable/Combustible Atmosphere
• Fires and explosions in a confined space are serious

and often fatal hazards. Two factors that can cause
an atmosphere to become flammable are oxygen
and flammable vapor, gas, or dust (in the proper
mixture).
• Sources of ignition could consist of the following:
• Sparks from welding,

• Static electricity,
• Lit cigarette,
• Unapproved electrical equipment,
• or Metal friction.
Module Quiz
What should the oxygen content range be to allow entry into a confined space without the use
of a respirator.
A) 21.5% and 23.5%

B) 19.5% and 23.5%
C) 17.5% and 23.5%

D) 19.5% and 25.5%

Your answer:

completely
continuing
3
7/15/2013
Sources of ignition in a confined space could consist of the following:
A) Metal friction
B) Unapproved electrical equipment
C) Lit cigarette
D) Static electricity
E) Sparks from welding
F) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
4
7/15/2013
Module 44
Part 1
Confined Space Protective Devices, Controls and Monitoring
Confined Space Protective Devices, Controls and Monitoring Part 1
Introduction
• This module will discuss the necessary

protective devices, controls and
monitoring normally used in confined
space entry.
• The protective devices and controls

presented in the module are extremely
important in preventing
fatalities. Therefore, please read and
study the following information as it
could save a life.
Protective Devices and Controls
Fall-Protection Equipment
• Fall-protection equipment for confined

spaces should be the chest-waist harness
type to minimize injuries from uncontrolled
movements when it arrests a worker's fall.
• This type of harness also permits easier

retrieval from a confined space than a waist
belt. Adjustable lanyards should be used to
limit free fall to two feet before arrest.
1
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Lockout/Tagout Devices
• Lockout/tagout devices permit employees to

work safely on de-energized equipment
without fear that the devices will be
accidentally removed.
• Lock and tag devices are required to

withstand a 50-pound pull without failure.
Devices used to block or restrain stored
mechanical energy devices must be
engineered for safety.
Safety Barriers
• Safety barriers separate workers from

hazards that cannot reasonably be
eliminated by other engineering controls.
Required barriers will be identified in the
approved confined-space entry procedure.
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters
• Ground fault circuit interrupter must be

used for all portable electrical tools and
equipment in confined spaces because most
workers will be in contact with grounded
surroundings.
Equipment Used in Emergency Response
Fire Extinguishers
• "Hot work" inside a confined space requires that an

approved fire extinguisher and a person trained in
its use be stationed in the confined space or in a
suitable vantage point where he or she could
effectively suppress any fire that might result from
the work.
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7/15/2013
First Aid Equipment
• Blankets, first-aid kit, Stokes stretchers, and any

other equipment that may be needed for first-
response treatment must be available just outside
the confined space.
• Medical and safety professionals should select

equipment on the basis of their evaluations of the
potential hazards in the confined space.
Retrieval Equipment
• A tripod or another suitable anchorage, hoisting

device, harnesses, wristlets, ropes, and any
other equipment that may be needed to make a
rescue must be identified in the confined-space
safe-entry procedures.
• It is important that this equipment be available

for immediate use. Harnesses and retrieval ropes
must be worn by entrants unless they would
increase hazards to the entrants or impede their
rescue.
• Air purifying respirators can remove

some contaminants from the air, but
they do not protect from oxygen
deficient atmospheres. For oxygen
deficient atmosphere, supplied air
respirators should be used. Supplied air
respirators can be either self-contained
or airline supplied types.
• All respirators must be selected by an

industrial hygienist, fitted to the user,
and the user trained in its use and
limitations. A self-contained breathing
apparatus is the only approved
respiratory protection for IDLH
environments. It is important to note
that air purifying respirators cannot be
used in an oxygen deficient
atmosphere.
3
7/15/2013
Module Quiz
________ and retrieval ropes must be worn by entrants unless they would increase hazards to
the entrants or impede their rescue.
A) PPE
B) Collars
C) Harnesses
D) Wristbands

Your answer:

completely
continuing
___________ can remove some contaminants from the air, but they do not protect from
oxygen deficient atmospheres.
A) Air purifying respirators

B) Contaminant purifying respirator
C) Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)
D) Z-95 masks

Your answer:

completely
continuing
4
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
Module 45
Part 2
Confined Space Protective Devices, Controls and Monitoring
Confined Space Protective Devices, Controls and Monitoring Part 2
Monitoring
Oxygen-Consuming Devices
• Whenever combustion devices are

used in a confined space, steps
must be taken to ensure that
combustion air is supplied, and
combustion products are
exhausted from the confined
space.
Fire-Suppression Systems
• Automatic fire-suppression systems using

harmful concentrations of toxic or oxygen-
displacing gases or total foam flooding should
be deactivated.
• Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) has

to be used where it is not practical or safe to
deactivate such systems.
1
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Top Entry
• Confined spaces with top and

side openings should be
entered from the side
whenever practicable. When
entry must be made into a
confined space through a top
opening, the following
requirements apply:
• (1) A harness-type safety belt

that supports a person in an
upright position must be
used, and
• (2) A hoisting device with a
minimum mechanical
advantage of 4 to1 must be
provided for lifting workers
out of the confined space.
Hot Work
• Work using flames, arcs, sparks, or

other sources of ignition is prohibited
within a confined space.
• It is also prohibited in a space having a

common surface with a confined space
that contains or is likely to develop
dangerous air contamination due to the
presence of flammable or explosive
substances.
Inert Atmospheres
• Whenever inert gases such as nitrogen are

used to create an inert atmosphere to
prevent ignition of flammable gases or
vapors, no ignition source is permitted
unless the atmosphere is kept below 10%
of LEL/LFL.
• Ventilation is required before entry to

ensure the atmosphere is acceptable before
an entry permit is issued. Testing the
oxygen content must be done every 20
minutes, and written records of test results
must be kept at the job site for the duration
of the job.
2
7/15/2013
Electrical Equipment
• Only U.L. or equivalent approved lighting and electrical

equipment should be used in confined spaces that are
subject to dangerous air contamination from
flammable or explosive substances.
• Portable electric tools used in a confined space must

be protected by a ground fault circuit interrupter.
Corrosives
• Employees working in confined spaces

that have last contained substances
corrosive to the skin or substances that
can be absorbed by the skin, are
required to wear appropriate protective
clothing and equipment, unless the
space has been decontaminated prior
to entry.
Module Quiz
3
7/15/2013
Work using flames, arcs, sparks, or other sources of ignition is prohibited within a confined
space.
A) True
B) False
C) Sometimes
D) Flames are never a problem in a confined space.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Portable electric tools used in a confined space must be protected by a _____________.
A) SCBA
B) ground interrupter
C) circuit interrupter
D) ground fault circuit interrupter

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
4
7/15/2013
5
7/15/2013
Module 46
Confined Space Injury Prevention
Injury Prevention
Overview
• From previous incidents, a few preventive

measures have been established. Be able
to identify confined spaces - a confined
space is an area that:
• Exhibits poor ventilation or contains an
atmosphere that could produce
dangerous air contaminants;
• Is not designed for continuous worker
occupancy;
• Has limited openings for entrance and
exit, and
• Is any open surface tank that is deeper
than four feet
Injury Prevention (Cont’d)
• A good way to begin on learning how to

protect yourself and ensure that you can
work safely and effectively is to take a
look at some things that have caused
accidents in the past.
• A "benchmark" if you prefer on past

actions or lack of actions that caused
accidents. We will review actions that
took place and produced injuries to
workers.
1
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Causes of Fatalities
• Work in confined space presents unusual and severe

hazards to a sizable portion of manufacturers.
Common tasks, such as welding, use of solvents and
adhesives, live electrical work, or painting can quickly
become lethal in a confined space.
• The National Institute for Occupational Safety and

Health (NIOSH) reports that about 63 occupational
fatalities per year in the United States are caused by
improper confined space entries.
• The Occupational Safety and Health Administration

(OSHA) reports that over 60 percent of the fatalities
were would-be rescuers and estimates that 85 percent
of deaths and injuries in confined spaces could be
prevented if industry would fully implement sound
confined-space entry permit programs.
Causes of Fatalities (Cont’d)
• Many fatalities occur because victims do not fully

understand the threat of airborne hazards that
they cannot see, smell, or feel. Additional
fatalities occur when untrained persons enter
unknown atmospheres to rescue fallen co-
workers.
Unsafe Acts and Omissions

• Failure to test the atmosphere in a confined
space before entry.
• Failure to continuously monitor the atmosphere
in a permit-required confined space.
• Failure to lock out hazardous fluids, mechanical
equipment, and electrical power to equipment
inside the confined space.
• Failure to follow approved entry procedures.
• Failure to preplan rescue and retrieval efforts.
• Failure to use adequate respirators.
Causes of Fatalities (Cont’d)
• Unsafe Conditions.
• Lack of training.
• Fall hazards.
• Oxygen deficient atmosphere.
• Oxygen enriched atmosphere.
• Poor lighting.
• Flammable atmosphere.
• Lack of a communication system when
entrants are out of sight.
• Toxic atmosphere.
• Electrical shock hazards.
• Presence of an engulfing or drowning medium.
• Entrapping mechanisms.
• Grinding, crushing, or mixing mechanisms.
• Contact with hazardous chemicals.
2
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Module Quiz
Many fatalities occur because victims do not fully understand the threat of airborne hazards
that they cannot ________.
A) see, smell, or feel
B) see the location

C) see the time
D) see the future

Your answer:

completely
continuing
One of the reasons for confined space injuries and fatalities is______.
A) no overhead
B) poor planning
C) bad designs
D) the supervisor

Your answer:

completely
continuing
3
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
4
7/15/2013
Module 47
Confined Space Hazards
Confined Space Hazards
Electrical/Mechanical Hazards
• Electrical power that could shock workers

or move mechanical equipment must be
locked or tagged out prior to entry into a
confined space.
• Machinery that could move under the

influence of gravity, spring loads, or other
forces must be mechanically blocked or
immobilized before work is started in a
confined space.
Engulfment/Drowning
• Grain, dusts, powders, liquids, or slurries pose

serious hazards to persons entering confined
spaces. Persons engulfed in sawdust or grain
cannot breathe and become asphyxiated in a very
short time.
• Lifelines attached to an approved harness,

mechanical lifting aids, and an alert safety
attendant are needed to prevent deaths in this
work environment.
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Fall Hazards
• Fall hazards are serious because it is

difficult to retrieve an injured person in
confined spaces. Free-fall distance must be
limited to 2 feet (0.61 meters) before the
fall is arrested.
Toxic Atmosphere
• Most liquids, vapors, mists, gases, solid

materials, and dusts should be considered
hazardous when located in an environment
such as a confined space.
• Toxins that may be found in a confined

space include carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen
sulfide. Excessive amounts of toxic
exposure can kill.
• Most toxins are not easily detected as they

have no smell or visual presence.
Toxic Atmosphere (Cont’d)
• Toxins present two different types of risk: chemical

asphyxiation and irritation.
• Chemical Asphyxiation: Certain chemicals can cause

asphyxiation once they gain entrance to the lungs;
others can terminate oxygen supplies after being
absorbed into the body.
• Irritation: small amounts of some toxic substances can

affect the respiratory or nervous systems.
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Toxic Atmosphere (Cont’d)
• Toxic atmospheres can arise as a result of:
• Storage of product in a confined space,
• Work that takes place in a confined space (painting,

sanding, welding, brazing, etc.), or
• Work occurring near a confined space (toxic substances

produced by place near a confined space).
Safety Measures
• Working in a confined space has its own

set of potential work problems such as:
• Minimum room in which to move/work,

• Excessive heat or cold,
• Excessive noise, and
• Poor Lighting.
• Each worker must be aware of his or her

actions inside a confined space. It is the
duty of each worker to realize and
remember that one mistake could lead to
serious injury, either to the worker
personally or to others working nearby.
Hazardous Atmosphere
• A hazardous atmosphere means an atmosphere that

may expose employees to the risk of death,
incapacitation, impairment of ability to self-rescue
(that is to escape unaided from a permit space),
injury, or acute illness from one or more of the
following causes:
• Oxygen deficient atmosphere. When the oxygen

content is below 19.5 percent, it is too low to provide
enough oxygen for a working person.
• Oxygen enriched atmosphere. Oxygen content above

23.5 percent causes combustible substances to burn
more vigorously than in normal atmosphere. For
instance, in an oxygen enriched atmosphere, a
person's hair, clothing, and even skin will burn
rapidly if ignited.
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Hazardous Atmosphere (Cont’d)
• Flammable explosive atmosphere.

Flammable gases, vapors, or dusts are
dangerous in concentrations above 10
percent of the lower flammable explosive
limit.
• Toxic atmosphere. Dangerous air

contamination caused by a toxic substance
is the concentration immediately dangerous
to life and health. This definition does not
preclude the requirement to control the
concentrations to below the permissible
exposure limit for persons working without
respiratory protection.
• Airborne combustible dust at a

concentration that exceeds its LFL. In a
concentration above LFL, dust obscures
vision at a distance of 5 feet or less.
Module Quiz
4
7/15/2013
Working in a confined space has its own set of potential work problems such as:
A) Minimum room in which to move/work

B) Poor Lighting
C) Excessive noise
D) Excessive heat or cold
E) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Toxins present two different types of risk:
A) chemical asphyxiation and irritation

B) physical asphyxiation and irritation
C) chemical frustration and irritation
D) biological asphyxiation and irritation

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
6
7/15/2013
Module 48
Site Characterization Part 1

Offsite Characterization and Records Search
Site Characterization
The design of built-in protection

measures is vital to the health and
safety of waste site workers. In
order to be effective, engineering
controls not only must be part of the
initial design phase, but also must
be continually evaluated and
updated. This process is called site
characterization.
Site characterization provides the

information needed to identify site
hazards and to select worker
protection methods. The information
gathered must be exact, detailed,
and comprehensive so that the
protective measures can be tailored
to the actual hazards that workers
may face.
Site Characterization (cont’d)
Site characterization generally proceeds in three

phases:
1. Off-Site Characterization - Prior to site entry, gather
information away from the site, and conduct
reconnaissance from the site perimeter.
2. On-Site Surveys - During this phase, restrict site entry
to reconnaissance personnel.
3. On-going - Monitoring and Hazard Assessment.
Once the site has been determined safe for

commencement of other activities, perform ongoing
monitoring to provide a continuous source of
information about site conditions. The sections below
detail the three phases of site characterization and
provide a general guide that should be adapted to meet
the specific situation. Within each phase of information
gathering, the most appropriate sequence of steps
should be determined, particularly if time or budget
considerations limit the scope of the work. Wherever
possible, all information sources should be pursued.
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Off-site Characterization
As much information as possible should be

obtained before site entry. This allows hazards to
be evaluated and preliminary controls to be put
in place to protect the first personnel who will
enter the site.
Initial information-gathering missions should

focus on identifying all potential or suspected
conditions that are immediately dangerous to life
or health (IDLH), or that may cause death or
serious harm. Off-site information can be
obtained by two methods: (1) Interview/records
research and (2) Perimeter reconnaissance.
Interview Records/Research
As much data as possible should be collected

before any personnel go on site. Where possible,
the following information should be obtained:
- Exact location of the site

- Detailed description of the activity that occurred at
the site
- Duration of the activity
- Meteorological data; e.g., current weather and
forecast, prevailing wind direction, precipitation
levels, temperature profiles
- Terrain; e.g., historical and current site maps, site
photographs, aerial photographs, U.S. Geological
Survey topographic quadrangle maps, land use
maps, and land cover maps
Interview Records/Research (cont’d)
- Geologic and hydrologic data

- Habitation and population centers; populations
at risk
- Accessibility by air and roads
- Pathways of dispersion
- Present status of response and who has
responded
- Previous surveys (including soil, ground-
penetrating radar, and magnetometer
surveys), sampling, and monitoring data
- Hazardous substances involved and their
chemical and physical properties
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Information Sources
- Company records, receipts, logbooks, or ledgers

- Records from state and federal pollution control
regulatory and enforcement agencies, state
Attorney General's office, state occupational safety
and health agencies, state Fire Marshal's office
- Waste storage inventories and manifests or
shipping papers
- Interviews with past and present personnel and
their families
- Generator and transporter records. Water
department and sewage district records.
- Interviews with nearby residents (note possible
site-related medical problems)
- Local fire and police department records
- Court records
- Utility company records
- Media reports
Perimeter Reconnaissance
Perimeter reconnaissance should be

carried out when site hazards are largely
unknown or when there is no need to go
on site immediately. From outside the
boundary of the site, one can (1) make
visual observations, (2) monitor for
atmospheric concentrations of airborne
pollutants, and (3) collect soil and/or
water samples.
While these data are not clear-cut

indicators of on-site conditions, they can
assist in the preliminary evaluation. A
preliminary site map should be developed
with the locations of buildings,
containers, impoundments, pits, ponds,
and tanks.
Perimeter Reconnaissance (cont’d)
Perimeter reconnaissance of a site should involve

the following observations:
• Review historical and current aerial photographs -

note any disappearance of natural depressions,
quarries, or pits
• Variation in reforestation of disturbed areas
• Mounding or uplift in disturbed areas or paved

surfaces, or modifications in grade
• Changes in vegetation around buildings
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Perimeter Reconnaissance (cont’d)
• Changes in traffic patterns at the site
- Note any labels, markings, or placards on

containers or vehicles
- Note the amount of deterioration or damage of
containers or vehicles
- Note any biologic indicators, such as dead animals
or plants
- Note any unusual conditions, such as clouds,
discolored liquids, oil slicks, vapors, or other
suspicious substances
- Monitor the ambient air at the site perimeter for
toxic substances, combustible and flammable gases
or vapors, oxygen deficiency, ionizing radiation,
specific materials, if known
- Note any unusual odors
- Collect and analyze off-site samples, including soil,
drinking water, ground water, site run-off, surface
water and toxic atmosphere
On-site Survey
The purpose of an on-site survey is to verify

and supplement information from the off-site
characterization. Prior to going on site, the
off-site characterization should be used to
develop a Site Safety Plan for site entry.
The Site Safety Plan outlines what needs to

be accomplished and then prescribes
procedures to protect the health and safety
of the entry team. Careful evaluation of
probable conditions enables the team leader
to assess the hazards and to plan site
activities. Because team members may be
entering a largely unknown environment,
caution as well as conservative actions are
appropriate.
Module Quiz
4
7/15/2013
____________ provides the information needed to identify site hazards and to select worker
protection methods.
A) Site characterization
B) Site scoping
C) Surface water run off
D) Excessive heat or cold
E) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
_____________ should be carried out when site hazards are largely unknown or when there is
no need to go on site immediately.
A) Public meetings
B) Air reconnaissance
C) Perimeter reconnaissance
D) EPA visits

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
6
7/15/2013
Module 49
Site Characterization Part 2

Protection of Entry Team and Documentation
Protection of Entry Personnel
The project team leader uses information

from interview/records research and from
perimeter reconnaissance as the basis for
selecting the protective equipment for the
initial site survey. In addition, the leader
must consider the nature of the proposed
work to be accomplished. For example, the
purpose of the survey may be to inspect on-
site conditions, to count containers, to
measure the ambient air for "hot spots" (i.e.,
areas with high concentrations of toxic
chemicals), and generally to become familiar
with the site.
In these cases, the level of protection may be

less stringent than if the entry team must
open containers and take samples of
unidentified materials. The ensemble of
clothing and equipment referred to as Level B
protection is generally the minimum level
recommended for an initial entry until the site
hazards have been further identified.
Entry Team
The composition of the entry team depends on the

site characteristics; however, the team should
always consist of at least four persons: two
workers who will enter the site and two outside
support persons suited in personal protective
equipment and prepared to enter the site in case of
emergency.
Upon entering the site, entry personnel should:

- Monitor the air for IDLH and other conditions that
may cause death or serious harm (combustible or
explosive atmospheres, oxygen deficiency, and
toxic substances).
- Monitor for ionizing radiation. Survey for gamma

and beta radiation with a Geiger-Mueller detection
tube or a gamma scintillation tube. If alpha
radiation is expected, use a proportional counter.
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Entry Team (cont’d)
- Visually observe for signs of actual or potential IDLH or

other dangerous conditions. Any indication of IDLH
hazards or other dangerous conditions should be
regarded as a sign to proceed with care and deliberation
or to retreat. Extreme caution should be exercised in
continuing the site survey when such hazards are
indicated. If IDLH or other dangerous conditions are not
present, or if proper precautions can be taken, continue
the survey. Conduct further air monitoring as necessary.
- Note any safety hazards. Conditions of site structures,

obstacles to entry and exit, terrain homogeneity, terrain
stability and stability of stacked material. Note any
indicators of potential exposure to hazardous substances
such as dead fish, animals or vegetation, dust or spray
in the air, pools of liquid foams or oils on liquid surfaces,
gas generation or effervescence deteriorating
containers, cleared land areas or possible land-fill areas,
and fissures or cracks in solid surfaces that expose deep
waste layers.
- Note the types of containers, impoundments, or other

storage systems, paper or wood packages, metal or
plastic barrels or drums, underground tanks, above
ground tanks, compressed gas cylinders, and pits,
ponds, or lagoons.
- Note the condition of waste containers and storage

systems, visibly rusted or corroded, leaking bulging
types and quantities of material in containers, labels
on containers indicating corrosive, explosive,
flammable, radioactive, or toxic materials.
- Note the physical properties of the materials, gas,

liquid, or solid color and turbidity behavior, e.g.,
corroding, foaming, or vaporizing conditions
conducive to splash or contact.
- Note land features
- Identify natural wind barriers, buildings, hills, tanks
- Determine the potential pathways of dispersion: air biological

routes, such as animals and food chains, ground water, land
surface, and surface water
- If necessary, use one or more of the following remote sensing

or subsurface investigative methods to locate buried wastes or
contaminant plumes: electromagnetic resistivity, seismic
refraction magnetometry, metal detection or ground-
penetrating radar. Collect samples such as air, water from
drainage ditches, soil (surface and subsurface), standing pools
of liquids, storage containers, streams and ponds, ground
water (up gradient or uphill from the site, beneath the site,
and down gradient)
- Note the presence of any potential naturally occurring skin

irritants or dermatitis-inducing agents. Examples include
poison ivy, poison oak, or poison sumac.
2
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Monitoring and Hazard Assessment (cont’d)
Off-site and on-site survey data can be used to

develop a plan that details the procedures for
monitoring ambient (i.e., surrounding) conditions
during clean-up operations. Where necessary, routes
of exposure other than inhalation should be
monitored.
For example, skin swipe tests may be used to

determine the effectiveness of personal protective
clothing. Depending on the physical properties and
toxicity of the on-site materials, the project team
leader may need to assess community exposures
resulting from hazardous waste site operations.
Monitoring and Hazard Assessment
Because site activities and weather conditions

change, an ongoing air-monitoring program should
be implemented after characterization has
determined that the site is safe for the
commencement of operations. After the project
team leader determines from the above activities
that the site is safe for the start-up of operations,
an ongoing air-monitoring program should be
started. An ongoing air-monitoring program is
necessary since conditions can change.
The ongoing monitoring of atmospheric chemical

hazards should be conducted using a combination
of methods, including:
- stationary sampling equipment
- personnel monitoring devices
- periodic area monitoring with direct-reading
instruments
Monitoring and Hazard Assessment (cont’d)
Monitoring also includes continual evaluation of any

changes in site conditions or work activities that could
affect worker safety. When a significant change
occurs, the hazards should be reassessed.
Some indicators of the need for reassessment are:

- Commencement of a new work phase, such as the
start of drum sampling
- Change in job tasks during a work phase
- Change of season
- Change in weather
- Change in ambient levels of contaminants
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Documentation
Proper documentation and document control are

important for several reasons: (1) to ensure accurate
communication, (2) to ensure the quality of the data
collected, (3) to provide reasons for safety decisions,
and (4) to support possible legal actions.
Types of Documentation
Documentation can be accomplished by recording
information pertinent to field activities, sample
analysis, and site conditions in one of several ways.
These include:
- Logbooks
- Field data records
- Graphs- Photographs
- Sample labels
- Chain-of-custody forms
- Analytical records
- Samples to identify biologic, pathologic hazards
and radiological hazards
Document Control
These documents should be controlled to ensure that they are all

accounted for when the project is completed. The task of document
control should be assigned to one individual on the project team
and should include the following responsibilities:
- Numbering each document (including sample labels) with a unique

number
- Listing each document in a document inventory
- Recording the whereabouts of each document in a separate
document register so that any document can be readily located. In
particular, the name and location of site personnel that have
documents in their possession should be recorded.
- Collecting all documents at the end of each work period
- Making sure that all document entries are made in waterproof ink
- Filing all documents in a central file at the completion of the site
clean up
Documentation of On-site Activities
Field personnel should record all on-site activities and

observations in a field logbook (a bound book with
consecutively numbered pages). Entries should be made during
or just after completing a task to ensure thoroughness and
accuracy.
Documentation of Photographs
Photographs can be an accurate, objective addition to a field
worker's written observations. For each photograph taken, the
following information should be recorded in the field logbook:
- Date, time, and name of site
- Name of the photographer
- Location of the subject within the site
- General compass direction of the orientation of the photograph
- General description of the subject
- Sequential number of the photograph and the film roll number
- Camera, lens, and film type used for photography
4
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Module Quiz
The design of built-in protection measures is vital to the health and safety of waste site
workers. In order to be effective, engineering controls not only must be part of the initial
design phase, but also must be continually evaluated and updated.
A) This process is called safe research.

B) This process is called PPE protection.
C) This process is called site characterization.
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Upon completion of site characterization, activities that must be implemented include:
A) Employees being informed of the risks associated with site hazards.
B) Proper engineering controls and PPE being selected based on the site characterization.
C) A perimeter survey being conducted.
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
5
7/15/2013
Site Characterization includes_____.
A) Perimeter Reconnaissance
B) Interview Records/Research
C) Information Sources
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Site characterization is done to:
A) Prevent damage to the property by vandals.
B) To assess hazards at the waste site.
C) Protect the employer.
D) Impress the local politicians.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
7
7/15/2013
Module 50
Toxicology Part 1
Chemical Classification
Introduction
After completing this module, the participant

will better understand the principles of
toxicology and how they relate to various
types of chemical exposures.
Toxicology
Toxicology is the study of chemical toxicity.

Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical or
substance has a harmful effect on us or other
living things.
All the information known today about the toxic

effects of chemicals and other hazardous
substances has been gathered from two sources of
information:
1. Epidemiological studies in which numbers of

affected people in one group are compared to
numbers of affected people in another group.
Sometimes the information comes from actual
exposures to a chemical in the workplace.
2. Animal studies, which provide most of what we

know about the dangerous effects of toxic
substances.
1
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Humans may react differently than

animals to exposure to toxic materials,
however. Thanks to hazardous chemical
communication programs (HAZCOM or
Right-to-Know), chemical toxicity
information can be found in a number of
ways.
Today all hazardous chemicals in use

have a label that warns that the product
is toxic and the nature of that toxicity.
More detailed information can be
obtained from the Material Safety Data
Sheet (MSDS). Some chemicals produce
immediate and dramatic biological
effects. Others may produce no
observable effects at all or the effects
may be delayed in their appearance.
Route of Exposure and Dose
Certain chemicals appear harmless in one form of

contact, such as carbon monoxide on the skin.
However, carbon monoxide inhaled into the lungs has
much more serious effects. The dose of a chemical
exposure is simply the amount of chemical one is
exposed to and the length of time of exposure.
Humans and other living animals vary in their response

to any exposure to a chemical substance. For some, a
certain dose may produce symptoms of serious illness;
for others only mild symptoms may appear; or there
may be no noticeable effect at all. Often a prior
exposure to a chemical affects the way that an
individual responds to being exposed at a later time.
Thus there is not only variation between different
individuals, there may be different responses in the
same individual at different exposures.
Interaction With Other Chemicals
Chemistry is the study of the interaction of

various chemicals with one another. An example is
the reaction between acids and bases. The
physical and biochemistry of the living organism is
much the same. Chemicals in combination can
produce different biological responses than the
responses seen when exposure is to one chemical
alone. The physical forms in which chemicals are
encountered at a waste site play a large role in
the routes of entry into the body.
The principal hazard is usually from dusts or

fumes produced when solids change form.
Example: polyurethane foam, when burned, gives
off cyanide gas. Routes of entry are inhalation,
ingestion (saliva), and skin absorption.
2
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Dusts, Fumes Vapors and Mists
Dusts
Dusts are tiny particles of solids (examples: cement
dust, metal dusts from grinding operations). The
route of entry is inhalation.
Fumes
Tiny particles produced from heating, volatilization
and condensation of metals (examples: zinc oxide
fumes from welding of galvanized metal). Routes of
entry are inhalation, ingestion (saliva), and skin
absorption. It is important to note that toxic fumes
may result from the burning of non-toxic
substances. Acids, organic solvents, chlorinated
organic solvents (examples: benzene, sulfuric acid,
1,1,1-trichloroethane). Routes of entry are
inhalation and skin absorption.
Dusts, Fumes Vapors and Mists (cont’d)
Vapors
Vapors are gases that result from the evaporation
of liquids or the sublimation of solids (examples:
gasoline, phosgene and iodine). Routes of entry are
inhalation and skin absorption.
Mists
Mists are liquid droplets suspended in the air
(examples: acid mists from electroplating processes
or solvent mists from paint spraying operations).
Dusts, Fumes Vapors and Mists (cont’d)
Health hazards may cause measurable changes in the body such

as decreased pulmonary function (breathing). These changes are
generally indicated by the occurrence of signs and symptoms,
such as shortness of breath, in exposed employees. Shortness of
breath, however, is a non-measurable subjective feeling. The
determination of occupational health hazards is complicated by
the fact that many of the effects or signs and symptoms occur
commonly in non-occupationally exposed populations, so that the
effects of exposure are difficult to separate from normally
occurring illnesses.
For our purposes, any chemical meeting any of the following

definitions is a health hazard. However, this is not intended to be
an exclusive categorization. If there are available scientific data
that involve other animal species or test methods, they must also
be evaluated to determine the applicability to employees. You do
need to understand that some chemicals may fall into more than
one category and this information can be found on the MSDS.
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Chemical Classifications
Asphyxiants
Asphyxiants are chemicals that deprive the victim's body
tissues of oxygen. An asphyxiant interferes with the body's
ability to transport or use the oxygen carried by the blood
stream. Any gas heavier than air can easily displace oxygen
and cause asphyxiation. Examples of chemical asphyxiants are
carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide.
Carcinogens
Chemicals in this category are known to cause cancer in
humans or in laboratory test animals. This is a chronic effect as
there is a time period that elapses before a malignant tumor
will appear. Examples of carcinogens are benzene,
benzo(a)pyrene, asbestos fibers, acrylonitrile, and DBCP
(dibromochloropropane).
Irritants
This group of chemicals will irritate various tissues causing
redness, rashes, swelling, coughing, or even hemorrhaging.
Chlorine and ammonia are two examples of irritants.
Chemical Classifications (cont’d)
Sensitizers
Another name for sensitizers is allergens. These chemicals cause an allergic
type of reaction due to sensitivity from prior exposure. An acute response
may be swelling of the breathing tubes, which causes breathing difficulty.
Sensitizers can cause chronic lung disease. Some common examples are
epoxies, aromatic amines, formaldehyde, nickel metal, and maleic
anhydride.
Mutagens
Mutagens cause alterations in the genes of a person exposed. The result
may be malfunction of a specific organ or tissue, depending upon the type of
cell the mutation took place in. Gene damage can be passed on to children if
the mutation occurred in either the sperm or the egg of the parents.
Examples of mutagens are ethylene oxide, benzene, and hydrazine.
Teratogens
Teratogens cause damage or death to a developing fetus. This damage
cannot be passed on to further generations, as it does not affect the genetic
code. Examples of teratogens are thalidomide, dioxins, lead, and cadmium.
Chemical Classifications (cont’d)
Corrosives
Corrosives produce a local effect or damage to the
body at the point of contact. Acids and bases are
examples and most common are sulfuric acid and
sodium hydroxide respectively.
Some acids and bases can produce a systemic effect

in the body meaning the chemical exerts its toxic
effect away from the point of contact.
4
7/15/2013
Module Quiz
___________ is the study of chemical toxicity.
A) Radiation
B) Toxicology
C) Toxicokinetics

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Humans and other living animals _______ in their response to any exposure to a chemical
substance.
A) vary
B) have the same
C) have much the same
D) have no difference

Your answer:

completely
continuing
5
7/15/2013
_______are tiny particles produced from heating, volatilization and condensation of metals.
A) Vapors
B) Dusts
C) Fumes
D) Hazes

Your answer:

completely
continuing
____________ are chemicals that deprive the victim's body tissues of oxygen.
A) Irritants
B) Carcinogens
C) Asphyxiants
D) Mists

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
7
7/15/2013
Module 51
Toxicology Part 2
Toxicokinetics
Toxicokinetics
Toxicokinetics – is defined as how the body handles

poisons.
Absorption into the body
As a general rule, fat soluble liquids are readily

absorbed through the skin and fat soluble vapors are
readily absorbed through the lungs. Notably these
routes apply to organic solvents such as hexane,
toluene, trichlorethylene and many others.
Distribution within the body
Many factors affect the distribution of a toxic

substance but water or fat solubility is very important.
Thus for example water soluble compounds of lead
are found (amongst other places) in the red blood
cells, while fat soluble ones concentrate in the central
nervous system (CNS).
Toxicokinetics (cont’d)
The distribution of a toxic substance determines its concentration at

a particular tissue and therefore the number and type of cells
exposed to high concentrations of it.
Metabolism/biotransformation of toxic substances
• Toxic substances may be converted into other substances

(metabolites) by organs such as the liver and kidneys.
• Thus non-polar and therefore not water soluble organic compounds
tend to be oxidized within the liver e.g.: trichloroethane oxidized to
trichloroethanol trichloroacetaldehyde and trichloroacetic acid,
dichloromethane (methylene chloride CH2Cl2) oxidized to carbon
monoxide (CO).
• Water soluble metabolites are then more easily excreted by the
kidney.
• Metabolism or biotransformation does not necessarily result in less
toxic
compounds. For example benzene may be oxidized to an expoxide
which then inflicts damage on the DNA in genes, i.e. it is genotoxic
and thence carcinogenic.
1
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Routes of elimination of toxic substances /or their

metabolites
• Kidneys - especially water soluble substances

• Lungs - especially fat soluble vapors e.g. - alcohols, or
gases such as carbon monoxide
Exposure to a hazardous substance can occur in two

ways-either directly or indirectly.
• Direct Exposure: chemical must come in direct contact with

its target organ.
• Indirect Exposure: chemical can work its way to humans via

the food chain. For example, a fish ingest a crayfish, the
crayfish contains high levels of PCBs, and the PCBs are
transferred to a human when the human ingests the fish.
Either of these two exposures can be acute or chronic.
Acute: is a one time or an infrequent exposure to a high

concentration of a substance. This relates to the
hazardous materials exposure as a single event that
causes an injury.
Chronic Exposure: is a repeated exposure to a

substance over a period of time. Health effects may take
several years to develop. A good example is asbestosis
from working with asbestos over the years without proper
respiratory protection. Asbestosis can have a latency
period of several years.
Classes of Chemical Toxins
There are many classes of chemical toxins. Some chemicals are

called target organ poisons. These chemicals damage specific
organs once they enter the bloodstream. Other types of
chemical toxins target body systems and causes a variety of
reactions.
Target Organ Poisons

Many chemicals will target a particular tissue or organ and cause
disease or damage at that location. The following examples are
listed according to the tissue or organ affected. Asbestos fibers
and silica dust may cause a fibrosis effect in the lung tissue.
Fibrosis is a condition in which the lung becomes scarred and
inflexible, making the lung unable to function properly. A
condition called chloracne may be caused by repeated exposures
to PCB's (polychlorinated biphenyls) and other chlorinated
hydrocarbons. Lacrimators are chemicals that can cause instant
tearing at low concentrations. Examples are tear gas and MACE.
Other chemicals can cause cataracts, optic nerve damage, and
retinal damage by circulating through the bloodstream and
reaching the eye. Examples of these are naphthalene, methanol,
and thallium.
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Central Nervous System
Chemicals affecting this system containing the

brain and spinal cord are called neurotoxins.
Neurotoxins affect the neurons that carry
electrical signals by inhibiting their function. This
can cause behavior changes, emotional changes,
alterations in walking, and loss of hand-eye
coordination.
A condition called anoxia may occur, due to a

lack of oxygen flow to the brain cells. Lack of
oxygen results in cell death. Examples of
chemicals causing central nervous system effects
are tetraethyl lead, chlorinated hydrocarbon
pesticides (e.g., DDT), malathion, lead, and
mercury.
Liver
Substances that are capable of damaging the liver are

called hepatotoxins. The liver is the main processing organ
for toxins. It may convert toxins into nontoxic forms;
however, the liver may generate a more toxic by-product,
which can cause cellular and tissue damage.
Examples of hepatotoxins are carbon tetrachloride,

chloroform, tannic acid, and trichloroethylene. Examples of
chemicals that cause cirrhosis (a fibrotic disease that
results in liver dysfunction and jaundice) are carbon
tetrachloride, alcohol, and aflatoxin. Other effects can
range from tumors to enlargement of the liver and fat
accumulation.
Kidneys
The main function of the kidneys is to filter

the blood and eliminate wastes. Because
the waste gets concentrated in the process,
toxins can be at much higher levels in the
kidneys. Toxins that damage this organ are
known as nephrotoxins. Most heavy metals
fall into this category, including mercury,
arsenic, and lithium.
Many halogenated (i.e., chlorinated)

organic compounds are also nephrotoxins
such as tetrachloroethylene, carbon
tetrachloride, and chloroform. Other
chemicals that damage the kidneys include
carbon disulfide, methanol, toluene, and
ethylene glycol.
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Reproductive Organs
Reproductive toxins can cause sterility, infertility, or

spontaneous abortions. They can also affect an
individual's hormone levels and activity.
Examples of male reproductive toxins are mercury, lead,

DDT, PCBs, dioxin, benzene, toluene, and xylene.
Examples of female reproductive toxins are DDT, PCBs,
and parathion.
Blood
Substances capable of producing blood disorders are

called hematoxins. Chemicals that affect the bone
marrow, which is the source of most of the
components of blood, are arsenic, bromine, methyl
chloride, and benzene. Chemicals that affect
platelets, which are cell fragments that help in the
process of blood clotting, are aspirin, benzene, and
tetrachloroethane.
Chemicals that affect white blood cells, which help

the body defend against infection, are naphthalene
and tetrachloroethane. Arsine, naphthalene, and
warfarin can affect red blood cells, which carry
oxygen throughout the body. Effects in the exposed
individual may include (1) reduced red blood count,
or anemia; (2) reduced white blood cell count, which
leaves the victim susceptible to disease; and (3)
reduced platelet count, which increases the
possibility of hemorrhaging.
Routes of Exposure
Knowing how chemicals get into your body and how your body
reacts is critical to personal protection. Toxic chemicals can
enter the body in any one of, or a combination of, four ways.
(1) The most common toxic dose in the work

environment comes through breathing, or inhalation.
(2) The next most common route of entry is through eye

and/or skin contact.
(3) The most common route in the home is swallowing or

ingestion.
(4) A route that is more accidental is injection.
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Inhalation
A toxic dose of chemicals may be inhaled in a

number of forms: as a gas, mist, fume, dust, or
vapor. The result is that a chemical enters the
airways. The chemical may only make it as far as
the mucous membranes of the nose, or it may
reach the smallest cavities of the lungs.
Anywhere along the route it may be absorbed or

may cause an adverse reaction. The reaction can
be immediate, for example, as in the reaction to
hydrogen sulfide gas. On the other hand, the
reaction may be delayed for years as in the
reaction to asbestos fibers.
Skin and Eye Contact
Unlike inhalation, skin and eye

contact with toxic chemicals normally
results in damage at the point of
contact. Sulfuric acid will do damage
only at the point of contact. There
are a few toxic chemicals that may
be absorbed through the skin and
into the blood stream. Once in the
blood, the chemical can move to any
spot and do its damage.
The most common chemicals that

can be absorbed through the skin are
in the pesticide and herbicide classes.
Just remember, if sweat can come
out of your skin, chemicals can go
into your skin.
Skin and Eye Contact (cont’d)
Information on skin absorption is provided in the ACGIH

publication, Threshold Limit Values for Chemical
Substances and Physical Agents, OSHA standard 29 CFR
Part 1910.1000, and other standard references. These
documents identify substances that can be readily
absorbed through the skin, mucous membranes, and/or
eyes by either airborne exposure or direct contact with a
liquid. This information, like most available information
on skin absorption, is qualitative. It indicates whether,
but not to what extent, a substance may pose a dermal
hazard. Thus, decisions made concerning skin hazards
are necessarily judgmental.
Quantitative data on eye irritation is not always

available. Where a review of the literature indicates that
a substance causes eye irritation, but no threshold is
specified, have a competent health professional evaluate
the data to determine the level of personal protection
needed for workers.
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Ingestion
This route of entry is not common for

industry unless personal hygiene is ignored or
disregarded.
Personnel that handle chemicals need to

follow a hygiene program that will prevent the
accidental ingestion of hazardous material.
Injection
Chemicals can enter through the skin at

any wound or injury site. This is commonly
called injection. It has been known to
happen when handling a high pressure hose
with pin hole leaks and through the cracks
in a worker's unprotected hands.
Once the chemical enters the bloodstream,

it has the potential to impact all organs and
tissues.
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Module Quiz
____________ – is defined as how the body handles poisons.
A) Toxicokinetics
B) Toxicology
C) Xenobiotics

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Exposure to a hazardous substance can occur in two ways -______________.
A) either by particles or mists
B) either indirectly or sequentially
C) either passive or directly
D) either directly or indirectly

Your answer:

completely
continuing
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_______: is a one time or an infrequent exposure to a high concentration of a substance. This

relates to the hazardous materials exposure as a single event that causes an injury.
A) Indirectly
B) Acute
C) Chronic
D) Directly

Your answer:

completely
continuing
The most common toxic dose in the work environment comes through_____________.
A) Injection
B) Noise
C) Ingestion
D) Inhalation

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
8
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9
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Module 52
Toxicology Part 3
Dose and Response
Storage in the Body
Many chemicals, particularly those that are soluble in oil or fat

(lipids), are not removed from the body but are stored instead.
Storage usually occurs in the adipose, or fat, tissues. Toxic
chemicals may react on the body after exposure in a chronic
and/or acute way. Acute or immediate effects may result from a
brief exposure to hazardous materials. These effects generally
occur a short time after the initial exposure. A short time may be
from seconds to a couple days. Common immediate effects
include:
- Headaches
- Dizziness
- Nausea
- Eye
- Skin or respiratory irritation or damage
- Unconsciousness and death
Other immediate effects may come from sensitizer chemicals.

After several exposures with no reaction, the body reacts to
exposure. Skin rashes and asthma-like respiratory problems can
come from sensitizers.
Chronic Response
Chronic or delayed effects often occur a long time

after exposure. They result from repeated
exposure to hazardous material over a long period
of time. Delayed effects are frequently not
reversible. Common chronic effects are liver and
kidney damage.
However the chemical enters the body, it can

reach the liver or kidneys - organs that try to
detoxify the body. Lung cancer, due to smoking
and/or radon gas, is also a common chronic
effect.
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Chemical Dose
Whenever the term toxicity is used, "dose" is

generally incorporated. It is related to the
quantity of a material and how long the exposure
is. The higher the chemical dose, the greater the
toxic reaction. Toxic dose is often given as Lethal
Dose (LD) or Lethal Concentration (LC).
A number given as an LD50 or LC100 would refer

to the specific amount of a particular material
that results in a percentage of deaths of a
sample group of laboratory animals. For
example, an LC50 of 25 mg/m 3 means that a
concentration of 25 mg/m 3 of a certain
substance is shown to be fatal to 50 percent of a
test group of animals. Please note that the
smaller the number (toxic dose) the more toxic
the material.
Highly Toxic
A chemical that is highly toxic has a LD50 (lethal dose

50%) of 50 milligrams of chemical per 1 kilogram of
body weight administered orally; LD50 of 200
milligrams or less per kilogram of body weight when
administered by continuous skin contact for 24 hours;
LC50 (lethal concentration 50%) in air of 200 ppm by
volume or less when administered by continuous
inhalation for one hour or less; or 2 mg/kg per liter or
less of mist, dust, or fume when continuously inhaled
for one hour or less.
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Toxic
A chemical that is toxic has a LD50 (lethal dose 50%)

of more than 50 milligrams/kg but less than 500
mg/kg of chemical per 1 kilogram of body weight
administered orally.
LD50 of more than 200 milligrams per kilogram of

body weight but less than 1000 mg/kg when
administered by continuous skin contact for 24 hours;
LC50 (lethal concentration 50%) in air of more than
200 ppm by volume but less than 2000 when
administered by continuous inhalation for one hour or
less; or more than 2 mg/kg per liter but less than 20
mg/kg of mist, dust, or fume when continuously
inhaled for one hour or less.
Chemical Interaction
In testing chemicals in the laboratory,

toxicologists have learned that many chemicals
act together in certain ways on biological
systems. It is for this reason that 2 + 2 does
not always equal 4.
Additive Effect (2 + 2 = 4)
Some toxic chemicals add their effects
together in producing a biological effect. In this
case the effect is the same as being exposed
to double the dose of either chemical alone.
Example: acetaminophen and ibuprofen.
Synergistic Effect (2 + 2 = 6)
Synergism is the exposure to two different
toxic chemicals that produce a more severe
effect than simply doubling the dose of either
one alone. An example is isopropyl alcohol and
chloroform. The alcohol ties up the enzymes
that would normally break down chloroform.
Chemical Interaction (cont’d)
Potentiation (0 + 2 = 10)
In some cases a chemical without any known toxic
effect may act together with a known toxic substance
to make the toxic substance even more potent and
thus more dangerous. Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) and
chloroform together affect the liver in just such a
manner.
Antagonism (4 + 6 = 8)
The interaction of two toxic chemicals may be such
that the effect produced is actually less than would be
expected. Phenobarbital and benzopyrene together is
an example. The phenobarbital increases the enzyme
activity that detoxifies the benzopyrene. As a final
note, a prescription drug being taken by a worker may
interact with a hazardous chemical that is
encountered in the work place. Your doctor needs to
know that you may be exposed to toxic hazards on
the job.
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Dose Response
The dose-response relationship is a fundamental and

essential concept in toxicology. It correlates exposures
and the spectrum of induced effects. Generally, the
higher the dose, the more severe the response. But this
is not always the case. The dose-response relationship is
based on observed data from experimental animal,
human clinical, or cell studies.
Knowledge of the dose-response relationship:

- establishes causality that the chemical has in fact
induced the observed effects
- establishes the lowest dose where an induced effect
occurs (the threshold effect)
- determines the rate at which injury builds up (the
slope for the dose response).
Dose Response (cont’d)
A chemical compound that is foreign to the body is reacting with biometabolism and causing an effect. This
effect may be slight or may be lethal. Most of the time when we interact with chemicals the dose is very
small. However, if the exposure is large and the body cannot metabolize the insult, an effect from the
exposure is observed. This is known as the dose response effect.
Lethal Dose/Lethal Concentration, and NOEL
Depending on the form of the material, whether you have dose or concentration, refers to the test population
for a material.
- LDLO is the amount of the chemical at which the first of the test population died.
- LD50 or LC50 is the amount of the chemical at which 50% of the test population died.
- LD100 or LC100 is the amount of the chemical at which 100% of the test population died. These quantities
are best used to see how toxic chemicals compare to one another.
- NOEL - No Observed Effect Level - the highest concentration or dosage where no effect is observed
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Individual Response
The LD50 numbers are for an average population; there
is a great deal of genetic variability in chemical dose
response. In other words, given the same dose of a
material, different workers responses to the material may
be at opposite extremes of the chemical dose response
curve. Some individuals will experience less of a response
while others will experience a greater response. To afford
the greatest protection to the average worker, "exposure
limits" have been developed. An exposure limit is the
airborne concentration of a material to which nearly all
individuals may be repeatedly exposed without adverse
health effects.
The two common units of measurement used in setting

exposure limits are:
- Parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb)
- Milligrams per cubic meter of air (mg/m3 )
Note: ppm and ppb are a volume to volume and
mg/m3 is a weight to volume.
The formula for converting ppm to mg/m3 is:

ppm = mg/m3 x 24.5/molecular weight
Some examples to help you picture parts per million are:

An ounce of chocolate in a million gallons of milk. A drop of
vermouth in a railcar full of vodka. An example of parts per
billion is: One grain of sugar in a 10 pound bag of sugar.
For vapors or gases the constant of 24.5 liters vapor per
mole of contaminant at 25 degrees C and one atmosphere
(760 mm Hg) of pressure is important.
Some common examples of this constant are: Chlorine 1

ppm = 2.95 mg/m 3 Toluene 1 ppm = 3.83 mg/m 3
Trichloroethylene 1 ppm = 5.46 mg/m 3
Exposure Limits
Published exposure level standards have been

determined experimentally and in the
workplace. Commonly used terms follow below.
Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL)

Permissible exposure limits are enforceable
standards promulgated by OSHA. In many cases
they are derived from TLVs published in 1968.
The PEL for a substance is either an average
exposure figured over an 8-hour work day
(known as TWA) or a ceiling concentration (C),
above which workers may not be exposed.
Although personal protective equipment may
not be required for exposures below the PEL, its
use may be advisable where there is a potential
for overexposure. See the tables and substance-
specific standards in 29 CFR Part 1910, Subpart
Z, for additional details.
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Exposure Limits (cont’d)
Threshold Limit Value (TLV)

The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH) publishes Threshold Limit Values for Chemical
Substances and Physical Agents annually. The ACGIH has derived
TLVs for many substances. TLVs are developed as guidelines to
assist in the control of health hazards; for example, they may be
used to determine the appropriate level of worker protection.
TLVs are intended for use in the practice of industrial hygiene, not
for use as legal standards. Rather, OSHA's PELs are the
enforceable standards. It is recognized that in certain
circumstances individuals or organizations may wish to make use
of ACGIH recommendations; however, they must recognize the
constraints and limitations subject to TLV utilization and bear the
responsibility for such use. The ACGIH defines three categories of
TLVs: time-weighted average (TWA); short-term exposure limit
(STEL); and ceiling (C). All three categories may be useful in
selecting levels of protection at a hazardous waste site. Refer to
the Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical
Agents for additional details.
Time-Weighted Average (TWA)

TWA is a dose measurement that is more chronic in nature. It is a
time-weighted average concentration for a normal 8-hour day/40-
hour week, to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly
exposed, day after day, without adverse effect.
Short-Term Exposure Limit (STEL)

ACGIH defines this as a 15-minute TWA exposure that should not
be exceeded at any time during the workday without the proper
protective measures. Exposures above the TLV-TWA up to the
STEL should not be longer than 15 minutes and should not occur
more than four times per day with at least 60 minutes between
exposures. This is not a separate independent exposure limit.
Instead, it supplements the TWA limit where there are recognized
acute effects from a substance that normally has chronic effects.
Ceiling (C) This is the level that may never be exceeded during
any part of the working exposure without protective actions. It is
not an average unless it cannot be measured any other way. Then
it is measured over a 15 minute time period.
Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH) IDLH

exposure concentrations have been established by the
NIOSH/OSHA Standards Completion Program (SCP) as
a guideline for selecting respirators for some
chemicals. The definition of IDLH varies depending on
the source. For example, the Mine Safety and Health
Administration Standard (30 CFR Part 11.3(t)) defines
IDLH conditions as those that pose an immediate

threat to life or health or that pose an immediate
threat of severe exposure to contaminants such as
radioactive materials that are likely to have adverse
cumulative or delayed effects on health. The NIOSH
Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards defines IDLH
concentration as the "...maximum level from which one
could escape within 30 minutes without any escape-
impairing symptoms or any irreversible health effects.”
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Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH )(cont’d)
The American National Standards Institute, Inc. (ANSI) defines

IDLH as "...any atmosphere that poses an immediate hazard to
life or produces immediate irreversible debilitating effects on
health." Regardless of their exact definition, all IDLH values
indicate those concentrations of toxic substances from which
escape is possible without irreversible harm should a worker's
respiratory protective equipment fail.
IDLH concentrations should be assumed to represent

concentrations above which only workers wearing respirators that
provide the maximum protection (i.e., a positive-pressure, full-
face piece, self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) or a
combination positive-pressure, full-face piece, supplied-air
respirator with positive-pressure SCBA) are permitted. Specific
IDLH values for many substances can be found in the NIOSH
Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards.
Protection From Toxins
How do we protect ourselves from toxins? We must accept

the fact that the human body can break down, detoxify, or
eliminate many harmful chemicals if the dose is not too
great. At the same time, we know that exposure to toxins
puts stress on the body. You must know the potential for
toxicity of the materials that you work with to adequately
protect yourself from toxic exposure.
Once the presence and the concentrations of specific

chemicals or classes of chemicals have been established,
the associated hazards should be determined. Information
on the chemical, physical, and toxicological properties of
each chemical should be recorded on a Hazardous
Substance Information Form. Health and safety personnel
will then have the necessary information in one place, and
new personnel can be quickly briefed. As many reference
sources as possible should be used to fill out the sheets,
because the information may vary from one source to
another. As data is gathered, a worst case scenario should
be developed so that all necessary precautions may be
taken.
Protection From Toxins
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) provided by chemical

manufacturers are one source for this information. Most of
us learn about acute toxicity rapidly. If we don't heed the
warning, we soon experience the reaction of our body.
Unfortunately, we do not learn through experience about
the chronic chemical hazards that we face. We only have
one lifetime and many chronic hazards take years to reveal
themselves as damage. To protect ourselves, we must
heed the written warnings that are made available. When
the hazard is known, the hard part is over. One cannot
protect from the unknown, but one can protect against the
known hazard by doing the following:
1. Use the engineering controls provided, such as ventilation
systems
2. Administrative Controls
3. Use common sense around chemicals
4. Select and use protective equipment based on MSDS and
safety officer recommendations
5. Wash exposed areas thoroughly before eating, drinking, or
smoking
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Module Quiz
A synergistic effect is considered to be_______.
A) (2 + 2 = 6)
B) (2 + 8 = 6)
C) (0 + 2 = 6)

Your answer:

completely
continuing
An additive effect is considered to be_______.
A) (2 + 2 = 6)
B) (2 + 2 = 4)
C) either passive or directly
D) either directly or indirectly

Your answer:

completely
continuing
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Please define PEL.
A) Permeable exposure limits
B) Acute exposure limits
C) Permissible exposure limits
D) Directly exposure limits

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Please define TWA.
A) Trans-World Airlines
B) Time-Weighted Average
C) Time-Weighted Anomaly
D) Tested-Weighted Average

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
9
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10
7/15/2013
Module 53
Hazard Recognition Part 1

NFPA Requirements
Introduction
Upon completion of hazard recognition, the participant will

know what conditions in the waste-site work environment could
result in worker hazards and the importance of accident or
exposure prevention.
Defining Hazard Risk and Safety

The whole purpose for identifying hazards at a waste site is to
keep the worker safe while on the job. A common definition of
safety is "freedom from danger or harm." In reality, nothing is
completely safe, but we can always make a situation safer by
being aware of the hazards involved and taking steps to protect
workers. Hazard is defined as any substance, situation, or
condition that is capable of harming human health, property, or
the environment. A hazard represents a potential for harm. A
potential hazard, however, does NOT indicate how serious the
harm might be or how likely it may be for harm to occur. For
example, a direct hit by a meteorite is a potential hazard of life
on earth. This says nothing about the seriousness or the
likelihood of harm. Risk is defined as a measure of the
probability and severity of a hazard to harm human health,
property, or the environment.
Defining Hazard Risk and Safety
Risk is a measure of how likely harm is to occur

and an indication of how serious the harm might
be if it does. The severity of a direct hit on you
by a meteorite is quite great but the probability
of this happening is very low. Thus the risk is
very low. Safety may be defined as a judgment
of the acceptability of risk. That is, once we have
identified a hazard and estimated how risky it is,
we make a judgment about whether we can
accept that level of risk or whether something
needs to be done to lower the risk, if possible.
The Site Health and Safety Officer is responsible

for thoroughly addressing safety during planning.
The officer must also ensure that workers are
made aware of the hazard/safety issues as well
as any technologies, work practices, or PPE that
are required to protect them during a particular
activity. The protective methods must be
identified in the site-specific HASP.
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Job Hazard Analysis
One model that can be utilized for hazard recognition is

a job hazard or job safety analysis (JSA). JSA assesses
the potential hazards posed by doing a specific task. The
assessment protects workers by resulting in further
training, engineering or administrative controls, proper
work practices, or proper selection of PPE.
To accomplish a thorough JSA, the following steps are

necessary:
1. Identify the site tasks that have the potential for injury
or illness. It might be necessary to focus on those with
the greatest potential hazards first.
2. Have the supervisor and the worker who performs the

task list the steps involved, from start to finish, in as
much detail as necessary to identify accurately, the
possible hazards.
Job Hazard Analysis (cont’d)
3. Using the steps listed, identify potential hazards

associated with each step.
4. From the hazards identified at each step, determine the

best method of protection: engineering or administrative
controls, work practices, and PPE. JSA should provide an
identification of the hazards associated with a particular
task and the practice or process to protect the worker. It
also creates a record, which can be included in the
Health and Safety Plan.
The JSA can be used in training to ensure that the

worker is made aware of the hazards of a task, of any
standing orders that apply, and of how they are
expected to protect themselves.
Chemical Hazard Identification Systems
Exposure to toxic chemicals is a great concern at hazardous waste

sites, although these days more injuries occur to workers from
hazards other than chemicals. This may be a result of good prior
planning, including the identification of potential hazards. Commonly
used identification systems that help in recognizing potential
chemical hazards are NFPA (National Fire Protection Association)
signage on buildings and DOT (Department of Transportation)
package labels.
NFPA 704 SYSTEM

The NFPA marking system involves the identification of three areas
of concern to first responders, as they may need to enter a building
or area to respond to a potential fire situation. Each area of concern
is identified by a color and takes up one fourth of a diamond shaped
sign; the fourth quarter, which is white, is reserved for noting
special hazard situations. Each colored area contains a number
ranging from 0 to 4 representing the degree of danger for that area.
A rating of 4 indicates the highest level of concern.
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NFPA 704 System
BLUE - Health Hazard

4 - Materials that on very short exposure could cause death or
major residual injury even though prompt medical treatment was
given
3 - Materials that on short exposure could cause serious temporary

or residual injury even though prompt medical treatment was given
2 - Materials that on intense or continued exposure could cause

temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury unless prompt
medical treatment was given
1 - Materials that on exposure would cause irritation but only minor

residual injury even if no treatment were given
0 - Materials that on exposure under fire conditions would offer no

hazard beyond that of ordinary combustible material
NFPA 704 System (cont’d)
RED - Flammability Hazard

4 - Materials that (1) rapidly or completely vaporize at atmospheric
pressure and normal ambient temperatures and burn readily or (2)
are readily dispersed in air and burn readily
3 - Liquids and solids that can be ignited under almost all ambient
temperature conditions
2 - Materials that must be moderately heated or exposed to

relatively high ambient temperatures before ignition can occur
1 - Materials that must be preheated before ignition can occur
0 - Materials that will not burn
YELLOW - Reactivity Hazard

4 - Materials that in themselves are readily capable of detonation or of
explosive decomposition or reaction at normal temperatures and
pressures
3 - Materials that (1) in themselves are capable of detonation or explosive

reaction but require a strong initiating source or (2) must be heated under
confinement before initiation or (3) react explosively with water
2 - Materials that (1) in themselves are normally unstable and readily

undergo violent chemical change but do not detonate or (2) may react
violently with water or (3) may form potentially explosive mixtures with
water
1 - Materials that in themselves are normally stable but which can (1)
become unstable at elevated temperatures or (2) react with water with
some release of energy but not violently
0 - Materials that in themselves are normally stable, even when exposed

to fire, and that do not react with water
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WHITE - Special Information

This block is designated for special information about a chemical
present. For example, it may indicate that a material is radioactive by
displaying the standard radioactive symbol or unusually water reactive
by displaying a large W with a slash through it. For a more complete
discussion of these various hazards, consult the NFPA Standard 704 M
(NFPA, 1986).
Question
The sign to the right bears a 2 rating for blue, a 2 rating for yellow and
the white diamond contains the word “OXY”. What does this mean?
Blue Hazard
2 - Materials that on intense or continued exposure could cause
temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury unless prompt
medical treatment was given.
Yellow Hazard
2 - Materials that (1) in themselves are normally unstable and readily
undergo violent chemical change but do not detonate or (2) may react
violently with water or (3) may form potentially explosive mixtures with
water.
WHITE - Special Information

This block is designated for special information about a chemical
present. In this case, the chemical is an oxidizer.
DOT Labels
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DOT Labels
The Department of Transportation has defined nine hazard

classes, which have corresponding labels associated with
them. Some of the classes have subdivisions that are noted
by a decimal and a subdivision number following the hazard
class number. These labels should be found on any
packages that contain hazardous materials and were
transported.
At a waste site these could be drums, tanks, laboratory

boxes, or compressed gas cylinders. The labels indicate a
general hazard but not specific chemical names. Each label
tells the name and number of the hazard class and uses
unique color combinations to distinguish the classes from
one another. Examples are as shown.
Hazards
Hazardous waste sites present a multitude of health and

safety concerns, any one of which could result in serious
injury or death. An accurate assessment of all the hazards
posed by the waste site is nearly impossible due to the
large number and variety of substances. Any individual
location may contain hundreds or even thousands of
chemicals. In addition, workers are subject to dangers
posed by the disorderly physical environment of hazardous
waste sites and the stress of working in protective clothing.
The combination of these conditions results in a working
environment that is characterized by numerous and varied
hazards.
These include:
- Ionizing Radiation
- Chemical Health Hazards
- Chemical Physical Hazards
- Site and Equipment Hazards
- Environmental Hazards
- Biological Hazards
Hazards (cont’d)
In approaching a site, it is wise to assume that all these

hazards are present until site characterization has shown
otherwise. A site health and safety program (HASP) must
provide comprehensive protection against all potential
hazards and specific protection against individual known
hazards. It should be continuously adapted to new
information and changing site conditions. Many materials
have more than one of these hazards associated with it.
A secondary hazard or subsidiary hazard may be as

important in dealing with a material as the primary hazard.
For example, gasoline is a fire hazard because it is
flammable. It could also be classified as a chemical health
hazard because it is organic solvent and can cause illness if
the vapors are inhaled or a significant quantity makes skin
contact. A worker must be aware of the multiple hazards of
the materials they deal with to be protected from them. Site
personnel should constantly look out for potential safety
hazards and should immediately inform their supervisors of
any new hazards so that precautions may be taken.
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Ionizing Radiation
Radiological hazards include alpha and beta

particles as well as gamma rays. Ionizing radiation
can only be detected by monitoring for it. The
hazards associated with radiation are discussed in
detail in a different module in this course.
Chemical Health Hazards

Many chemicals can affect our health. Health
hazards are those that cause short term or long
term health effects. Corrosive class substances,
polychlorinated biphenyls, carcinogens, irritants,
mutagens, teratogens, asphyxiants, and target
organ poisons are health hazards that may be
encountered on a hazardous waste site.
Module Quiz
What is risk?
Risk is a sign of how likely harm is to occur and an indication of

A)
how serious the harm might be if it does.
Risk is a measure of how likely harm is to occur and an indication
B)
of how serious the harm might be if it does.
Risk is a measure of how unlikely harm is to occur and an
C)
indication of how serious the harm might be if it does.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
6
7/15/2013
The NFPA 704-M system ("hazard diamonds") identifies the hazards of materials in:
A) Instability, reactivity and health.
B) Reactivity, health and flammability.
C) Flammability, health and energy.
D) Radiation, health, reactivity.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
The white section ("home plate") of the NFPA 704-M Hazard Diamond provides information on:
A) Health
B) Reactivity
C) Special hazards
D) Flammability

Your answer:

completely
continuing
The blue section of the NFPA sign designates which hazard?
A) Specific
B) Health
C) Fire
D) Special

Your answer:

completely
continuing
7
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
8
7/15/2013
Module 54

Chemical And Physical Hazards
Chemical Physical Hazards
Physical hazards are those that cause physical

injury, such as by fire or explosion. Accidents
involving physical hazards of chemicals not only can
injure workers, but also can create additional
hazards.
For example, an explosion could lead to increase

chemical exposure, or danger, due to the mixing of
chemicals. Such releases can threaten both
personnel on-site and the general public living or
working nearby. The physical hazards associated
with chemicals are specific to the chemical and may
include any of the following:
Chemical Physical Hazards
Fire and Explosions

There are many potential causes of fires and
explosions at hazardous waste sites. Fires and
explosions are dependent on the materials involved
and the conditions to which the materials are
subjected. The following list illustrates OSHA's
chemical categories related to this hazard and how
they might behave.
These groups are very similar in characteristics and

definitions to DOT's hazard classes with some minor
differences. Some of the combustible and
flammable materials will also be discussed because
of their other chemical characteristics in the
chemical awareness or toxicology module.
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Chemical Physical Hazards (cont’d)
Combustible Liquids and Flammable Gases, Aerosols, and Liquids

These chemicals can ignite spontaneously or when exposed to an ignition
source or an oxidizer, such as air. Some common examples are coal tar
distillate, acetylene, methane, toluene, and naphtha.
Flammable Solids
A solid, other than a blasting agent or explosive, that is liable to cause
fire through friction, absorption of moisture, spontaneous chemical
change, or retained heat from manufacturing or processing. If ignited, a
flammable solid burns so vigorously that it creates a serious hazard.
Examples include some metals, naphthalene, dinitrotoluene, and methyl
parathion.
Explosives
An explosive is a chemical that causes a sudden, almost instantaneous
release of pressure, gas, and heat when subjected to sudden shock,
pressure, or high temperature. DOT recognizes six subcategories of
explosives, depending upon their specific behavior. Some examples of
explosives are initiating explosives or blasting agents, grenades, rocket
engine propellant, fuse igniters, and explosive cable cutters.
Organic Peroxides
Organic compounds that are considered a
structural derivative of hydrogen peroxide fall in
this category. They chemically contain both the
oxidizer and the fuel to support combustion and
under conditions such as contamination, elevated
temperatures, and friction, they can act as
contact explosives. Examples include benzoyl
peroxide, t-butyl peracetate, isopropyl
percarbonate, and t-amyl peroxypivalate.
Unstable/Reactives
Reactive chemicals will vigorously polymerize,
decompose, condense, or become self-reactive
under conditions of shock, pressure, or
temperature. This can cause a sudden release of
materials under pressure or chemical reactions
that produce explosions, fire, or heat. Examples
include acetylene and vinyl chloride.
Water Reactives
Chemicals in this group react with water to release
a gas that is flammable or presents a health
hazard. Water reactive chemicals can cause fire,
explosion, or excessive pressure leading to
container failure. Examples include sodium metal,
sulfuric acid, vinyl chloride, arsine, and
trifluorochloroethylene.
Explosions and fires may arise spontaneously.

However, more commonly they result from
problems during site activity. Potentially
dangerous activities include moving drums,
accidentally mixing incompatible chemicals, or
introducing an ignition source (such as a spark
from equipment) into an explosive or flammable
environment.
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To protect against the explosion and fire hazard, the

site health and safety plan must include the following
procedures:
- Allow only qualified personnel to field monitor for

explosive atmospheres and flammable vapors
- Use proper precautions and procedures when staging
and storing incompatible/reactive materials
- Keep all potential ignition sources away from an
explosive or flammable environment
- Use non-sparking, explosion-proof equipment
- Follow established safe work practices when performing
any task that might result in the agitation or release of
chemicals
Oxygen Deficiency
The oxygen content of normal air at sea level
is approximately 21 percent. Physiological
effects become readily apparent when the
oxygen concentration in the air decreases
toward 16 percent.
These effects include impaired attention,

judgment and coordination, and increased
breathing and heart rate. Should the oxygen
concentration drop lower than 16 percent, the
effect is much more severe. A concentration
this low can result in nausea and vomiting,
brain damage, heart damage,
unconsciousness, and death.
To account for individual physiological

responses as well as errors in measurement,
Oxygen deficiency may result from the
displacement of oxygen by another gas, or from
the consumption of oxygen by a chemical
reaction.
Confined spaces or low-lying areas are

particularly vulnerable to oxygen deficiency and
must always be monitored prior to entry. If the
conditions remain that caused the oxygen
deficiency, the area must be continuously
monitored and supplied-air respirators must be
used. Only qualified field personnel may monitor
oxygen levels.
3
7/15/2013
Module Quiz
OSHA requires the use of supplied-air respirators at concentrations of ______ percent oxygen
or lower.
A) 21.5
B) 20.5
C) 19.5

Your answer:

completely
continuing
_____________ are those that cause physical injury, such as by fire or explosion.
A) Physical hazards
B) Chemical hazards
C) Biological hazards
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
4
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
Module 55

Site and Equipment Hazards
Site and Equipment Hazards
The physical environment of hazardous waste sites

may contain numerous safety hazards such as:
- Holes or ditches
- Precariously positioned objects, such as drums or
boards that may fall
- Sharp objects, such as nails, metal shards, and
broken glass
- Slippery surfaces
- Steep grades
- Uneven terrain
- Unstable surfaces, such as walls that may cave in or
flooring that may give way
- Overhead and underground utilities
- The presence of compressed gas cylinders
Site and Equipment Hazards (cont’d)
Electrical Hazards
Hazardous waste sites require an electrical supply for lighting,
cooling, equipment, and tools. Whenever electricity is used, proper
precautions and procedures are necessary to avoid electrocution
and shock. However, at a waste site other electrical hazards exist:
- Overhead power lines
- Downed electrical lines
- Unmarked buried cables
- Defective insulation on lines and equipment
- Charged capacitors
- Lightning
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Prevent Electrical Accidents

In order to prevent electrical accidents, preplanning is
needed as well as worker awareness of the hazards.
- Before using heavy equipment, locate buried cable and
note location of overhead lines
- Isolate and cut off the power to downed or abandoned
power lines
- Instruct workers in the proper precautions for using
electrical tools
- Regularly inspect electrical tools and cords for defects
and safeguards
- Use low voltage equipment with ground-fault
interrupters and watertight, corrosion resistant
connecting cables
- Employ proper grounding procedures
- Monitor weather conditions; suspend work during
electrical storms. OSHA's standard 29 CFR part
1910.137 describes clothing and equipment for
protection against electrical hazards
Other Site Hazards

Other safety hazards are a function of the work
itself. Examples include heavy equipment,
protective equipment, which impairs a worker's
agility, hearing, and vision. Power tools, which may
create a hazard when used improperly or without
safety guards or precautions. Lifting and moving
drums and other containers. Slipping, tripping, or
falling on walking or working surfaces.
The presence of pneumatic or hydraulic energy

sources, and excavation hazards. Accidents
involving physical hazards not only can injure
workers but also can create additional hazards. For
example, an accident could lead to increased
chemical exposure due to damaged protective
equipment or danger of explosion, due to the
mixing of chemicals. Site personnel should
constantly look out for potential safety hazards and
should immediately inform their supervisors of any
new hazards so that precautions may be taken.
Noise
Work around large equipment often creates excessive noise. The

effects of noise can include:
• Workers being startled, annoyed, or distracted.
• Physical damage to the ear, pain, and temporary and/ or permanent
hearing loss.
• Communication interference that may increase potential hazards due
to the inability to warn of danger and the proper safety precautions
to be taken.
If employees are subjected to noise exceeding an 8-hour, time-

weighted average sound level of 90 dBA (decibels on the A-weighted
scale), feasible administrative or engineering controls must be
utilized. In addition, whenever employee noise exposures equal or
exceed an 8-hour, time weighted average sound level of 85 dBA,
employers must administer a continuing, effective hearing
conservation program as described in OSHA regulation 29 CFR Part
1910.95.
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7/15/2013
Environmental Hazards
Heat Stress
Heat stress is a major hazard, especially for workers
wearing protective clothing. The same protective materials
that shield the body from chemical exposure also limit the
body's ability to get rid of heat and moisture. Personal
protective clothing can therefore create a hazardous
condition. Depending on the ambient conditions and the
work being performed, heat stress can occur very rapidly,
within as little as 15 minutes. It can pose as great a danger
to worker health as chemical exposure.
In its early stages, heat stress can cause rashes, cramps,

discomfort, and drowsiness. These problems result in
impaired functional ability, which threatens the safety of
both the individual and co-workers. Continued heat stress
can lead to heat stroke and death. Protection against heat
stress includes the following strategies. Avoid
overprotection by selecting an appropriate level of PPE,
train personnel that will wear PPE, frequently monitor
personnel through communication. Carefully schedule work
and rest periods and drink plenty of fluids.
Heat Stress (cont’d)
Outdoor operations conducted in hot weather, such as

construction, refining, asbestos removal, and hazardous
waste site activities, especially those that require workers to
wear semi permeable or impermeable protective clothing,
are also likely to cause heat stress among exposed workers.
Causal Factors
Age, weight, degree of physical fitness, degree of

acclimatization, metabolism, use of alcohol or drugs, and a
variety of medical conditions such as hypertension all affect
a person's sensitivity to heat. However, even the type of
clothing worn must be considered. Prior heat injury
predisposes an individual to additional injury.
It is difficult to predict just who will be affected and when,

because individual susceptibility varies. In addition,
environmental factors include more than the ambient air
temperature. Radiant heat, air movement, conduction, and
relative humidity all affect an individual's response to heat.
Heat Stroke
This occurs when the body's system of temperature

regulation fails and body temperature rises to critical
levels. This condition is caused by a combination of
highly variable factors, and its occurrence is difficult to
predict. Heat stroke is a medical emergency. The
primary signs and symptoms of heat stroke are
confusion; irrational behavior; loss of consciousness;
convulsions; a lack of sweating (usually); hot, dry skin;
and an abnormally high body temperature, e.g., a
rectal temperature of 41°C (105.8°F). If body
temperature is too high, it causes death.
The elevated metabolic temperatures caused by a

combination of work load and environmental heat load,
both of which contribute to heat stroke, are also highly
variable and difficult to predict.
3
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Heat Stroke (cont’d)
If a worker shows signs of possible heat stroke,

professional medical treatment should be obtained
immediately. The worker should be placed in a shady
area and the outer clothing should be removed. The
worker's skin should be wetted and air movement
around the worker should be increased to improve
evaporative cooling until professional methods of
cooling are initiated and the seriousness of the
condition can be assessed. Fluids should be replaced
as soon as possible. The medical outcome of an
episode of heat stroke depends on the victim's
physical fitness and the timing and effectiveness of
first aid treatment.
Regardless of the worker's protests, no employee

suspected of being ill from heat stroke should be
sent home or left unattended unless a physician has
specifically approved such an order.
Heat Exhaustion
The signs and symptoms of heat exhaustion are

headache, nausea, vertigo, weakness, thirst, and
giddiness. Fortunately, this condition responds readily to
prompt treatment. Heat exhaustion should not be
dismissed lightly, however, for several reasons. One is
that the fainting associated with heat exhaustion can be
dangerous because the victim may be operating
machinery or controlling an operation that should not be
left unattended; moreover, the victim may be injured
when he or she faints. Also, the signs and symptoms
seen in heat exhaustion are similar to those of heat
stroke, a medical emergency.
Workers suffering from heat exhaustion should be

removed from the hot environment and given fluid
replacement. They should also be encouraged to get
adequate rest.
Heat Cramps
These are usually caused by performing hard physical

labor in a hot environment. These cramps have been
attributed to an electrolyte imbalance caused by
sweating. It is important to understand that cramps can
be caused by both too much and too little salt. Cramps
appear to be caused by the lack of water replenishment.
Because sweat is a hypotonic solution (±0.3% NaCl),

excess salt can build up in the body if the water lost
through sweating is not replaced. Thirst cannot be relied
on as a guide to the need for water; instead, water must
be taken every 15 to 20 minutes in hot environments.
Under extreme conditions, such as working for 6 to 8

hours in heavy protective gear, a loss of sodium may
occur. Recent studies have shown that drinking
commercially available carbohydrate-electrolyte
replacement liquids is effective in minimizing
physiological disturbances during recovery.
4
7/15/2013
Cold Exposure
Exposure to low temperatures and wind-chill factors may cause

injury (i.e., frostbite and hypothermia) and may impair one's
ability to work. Frostbite is a local injury, which can range from a
sudden whitening of the skin to cold, pale, and solid skin.
Hypothermia, a condition of abnormally low body temperature,
may result from exposure to freezing or rapidly dropping
temperatures. Cold stress can be detected early by signs of
shivering as well as tingling, pain, or numbness in extremities
(i.e., hands and feet). Signs of advanced cold exposure may
include forgetfulness, apathy (inattention), slow pulse, difficulty
with speech, freezing of extremities, and unconsciousness.
Prevention to guard against these hazards includes, wear

appropriate clothing. and have warm shelter readily available.
Also carefully schedule work and rest periods and monitor
workers' physical conditions. Monitoring wind chill is a factor of
combining outdoor temperature and wind speed. Determining
wind chill requires a thermometer, a wind speed indicator, and a
wind chill chart. The chart will indicate the relative dangers of
wind chill levels.
Cold Exposure (cont’d)
Treatment
Move the victim to a warm indoor area. If the
worker is conscious, provide warm beverages
containing NO caffeine or alcohol. Frost-damaged
areas should be treated as follows:
- Seek medical attention immediately
- Rewarm the frozen part quickly by immersing it in
water maintained at 102-105 degrees Fahrenheit
(comfortably warm to the inner surface of an
unchilled forearm). Discontinue warming when the
skin begins to look flushed, which is a sign of the
return of blood flow.
- Do NOT allow the victim to walk on frozen feet.
Instead, allow the victim to exercise the feet with
gentle movement
- Elevate the feet after warming
- Prevent contact between the injured part and any
surface except a sterile bandage
Other Environmental Hazards
Other environmental hazards that may be present

on hazardous waste sites include, plants, such as
poison ivy, which cause severe allergic reactions in
some people. Venomous insects, such as hornets,
wasps and bees, which cause severe allergic
reactions in some people. Snake and animal bites,
insect bites, such as ticks and spiders, which can
cause severe illness.
Workers with severe allergic reactions should inform

the medical surveillance program physician and
those responsible for administering first aid on site.
5
7/15/2013
Module Quiz
What occurs when the body's system of temperature regulation fails and body temperature
rises to critical levels.
A) Heat Stress
B) Heat Stroke
C) Cold Stress

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Work around large equipment often creates excessive noise. The effects of noise can include:
A) distractions
B) getting startled
C) being annoyed
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
6
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
7
7/15/2013
Module 56

Infectious Diseases, Sanitation, Illumination, Lockout/Tagout Requirements
Bloodborne Pathogens
Bloodborne pathogens are microorganisms

such as bacteria or viruses, located in human
blood and other bodily fluids. These
microorgansims can cause disease in humans.
Infectious agents or pathogens are disease
causing microorganisms. Pathogens are
classified as bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites,
oncogenic viruses, and prions.
However, Hepatitis B (HBV) and the Human

Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) are the two
diseases addressed by the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) in the
Bloodborne Pathogens Regulation. Concerns
about work place and employees safety led
OSHA to issue a new standard - Bloodborne
Pathogens (29 CFR 1910.1030) - to educate
employees about bloodborne diseases.
Hepatitis B (HBV)
Hepatitis is simply "inflammation of the liver," and can be caused by

a number of items including diseases, viruses and the hepatitis
virus. Frequently, hepatitis leads to more serious conditions
including cirrhosis and liver cancer. HBV infections cause both acute
and chronic disease, and in some cases death.
When an infected person has this disease, their blood and body
fluids can transmit the virus to healthy people. This is why following
precautions for HBV are so important. HBV is far more easy to
contract than HIV. The primary way to transmit the virus is by blood
and body fluids having intimate contact with another persons blood
or body fluids. There are approximately 300,000 new reported cases
of HBV in the United States every year. While there are other types
of Hepatitis, HBV is the most prevalent form every year. While there
is no cure for HBV, a vaccine does exist that can prevent infection.
It is recommended that health care workers or other workers
dealing with blood and body fluids take the vaccination.
1
7/15/2013
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is a major

bloodborne disease that in the latter part of the
twentieth century has gained enormous
attention. Many people commonly refer to this
virus as Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS) which is not totally correct. HIV is a
predecessor to AIDS and causes the AIDS virus.
HIV is spreading rapidly, and was estimated that

by the end of the year 2000 over six million
people in the U.S. will be infected. In an
occupation where an individual has contact with
blood and body fluids, the risk of contraction
must be taken very seriously.
HIV and HBV Modes of Transmission
In most bloodborne pathogens work or laboratory situations,

transmission is most likely to occur because of accidental
puncture from contaminated needles, broken glass, or other
sharps; contact between broken or damaged skin and
infected body fluids; or contact between mucous membranes
and infected body fluids. Anytime there is blood-to-blood
contact with infected blood or body fluids, there is potential
for transmission.
Unbroken skin forms an impervious barrier against

bloodborne pathogens. However, infected blood or body
fluids can enter your system through:
• Open sores
• Cuts
• Abrasions
• Acne
• Any sort of damaged or broken skin such as sunburn or
blisters
Universal Precautions
Work Practices to Minimize Infection from Bloodborne

Pathogens
While there are many ways to prevent exposure and infection, there
is one major fundamental that covers every work procedure. In the
OSHA Bloodborne Pathogens regulation, a term "Universal
Precautions" is introduced.
Universal Precautions means to treat all blood and most body fluids
as if they were contaminated with the HBV or HIV viruses. This is the
primary fundamental to reduce the chances of infection.
Universal Precautions means to treat all blood and most body fluids
as if they were contaminated with the HBV or HIV viruses.
2
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Universal Precautions (cont’d)
Universal Precautions is the name used by OSHA to describe a

prevention strategy in which all blood and potentially infectious
materials are treated as if they are infectious. Never assume that the
material you are handling or coming in contact with is not
contaminated.
This approach should be used in all situations where exposure to

blood or potentially infectious materials is possible. If you do have
dermal exposure to HBV or HIV, immediately wash the area with
antibacterial soap for at least 15 minutes.
Infectious Substances Personal Protective Equipment and Engineering Controls
All personnel must use PPE to prevent exposure to infectious

substances. The type of protective equipment must be appropriate
for the procedure being performed and the type of exposure
anticipated. Personnel shall don the appropriate PPE before beginning
procedures when the possibility of being exposed to potentially
infectious substances exists.
Prior to any situation where you think you may be exposed to

bloodborne pathogens, a safe practice is to ensure you are wearing
the appropriate PPE. Sometimes this can be difficult to do. However,
your health is at risk. For example, you may have noticed that
emergency medical personnel, doctors, nurses, dentists, dental
assistants, and other health care professionals always wear latex or
protective gloves - even while performing simple exams. This is a
simple precaution they take in order to prevent blood or potentially
infectious body fluids from coming in contact with their skin. To
protect yourself, it is essential to have a barrier between you and the
potentially infectious material.
Infectious Substances Personal Protective Equipment and Engineering Controls
PPE Procedure
Always don personal protective equipment prior to any situation

where you think you may be exposed. Remove PPE that is torn, is in
poor visible condition or has a breech, and dispose of properly.
Replace PPE that is torn, punctured or in poor visible condition.
Remove PPE before leaving the work area, and wash your hands!
If you work in an area with routine exposure to blood or potentially

infectious materials, the necessary PPE should be readily accessible,
and working properly. Contaminated items such as gloves, clothing,
PPE, or other materials should be placed in appropriately labeled bags
or containers until it is disposed of, decontaminated, or laundered. It
is important to locate these bags or containers located in your area
before beginning your work. The Bloodborne Pathogens regulations
requires that all containers, bags, and other items containing
infectious waste be properly labeled with the Universal Biohazard
Symbol.
3
7/15/2013
Minimum Illumination
OSHA requires that lighting in work areas meet certain

standards. Light is measured in foot-candles. Foot-candles
are a common unit of measurement used to calculate
adequate lighting levels in workspaces. A foot-candle is
defined as the illuminance on a 1 square foot surface of
which there is a uniformly distributed flux of one lumen.
In simple terms, a standard miniature flashlight emits

approximately 10 foot-candles.
Minimum Illumination (cont’d)
Here are the OSHA standards with respect to the minimum amount of light allowed at a HAZWOPER site.
Sanitation
Sanitation at Temporary Workplaces 29 CFR 1910.120 (n)
- Potable water will be provided at the site.
- Potable water containers will be capable of being tightly closed and

equipped with a tap.
- Potable water containers will be clearly marked.
- Non-potable water outlets must be clearly marked as unsuitable for

drinking.
Toilets
Under temporary field conditions, at least 1 toilet must be available.
4
7/15/2013
Sanitation (cont’d)
Lockout/Tagout
Lockout/tagout is used to control energy sources during the

service and maintenance of machinery or equipment when
unexpected energization, start up, or release of stored energy
may occur. Its purpose is to safeguard employees from injury or
death.
This procedure also applies when:
Employees are required to remove or bypass any guard,

interlock, or other safety device.
Employees are required to place any part of their body into an

area, on a machine or equipment where work is being performed.
Incidence of Injuries
Approximately 39 million workers are protected by lockout/tagout

in general industry. OSHA estimates that adherence to the
requirements will eliminate nearly 2 percent of all workplace
deaths.
Lockout/Tagout (cont’d)
Causes of Injuries
• Unsafe Acts
• Accidentally activating an energy source that should have
been locked or tagged out.
• Failing to lockout/tagout all energy sources before work
begins.
• Turning off the wrong source of energy.
• Not testing an energy source before work begins.
• Not relieving stored secondary energy.
Unsafe Conditions
• No written procedures.
• Improper labeling and identification of lockout/tagout
devices.
• Inadequate training/inspections.
• Energy isolation devices not identified.
5
7/15/2013
Lockout/Tagout (cont’d)
Characteristics of Lock and Tag Devices
Devices must be:
Durable - must withstand minimum of 50 pounds force to

remove
Unique - non-reusable, easy to identify
Labeled - lock must have "Danger, Do not Remove"

sticker
Standardized - tag must identify authorized employee
Substantial - suitable for environment in which it is used
OSHA requires lockout devices and associated tags to be

singularly identified, durable, standardized, and
substantial.
Module Quiz
_________ means inflammation of the liver.
A) HBV
B) Hepatitis
C) HIV

Your answer:

completely
continuing
6
7/15/2013
___________ are a common unit of measurement used to calculate adequate lighting levels in
workspaces.
A) Foot-candles
B) Wax candles
C) Sight-candles
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
7
7/15/2013
Module 57
Chemical Awareness Part 1

Hazardous Chemicals Overview
Chemical Awareness
Introduction
Hazardous chemicals, hazardous materials, or
hazardous substances, as they are variously
called, have long been used for many purposes
in homes, business and industry. Often the
people who use such materials become lax and
careless around chemicals. Working with the
same chemicals every day, brings on the
comfort of the commonplace.
A basic knowledge of chemical hazard classes,

chemical terms and terminology used relative
to hazard classes, and a basic chemical hazard
awareness is necessary.
1
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Chemical Awareness (cont’d)
Hazard Communication Standard

One of the needs addressed by the OSHAct is the
protection of workers from chemicals in the
workplace. In response to this need, OSHA issued the
Hazard Communication Standard (29 CFR 1910.1200)
in 1983 and expanded it to cover all workers in 1987.
The Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) requires

employers to evaluate chemical hazards in their
facilities and to communicate the hazard information
to employees. The employer's Hazard Communication
Program must include the following: conduct a
chemical inventory, obtain and file a Material Safety
Data Sheet (MSDS) for each chemical, label all
containers and storage containing chemicals, train
employees about the hazards and proper use of the
chemicals and put the Hazard Communication
Program into a written document to which employees
have access.
Material Safety Data Sheet

OSHA defines a Hazardous Chemical as a chemical that poses a
physical or health hazard. Physical hazards are those that cause
physical injury, such as by fire or explosion. Health hazards are
those that cause short term or long term health effects. A
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is a written form containing
specific information on these defined hazardous chemicals and
their potential effects.
Although there is no standard form, the MSDS must contain at

least the following information:
Product identification and manufacturer's name
Hazardous ingredients
Physical/chemical characteristics
Fire and explosion hazard data
Reactivity data
Health hazard data
Precautions for safe handling and use
Control measures
Labeling
Often the quickest source of information is through labeling
and placarding. The HCS requires that every container of
hazardous materials (with few exceptions) be labeled by the
manufacturer.
A label may contain more information, but is required to

provide:
- Chemical identity and/or trade name of the hazardous
material
- Hazard warning(s)
- Name and address of the chemical manufacturer
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Placarding
Placarding is a system of hazard warning required by the

Department of Transportation (DOT). Placards are placed
on bulk packages, such as portable tanks, and on
transportation vehicles carrying hazardous materials in
transportation. DOT labels are more or less identical to
DOT placards.
However, labels are smaller in size and are required on

non-bulk packages, such as boxes and canisters. Many
employers find DOT labels to be convenient for marking
hazardous materials within their facilities.
Placarding (cont’d)
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA 704) signing system is

designed to provide information on possible chemical risks to those who
may respond to an emergency. NFPA signs rate a chemical's hazard in
three areas: health, flammability, and reactivity. A fourth area of the sign
indicates any special hazard. Local fire codes generally require facilities to
post NFPA signs on buildings and doors to warn of the hazardous chemicals
within.
In addition to package labels containing information required by OSHA,

many employers add small adhesive labels using the NFPA design. These
provide an additional means of warning employees of hazards. It is
important to remember that the Hazard Communication Standard applies
to hazardous chemicals that are being used in a facility, not to hazardous
waste. Therefore, waste site workers use labels, placards, and signs as a
source of information, not identification.
Corrosive Class Chemicals
The members of this hazard class find their way into

every area of this country. They are used in everything
from flashlight and car batteries, to toilet bowl cleaners,
disinfectants, and rust proofing agents. It is, therefore,
important that we know as much about corrosive class
chemicals as we possibly can. The corrosive class
chemicals are the second-most commonly used and
transported group of hazardous materials. Sulfuric acid
is the most widely used industrial chemical within the
corrosive class. The only materials more commonly
encountered are the flammable liquids.
To start, it is important to define exactly what a

corrosive material is. One definition of a corrosive
material is "any liquid that has a severe corrosion rate
on steel." In other words, it is capable of destroying
steel, and naturally, is also capable of destroying human
tissue.
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Corrosive Class Chemicals (cont’d)
There are two main types of materials that are capable

of skin and metal destruction and they are known as
acids and bases. There is an important point that must
be clarified! In the study of chemistry acids are labeled
as corrosives and bases are labeled as caustic. Many
MSDSs do not distinguish between corrosive or caustic
substances. Instead, they lump both acids and bases
together as corrosive class chemicals.
In order to fully understand the materials we are dealing

with, it is important that we take a good look at the
differences between acids and bases. Let's use
hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to
help explain their differences.
For our purposes all acids will produce a H+ ion when

dissolved in water, and all bases will produce an OH- ion
when dissolved in water.
Module Quiz
There are two main types of materials that are capable of skin and metal destruction and they
are known as _____________.
A) acetone and solvents
B) bases and aldehydes
C) acids and bases

Your answer:

completely
continuing
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The _______________ requires employers to evaluate chemical hazards in their facilities and
to communicate the hazard information to employees.
A) Employee Awareness Standard (EAS)
B) Communication Standard (CS)
C) Hazard Communication Standard (HCS)
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
Module 58

Acids and Bases, Liquid Hazards, Vapor Hazards and Protective Measures
pH
A term that is often used when discussing acids or bases

is the term pH. It is often said that "the liquid has a low
pH". What is pH? By definition, "pH is the negative log of
the concentration of H+ in solution." As the
concentration of H+ increases, the pH number
decreases.
If a liquid has a pH of 11, its H+ ion concentration is

very, very low. Bases have very low H+ concentrations
and rather high OH- concentrations. So, we say that a
liquid with a pH of 11 is a base. pH ranges from 0 to 14,
with the acids on the low end, (0 to 7), and the bases at
the high end (7 to 14). Solutions with a pH of 7 are
neutral.
Acid-Base Neutralization
When dealing with corrosive or caustic spills the usual

response will be to neutralize the chemical through a
neutralization reaction. For example, if an acid is spilled it
will be neutralized with a base (caustic). Conversely if a
caustic is spilled it will be neutralized with an acid. The
reaction between an acid and a base will include the
production of a large amount of heat, the splattering of
liquid materials and possibly the production of steam
explosions, hydrogen gas, and toxic or irritating gases.
In an acid-base neutralization reaction it is important to

reduce the possibilities of an uncontrolled reaction and
avoid the situations described above.
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Acid-Base Neutralization (cont’d)
To successfully do this, an understanding of the

neutralization process is important. When mixing acids and
bases three general reaction products will be formed: some
type of salt, water, and heat. The graphic to the right shows
a common neutralization reaction.
Since energy, in the form of heat, is always produced in a

neutralization reaction, controlling the amount of heat
energy released is very important. Controlling this energy
release will prevent the unwanted violent reaction that can
place responders at risk. An understanding of the terms
strength and concentration as they relate to acids and
bases is essential.
Strength vs. Concentration
When most people speak of strong acids (or bases) they are
actually referring to the concentration of the acidic or basic
solution. These two concepts are often confused. Strength
is defined as "the percentage of dissociation that occurs
when an acid or base is mixed with water". All this means is
how much the material (solid or liquid) molecules come
apart (dissociate) in water to form electrically charged
particles (positive or negative ions).
Acids dissociate to produce hydrogen ions (H+) and bases

to produce hydroxide ions (OH-). The greater the
dissociation (increasing H+ or OH-) the greater the strength
of the resulting acid or base solution.
Strength vs. Concentration (cont’d)
The amount of water has no effect on the strength of the

solution. A good example is the comparison of hydrochloric
acid (HCl), a strong inorganic acid, and acetic acid
(CH3COOH), a weak organic acid. When we examine the
amount of dissociation that occurs in both of these acids,
we find that the HCl is 100% dissociated, while the
CH3COOH is only 2% dissociated.
This indicates that the HCl has a greater number of H+ ions

present in the liquid than does the CH3COOH. This is of
importance because when an acid is mixed with another
material, the H+ ion is usually what drives the reaction. The
same concept also holds true when we consider bases,
except we are talking about the OH- ion instead of the H+.
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Concentration is defined as the amount of

material (acid or base) mixed with a certain
amount of water expressed in terms of
percentage by weight or volume. The more water
by percentage the more dilute the resulting
solution. Conversely, the less water added the
more concentrated the resulting solution.
If we have concentrated HCl, we mean that the

liquid material has the maximum amount of HCl
dissolved in that particular amount of water. If
we were to add any more HCl gas to the solution,
no more would or could dissolve, but rather it
would just bubble through the liquid and escape.
Now, if we have a fifty percent (50%)

concentration of HCl, we are saying that we
have taken a given amount of the
concentrated solution and mixed it with an
equal amount of water. If we compare the
number of H+ ions in the concentrated
solution with the number of H+ ions in the
50% solution, we will find that the 50%
solution has only one-half the number of H+
ions as are found in the concentrated
solution.
Percent and molarity are expressions to

identify concentration. Remember, the larger
number before the term, the more
concentrated the solution.
Organic Acids and Bases
So far we have discussed the groups known as the

mineral or inorganic acids and bases. There are also
organic acids and bases. The organic acids are
composed of carbons and hydrogens attached to one
or two carboxyl groups (COOH). An example is acetic
acid (C2H3COOH) that was previously used as an
example of a weak acid. There are several important
points to keep in mind when looking at the hazards
posed by the organic corrosives. First, the vast
majority of both the organic acids and bases are not
as strong as their mineral counterparts.
However, they are still capable of producing severe

injuries and damage. Secondly, many of these
materials will exhibit additional hazards other than
being corrosive. For example, many are flammable,
toxic, irritating, and some are capable of
polymerizing (exploding). Read the label and /or
MSDS for warnings.
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Corrosive Health Hazards, Prevention, and Treatment
Now that we have an understanding of the general concepts

concerning corrosives, let's consider the primary health
hazard that can be encountered when dealing with these
types of materials. The first and foremost hazard that a
corrosive can produce is the ability to destroy living tissue
(referred to as chemical burns). Remember, with any
chemical burn the tissue damage starts the instant the
chemical agent contacts that tissue.
Some of these materials, particularly the strong acids and

bases, are so corrosive that even momentary exposure to
the skin will produce severe damage. With still other
materials, the exposure may not even be noticed until hours
later when the burn is quite severe and medical treatment
is difficult.
Vapor Hazards
Probably the most far-reaching and

devastating hazard is the vapor produced
by many of these materials. "Fuming"
liquids are actually spontaneous vapor
producers. Either way, vapor producers are
capable of creating massive vapor clouds.
If a vapor cloud is generated, "large scale"
evacuation is usually required. Large-scale
evacuation encompasses both an extensive
physical area and moving many people to
safety.
The injuries produced will be primarily to

the mucous membranes (eyes, throat,
airway) and possibly moist tissues. The
moist tissues are those areas of the body
that are susceptible to sweating, namely
the arm pits, groin, and lower back. Eye
contact with acids may cause the cornea to
become immediately opaque. This condition
may be permanent.
Vapor Hazards (cont’d)
Acid mists or vapors may cause severe irritation to the

respiratory system and may show nasal membrane
inflammation and destruction. Inhalation may cause
bronchitis, chronic inflammation or damage to the upper
respiratory tract and to the lungs.
Due to this hazard the permissible exposure limit (PEL) for

acids are very low. For example, the PEL for sulfuric acid is
1 milligram per cubic meter (mg/m3), or 1 milligram of acid
per cubic meter of clean air. This is for a Time Weighted
Average (TWA) of 8 hours. The PEL of any chemical is that
concentration to which nearly all workers can be repeatedly
exposed without adverse effects.
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Liquid Hazards
Liquid corrosives must be handled carefully to protect

against splashing. Skin contact will result in damage that is
said to follow the rule of 9, that is, a chemical burn is 9
times as damaging as a thermal burn. Also remember that
tissue destruction is caused by chemical action (reaction),
and will continue until that chemical action is stopped.
Solid Hazards
Dusts from some of the solid corrosives are also capable of
producing both severe internal and/or external injuries.
Massive exposures to some of the strong corrosives can be
fatal within a matter of minutes, with little or nothing able
to stop the fatality. The injuries are also extremely
disfiguring and require extensive healing times and medical
treatment.
Protective Measures
There can be some benefit in knowing where the most common

tissue exposures to corrosive materials occur. Not surprisingly,
hands rank number one, followed by nose-throat-airway (from
vapor and dusts), feet, face, and eyes. By knowing these common
sites, we can try to protect them. Types of protective equipment
that may be worn when working with corrosive substances
includes corrosive resistant gloves, clothing or chemical resistant
aprons, goggles or glasses with side shields and foot protection.
In some instances, it may be necessary to wear a face shield or

work behind a splash shield in addition to regular eye protection.
One bright spot to consider when dealing with a corrosive vapor
cloud is that, although the vapors are corrosive, irritating, or
toxic, the majority are also water soluble. This means that water-
fog streams could potentially be used to help knock down and
disperse the clouds. Containment of runoff may be needed. It is
of the utmost importance that the water not be allowed to come
in contact with the corrosive material (solid or liquid) itself. Most,
if not all, vapor producing corrosives are also water reactive. If
contact is made there is usually an increase in the amount of
vapor being generated.
Treatment for Exposure
The best way to stop the chemical action

of corrosives is flushing. The reasons for
the use of flushing are rather simple.
First, physical removal of liquids and
finely divided solids is difficult and tends
to leave small portions of the material
behind.
Second, neutralization must be avoided

because of the heat it produces (the
victim then would have thermal burns on
top of the chemical burns). Flushing is by
far the best method because it acts to
physically remove any material
remaining on the tissue and acts to
dilute it as well.
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Treatment for Exposure (cont’d)
Flushing must continue for a minimum of 15 minutes to ensure

that all the chemical that can possibly be removed is in fact
removed. This also keeps the wound cool and reduces swelling.
This applies to the eyes as well as to a skin exposure. After the
flushing is complete, the victim should be treated by standard
first aid practices for burns. Make sure the victim is transported to
a medical facility for further examination by a physician even if
the injury appears to be only minor. Excessive levels of acid or
bases can be corrosive to skin and eyes.
The extent of the injury is dependent upon:

- the concentration of the acid or base
- the quantity of acid or base involved
- the body area effected
- the duration of the contact.
It is of utmost importance that personnel who work with acids

and bases not wear contact lenses because the lens may become
"welded" to the eye. Such an occurrence almost always leads to
blindness. SAFETY IS YOUR FIRST CONCERN.
Treatment for Exposure (cont’d)
There are several things to keep in mind about

flushing a chemical burn. One is to use large
quantities of water (most corrosives are quite
soluble in water). The water should be applied
with little or no pressure to avoid removing
injured tissue. The application should be
started as soon as possible after the exposure
has occurred.
Once flushing is started, remove any clothing

that has come in contact with the acid or base.
A victim of such an exposure will usually be in
great pain and will usually require forceful
control while flushing is taking place. If
exposure occurs to the eyes, the victim's
hands must be restrained while flushing is
being done. Also, the eye lids must be held
open for flushing to be effective.
Module Quiz
6
7/15/2013
Should you splash your eyes with a chemical, what should you do?
A) Call 911
B) Flush with water
C) Put visine drops in your eyes

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Flushing must continue for a minimum of ________ to ensure that all the chemical that can
possibly be removed is in fact removed.
A) 5 minutes
B) 15 minutes
C) 10 minutes

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
7
7/15/2013
8
7/15/2013
Module 59

Hazardous Mixtures
Hazardous Mixtures
The mixing of different types of materials is a potential hazard

at any waste site. This is particularly true with corrosives,
simply because there are so many around in so many
locations. They are used in everything from flashlight and car
batteries, to toilet bowl cleaners, disinfectants, and rust-
proofing agents. Let's take a look at some of the possible
complications that could develop if corrosives were to mix with
various types of materials.
Corrosives and Poisons

First, if corrosives come in contact with poisons, such as
cyanide or sulfide salts, the primary concern is the possible
toxic vapors that could be produced by the decomposition of
the poison. The vapors could be more toxic than any of the
corrosive vapors themselves.
Hazardous Mixtures (cont’d)
Corrosives and Ignitable Materials

A second and more probable contact is that of a corrosive with a
flammable or combustible material. There are many possible
reactions, with the exact type dependent upon the specific
corrosive and flammable/combustible material. Following are
several examples of the possible hazards that could be
encountered. When a strong acid or base is mixed with a polar, or
water soluble flammable or combustible liquid, heat will be
generated in a manner similar to that seen when water is added
to an acid. Because of the increase in temperature, there will also
be an increase in the amount of vapor that is generated by the
liquid. This means that the liquid, normally at the temperature of
its environment, will be warmer than its environment.
For instance, a liquid that is normally considered to be below its

flash point (the temperature at which enough vapor is produced
for a flash ignition to occur) may have been heated to a
temperature above its flash point. This means that if enough
vapor is present and an ignition source is found, a fire will result.
The heat generated may also be sufficient to spontaneously ignite
liquids that have low ignition temperatures.
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As stated before, some corrosives are also strong

oxidizing agents. If one of the oxidizing type
materials comes in contact with a finely divided
combustible solid, spontaneous ignition of the
combustible may occur. After ignition has occurred,
the corrosive will react like an oxidizer, that is, it will
greatly intensify the rate of combustion.
If the corrosive happens to be nitric acid (HNO3) and

the combustible is a cellulose material (wood, paper,
cotton or any plant type material), a chemical
reaction can occur that will produce nitrocellulose.
Nitrocellulose is a highly flammable material that is
also capable of exploding. When the cellulose burns,
toxic gases will also be produced.
Corrosives and Water

The next contact that must be considered is that of
corrosives and water. Many of the corrosive materials are
also very water reactive. Any of these alone or in
combination can cause over-pressurization of a container.
Corrosives and Metal

The final type of contact to be considered is that of a
corrosive with a metal. Simply by examining the
definition, it becomes evident that one of the possible
reactions is the destruction of the metal itself. This is of
great importance when the particular metal under
attack happens to be the same metal that makes up
the container in which the corrosive is stored. This
might sound a little silly, but this type of problem has
occurred in the past and is usually difficult to control.
There is usually some form of leakage involving piping

or the container itself. The difficulty arises because the
involved part is usually in such poor physical condition
from the corrosive attack that it crumbles when
attempts are made to plug it.
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The other type of reaction that can occur

simultaneously with metal destruction is the
production of hydrogen gas. This can be especially
dangerous when it occurs indoors simply because of
the nature of the hydrogen that is produced.
Hydrogen is an odorless, colorless gas that is lighter
than air, so as it is produced, it will rise. When this
occurs within an enclosure, a large amount of
hydrogen can be trapped in high locations within
that enclosure.
If an ignition source is present, a tremendous

explosion is possible. If the hydrogen is produced
outside, most of it will rise and be diluted by the air.
The dilution of the hydrogen by the air almost totally
eliminates the potentially explosive build-up of the
gas.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)

PCBs is a generic term for the family of 209
chlorinated isomers of biphenyl. The
biphenyl molecule is composed of two six-
sided carbon rings connected at one carbon
site on each ring. Ten sites remain for
chlorine atoms to join the biphenyl molecule.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), discovered

in the late nineteenth century, were
introduced into United States industry on a
large scale in 1929 and have been in use
since that time in most industrial nations.
The qualities that made PCBs attractive to
industry were chemical stability, resistance
to heat, low flammability and high dielectric
constancy.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) (cont’d)
The PCB mixture is a colorless, viscous fluid,

is relatively insoluble in water, and can
withstand high temperatures without
degradation. These characteristics are
precisely the qualities that make PCBs
persistent in the environment. The higher-
chlorinated isomers are not readily
degraded. It is not known what quantities of
PCBs have been released to the
environment. Major sources of PCBs are
industrial and municipal waste disposal,
spills and leaks from manufacturing, PCB-
containing equipment, and handling of PCB
mixtures.
PCBs have been reported in animals, plants,

soil, and water all over the world. Some fish
products from United States waters and the
Baltic Sea were found to contain several
parts per million of PCBs and have been
declared unfit for human consumption.
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PCBs have been found in all organisms analyzed from the

North and South Atlantic, even in animals living under
11,000-ft. (3400 m) of water. The fact that PCBs have
been detected in the polar ice caps is an indication of the
power of atmospheric transport as a major pathway of
global contamination. PCBs are transported through the
biosphere in water and are attracted to sediments.
These phenomena are the result of bioaccumulation and

bio-magnification in the food web. Uptake of PCBs by
plants has also been reported, but it is generally small and
does not directly contribute to substantial human
contamination. In a few instances, poultry, cattle, and
hogs have been found to contain high concentrations of
PCBs after the animals have eaten feed contaminated with
PCBs.
PCBs have been detected in human fatty tissues and in the

milk of cows and humans. The estimated percentage of the
United States population with detectable levels of PCBs was
nearly 100% in 1981. The estimated percentage of the
United States population with greater than 3 ppm PCBs in
their tissue was 2.7%, in 1972, and less than 1% in 1981.
PCBs can enter the body through the lungs, gastrointestinal
tract, and skin, circulate throughout the body, and be stored
in fatty tissue. Except for occupational contact, human
exposure is mainly through food. PCBs can cause chloracne,
skin discoloration, liver dysfunction, reproductive effects,
developmental toxicity, and oncogenicity in exposed humans.
Some PCBs have the ability to alter reproductive processes

in mammals. Prenatal exposure in animals can result in
various degrees of developmentally toxic effects. There is
concern, based on extrapolation from animal studies, that
PCBs may be carcinogenic in humans. The problem is
complicated by the presence, in most PCB mixtures, of toxic
impurities.
Module Quiz
4
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The ___________ is a colorless, viscous fluid, is relatively insoluble in water, and can
withstand high temperatures without degradation.
A) acid mixture
B) hazardous mixture
C) PCB mixture

Your answer:

completely
continuing
If _________ come in contact with poisons, such as cyanide or sulfide salts, the primary
concern is the possible toxic vapors that could be produced by the decomposition of the poison.
A) corrosives
B) physical wastes
C) solvents

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
6
7/15/2013
Module 60

Solvents
Solvents
Halogen Solvents
Halogenated solvents are hydrocarbon solvents that
contain one or more halogen atoms (Cl, F, or Br)
attached to the hydrocarbon molecule. Halogenated
solvents, sometimes called safety solvents, have been
in wide use the last twenty years. They do not flash or
burn, they have few acute health hazards and their
cost has been reasonable.
Today their safety is being questioned. With

halogenated solvents flammability is not a problem,
but in a fire the byproducts of decomposing
halogenated solvents are deadly. Halogenated
solvents have been shown to cause chronic health
problems because of inhalation and skin contact; they
have also been shown to have an adverse effect on
the environment. Many play a roll in the depletion of
the ozone layer and are listed as greenhouse gases.
Common halogenated solvents are the freon-based
solvents, methylene chloride, trichloroethene, and
1,1,1-trichloroethane.
Solvents (cont’d)
Solvent Hazards
The primary hazard of flammable liquid solvents is the physical
hazard of fire or explosion. Flammability refers to the ability of a
material to generate a high concentration of flammable vapors in
an unconfined area under normal circumstances.
There are three factors that are necessary for a fire:
Fire Triangle
- There must be an oxidizer to promote burning
- There must be fuel (something to burn)
- There must be an ignition source
The flash point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid gives

off enough vapor to form a flammable mixture with air.
Flammable liquids (OSHA and NFPA definition) have a flash point
below 100 degrees F. Class II combustible liquids are also
hazardous; their flash point is between 100 degrees F and 140
degrees F.
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Solvents (cont’d)
The ignition point is the temperature

that the vapor must reach to ignite.
There is an inverse relationship
between flash point and ignition
temperature. The higher the flash point
the lower the ignition temperature.
Gasoline has a low flash point (-40

degrees F), and a high ignition
temperature (about 850 degrees F).
Number 2 fuel oil has a high flash point
(120 degrees F) and a lower ignition
temperature (about 650 degrees F).
Solvents (cont’d)
The minimum concentration of flammable liquid vapor in air

necessary for a mixture to ignite is called the lower
explosive limit, or LEL. Anything below that limit is too
lean to ignite. The upper explosive limit, UEL, is the
concentration of flammable liquid vapor in air that is too
rich to ignite. It will not burn because there is too little
oxygen.
The vapor has displaced the oxygen and the oxygen

concentration has dropped to less than 14%. The
flammable or explosive range includes everything between
the upper and lower explosive limits.
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Solvents (cont’d)
Whenever flammable liquids are spilled, or

whenever combustible liquids are spilled on
hot surfaces, in a quantity that can reach
the flammable range, the safety office and
fire brigade should be notified. Generally, a
spill in the amount of one or more gallons
should bring this response.
As with all generalities, specific conditions

may call for assistance with even smaller
spills. One example would be a spill of
flammable liquid into a sump or pit. Far less
than a gallon can create a fire hazard in a
confined space.
Solvents (cont’d)
It is possible to detect the presence of hazardous flammable

liquid vapors by their smell. However, many flammable liquid
vapors are toxic below their detection limit. Explosive gas
meters will detect flammable liquids, but meters are not
equally sensitive to all gases, thus any indication of flammable
gas should be of concern.
Note also that flammable ranges are in percentages; one

percent is equal to 10,000 parts per million. An explosive gas
meter cannot be used to detect gases at PEL levels because
PEL concentrations are generally less than 1000 ppm or 0.1%
total atmosphere.
Solvents (cont’d)
Health Effects
The secondary hazard of flammable solvents and the
primary hazard of other solvents are the health effects.
Acute Effects of Inhalation

- Irritation of mucous membranes of the respiratory
passage
- Nausea
- Headaches and drowsiness
- Muscular weakness
- Loss of coordination
- Disorientation and confusion
- Unconsciousness and sometimes death
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Solvents (cont’d)
Acute Effects of Skin/Eye Contact
- Removal of skin oils resulting in irritation

- Cracking and rashes on the skin
- Dermatitis
- Burning and Irritation of eyes
Over the long term, chronic effects of solvents

tend to affect the function of the liver or the
kidneys
Solvents (cont’d)
Do’s and Don’ts for Solvents
1. DO read the container label and MSDS before you use the
chemical. There will not be time or it may be inconvenient to
read it during an accident.
2. DO keep the work area clean. Fewer spills happen in clean work
areas.
3. DO use protective clothing and equipment when operating
procedures call for them, when the MSDS recommends it, or
when over-exposures are detected or expected.
4. DO use only approved and labeled containers for storing and
transporting solvents.
5. DO make sure there is proper ventilation when using solvents.
6. DO keep flammable solvents away from heat and ignition
sources.
7. DO check that containers and hoses are in good working
condition.
8. DON'T leave containers open, when not in use.
9. DON'T siphon by mouth.
Solvents (cont’d)
Do’s and Don’ts for Solvents (cont’d)
10. DON'T depend on a "funny smell" to detect hazardous gases in the

air, some are odorless.
11. DON'T breathe gases produced from chemical reactions.
12. DON'T mix solvents - unless instructed to. Even then, follow
instructions exactly and double check that you are mixing the proper
materials in the proper order.
13. DON'T smoke, eat or drink around hazardous substances.
14. DON'T wear contact lenses around toxic vapors.
15. DON'T track hazardous materials from one location to the next.
16. DON'T store hazardous chemicals next to each other without
checking the MSDS for possible reactions.
17. DON'T work by yourself. Have someone nearby who knows where
you are and knows what you're doing at all times.
18. DON'T cut corners on hazardous substance handling procedures.
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Solvents (cont’d)
Treatment for Solvent Exposure

There is no safe solvent; they all have acute and chronic
health hazards. All solvents will dry out the skin and cause
cracking, rashes, or dermatitis. Cracking and dermatitis open
new routes through the skin to the body. Wash skin with soap
and water if solvents are spilled on the skin.
If a solvent is splashed into the eyes, it will cause burning and

irritation. Flush the eyes with cool water for 15 minutes if a
solvent reaches the eyes and raise the eye lids if possible.
Module Quiz
The primary hazard of flammable _________ is the physical hazard of fire or explosion.
A) acids
B) liquid solvents
C) bases

Your answer:

completely
continuing
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The three components essential for a fire are:
A) Oxygen, fuel, ignition source
B) Oxygen, fuel, primer
C) Oxygen, fuel, oxygen enriched environment
D) Oxygen, fuel, a liquid

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
Module 61

Oxidizers and Gases
Oxidizers
An oxidizer is, by chemical definition, "any material that

will gain electrons during a chemical reaction." In other
words, an oxidizer is a material that will readily give off
oxygen to stimulate the combustion of organic
materials. Similarly, an oxidizer is a material that will
yield oxygen either at ambient or at slightly elevated
temperatures. Some examples of oxidizers are
chlorates, permanganates, inorganic peroxides, and
nitrates. Fluorine and chlorine are especially strong
oxidizing agents and will react with almost any material
they come in contact with.
Oxygen and chlorine are only two of the many oxidizing

agents that make up the hazard class known as
oxidizers. There are two primary groups of compounds
that make up the remaining oxidizers. These two groups
are inorganic compounds and organic compounds.
Oxidizers (cont’d)
Inorganic Oxidizers
The inorganic compounds are primarily salts (ionic
bonded materials) that contain a certain amount of
oxygen (a few also contain chlorine) and some acids.
The basic inorganic oxidizer groups are oxygen,
fluorine, and chlorine.
Inorganic Peroxides
This group includes most of the alkali metal peroxides
(sodium, potassium, etc.) and is water reactive. When
they come in contact with water, they produce
sufficient heat to ignite nearby combustibles and
explosively rupture their containers, producing large
volumes of oxygen.
Certain Acids
This group includes concentrated "nitric," "chloric",
and many of the "per-" acids (perchloric). These
materials are also water reactive and may become
very unstable and explosive when heated.
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Organic Peroxides
Organic peroxides are compounds that contain a
peroxide (O-O) functional group in their atomic
structure. Organic peroxides also contain an
organic (hydrocarbon) group. The hydrocarbon
group is the flammable component of the
molecule, while the peroxide group is the
oxidizing component. Thus, two sides of the fire
triangle are satisfied within an organic peroxide.
Furthermore, the instability of an organic

peroxide can generate the energy to supply the
third side of the fire triangle. Organic peroxides
not only mix oxides and flammable components
but also readily decompose if subjected to
friction, heat, shock, or contamination. One of
the decomposition products is pure oxygen!
Organic peroxides are compounds that contain

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In other words,
they contain a flammable hydrocarbon material
and an oxygen ion. Consequently, all that is
needed in order to initiate combustion or an
explosion, is for these substances to begin
breaking down. As they break down, heat is
given off. This heat is high enough to generate
the release of a great deal of energy as the
material is decomposed.
Thus, organic peroxides are simply bombs just

waiting for the right opportunity to explode.
When you were children, your mother probably
put hydrogen peroxide (an inorganic peroxide) on
your cuts. The foaming that occurred was the
release of pure oxygen, because the peroxide
was decomposing from the reaction with your
blood. A similar reaction occurs when organic
peroxides are decomposing.
Hazards
The primary hazards associated with the oxidizing compounds
are similar to those of the oxidizing elements. They include the
intensification of combustion, spontaneous ignition, explosion,
and production of toxic fumes. Of these four hazards,
spontaneous ignition is a causative hazard (causing the
incident). Explosions, however, may be causative or they may be
subsequent, which means they follow the start of the incident.
Intensification of Combustion
The hazard most likely to be encountered in incidents involving
oxidizers is that the oxidizer intensifies combustion. The rate of
combustion increases as well as the heat of combustion. This is
because there is more fuel being oxidized than under normal
conditions. The oxygen produced by any of these oxidizing
compounds is greatly dependent on the amount of heat to which
it is exposed. The greater the heat exposure, the greater the
rate of oxygen production. This in turn leads to a greater rate of
combustion, and additional heat production.
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Hazards (cont’d)
Spontaneous Ignition
In the presence of oxidizers, many standard rules relating
to combustion no longer apply. For instance, a material
that is normally difficult to ignite may flash into flame in an
oxidizer enriched atmosphere. In this situation, the
flammable range and flash points normally used to
measure the potential "flammability" of a flammable liquid
or material are greatly modified.
The oxidizer widens a material's flammable range. For

example, with four times as much oxygen present, the LEL
may be as much as four times lower and the UEL as much
as four times higher. Note: that an "oxidizer-enriched"
atmosphere may contain oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, or
other oxidizers to be introduced in upcoming paragraphs.
Hazards (cont’d)
Explosion
We know what happens when oxygen is mixed with flammable materials such as
solvents or gasoline. There is a high potential for serious fire or explosion. As the
decomposition progresses, additional heat is generated, which further accelerates
the decomposition rate. The same is true for peroxides. Pure peroxides are often
explosive!
If they are so explosive, why are there so few injuries associated with them? The
answer is that the producers of organic peroxides generally select additives to
stabilize the peroxides during transport. Stabilization can be something as simple
as refrigeration, or the addition of the right amount of moisture, or the dilution of
the peroxide with an appropriate solvent. Peroxides are not only manufactured by
chemical companies but also are formed spontaneously in areas where solvent
vapors can react with air. As a result, peroxides often form along the threads of
solvent drums and the ground glass openings of laboratory bottles. The friction
caused by unscrewing the bung from a drum or the cap from a jar may explode
the container. Some peroxides will spontaneously explode if they warm up to
room temperature. Refrigeration should be taken seriously.
Hazards (cont’d)
Toxic Fume Production

The final primary hazard of oxidizers is the effect that
inhalation of their vapors and smoke has on the respiratory
system. Both vapors and smoke dissolve in the mucus lining
of the respiratory tract and produce liquid (usually corrosive)
that can damage the tissues of the respiratory tract.
It is important to realize that vapors can be emitted

spontaneously, as in fuming acids, or with an elevation in
temperature, as in nitrates. The vapors evolved may be visible
(i.e., nitric acid or chlorine gas) or almost invisible i.e.,
(chlorine trifluoride or oxygen). Extremely toxic vapors may
also be produced when some oxidizers are exposed to other
chemicals. The best example of this reaction is the generation
of hydrogen cyanide gas when a cyanate is exposed to any
acid.
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Because of the wide variety of

materials that are oxidizing agents, it
is difficult to generalize about the
types of containers in which they may
be found. They can be found in paper
bags, drums, compressed gas
cylinders, tank trucks, and rail cars,
to name a few.
Peroxides should be suspected to be

present in old solvent containers.
Often, MSDS sheets or data base
information will mention that certain
solvents, such as ethers and
methylethylketones, form peroxides.
Be particularly careful with those
solvents when they are old.
Additional Hazards of Gaseous Oxidizers
Because of the intensity with which these

gaseous oxidizers react, it is important to
examine their potential hazards. The first point to
consider in the study of oxidizers is to remember
that quite often oxidizers are delivered in the
form of a gas.
These gases are pressurized in cylinders and may

be at a concentration of 100%, meaning that
these materials are concentrated and can
undergo reactions at a rapid rate. If the reaction
gets out of control, the rate may be so rapid that
an explosion occurs.
The smoke produced when an oxidizer is involved in a fire

is very toxic. It has basically the same effect as oxidizer
vapors, but the damage and symptoms may take longer to
show up. For example, nitrogen oxides (NOX) are
produced by the involvement of nitrates or nitrites with
fire. The nitrogen oxides, when dissolved in the mucus of
the lungs, produce nitric acid.
The symptoms of nitric acid poisoning are tightness in the

chest, difficulty breathing, shortness of breath, and
sweating. These symptoms take many hours to reveal
themselves and may be mistaken for the symptoms of a
heart attack.
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Additional Hazards of Gaseous Oxidizers (cont’d)
For example, if gaseous oxygen is passed

through a gauge or piping system that is
not totally free from even traces of
hydrocarbons, spontaneous ignition of
that hydrocarbon may occur. This ignition
will be so violent that the explosion is
accompanied by fragmentation of the
equipment and possible fire.
Since oxidizing elements can be found as

gases, there is a danger that they could
be present in the atmosphere prior to
ignition. The atmosphere, in this case, is
said to be "oxidizer enriched." Note that
an "oxidizer-enriched" atmosphere may
contain oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, or
other oxidizers.
Materials, like clothing, that are exposed to

an oxidizer enriched atmosphere may
become saturated with the oxidizer. The
clothing can retain a large amount of
oxidizer for as long as 30 minutes or more.
Clothing saturated in this manner is easily
ignited and burns with great intensity and at
high temperatures. Disastrous incidents
have occurred involving workers handling
liquid oxygen who left their work stations for
a cigarette break and ignited their oxygen-
saturated clothing.
Any of the gaseous oxidizers mentioned

above may also be found in the liquid form.
These oxidizers are often converted liquid to
make transportation more efficient and less
costly. An example is liquid oxygen,
commonly called LOX.
Oxygen is liquefied by a cooling process.

Oxygen in the liquid state is extremely cold,
thus is a cryogenic liquid. It is at a temperature
of -362 degrees F. While in the liquid state,
these materials are exceedingly dangerous.
When liquid oxygen is spilled on or mixed with
any hydrocarbon, the mixture can become a
contact explosive.
For example, if liquid oxygen is spilled on a

blacktop roadway, anything that comes in
contact with the exposed roadway, such as the
wheels of a vehicle driving over the area, the
boot of a worker, or even a fire hose stream,
can cause the exposed roadway to explode.
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Extinguishing Agents for Oxidizers
Because of the way oxidizers behave when involved in fire,

it is important to examine the effects of various common
extinguishing agents. In fighting oxidizer fires, the
extinguishing agent of choice is water.
There are, however, hazards involved in using water,

including:
- Run-off
- Impregnation of combustibles
- Possible water reactivity of the oxidizer
Another problem associated with a liquid

oxygen spill is the oxygen-enriched
atmosphere it will produce. As stated before,
the enriched atmosphere will have an effect
on the protective gear worn. Keep in mind
that a spilled cryogenic liquid will be heated
far above its normally extremely low
temperature. Under this condition, a pool of
liquid will evaporate at extremely high rates
with the subsequent release of voluminous
amounts of gas.
This enriched atmosphere is capable of

causing internal combustion engines to "run
away" - a process where the engine fuel
burns so efficiently that the engine runs
wide open and ultimately explodes.
Extinguishing Agents for Oxidizers (cont’d)
The first problem in using water as a fire-extinguishing agent is that

the majority of oxidizers are water-soluble. This means that the
oxidizer will dissolve and travel with the water. The potential for
environmental pollution is very high if the runoff water reaches a
waterway or water supply. There is also the potential for soil pollution
if the water has high levels of dissolved oxidizer. Another problem
develops as the water evaporates. Evaporation leaves a strong
concentration of residual oxidizer on the surface of the soil. Oxidizer
residue can become concentrated in combustible materials.
If this occurs, the combustible material will be impregnated (filled)

with the oxidizer with potentially disastrous results. Remember that
the combination of an oxidizer and a fuel can be an explosive mixture.
When the combustible material dries, the potential exists for either
spontaneous ignition or explosion. Either of these reactions may occur
after a relatively long period of time. The potential for this type of
disaster exists if the incident simply involves a timber structure. If a
significant level of oxidizer has impregnated the timber, the process of
demolishing the remaining structure could be very dangerous,
especially after the wood has dried.
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Module Quiz
An ________ is, by chemical definition, "any material that will gain electrons during a chemical
reaction."
A) oxidizer
B) chemical
C) element

Your answer:

completely
continuing
___________ not only mix oxides and flammable components but also readily decompose if
subjected to friction, heat, shock, or contamination.
A) Carbon
B) Organic peroxides
C) Gaseous bases
D) all acids and bases

Your answer:

completely
continuing
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Your Score {score}

Attempts
8
7/15/2013
Module 62

Water Reactive Substances and Explosives
Water Reactive Metals
There are a number of metals in pure form or as part of an alloy

that are water-reactive. Most of these metals belong to a group
of elements called the "alkali metal" or "alkaline earth metals."
This is an unstable group of light metals that tend to be
extremely reactive with water. Workers should become familiar
with the name of the alkali metals that have commercial value.
Among these metals are:

- Lithium
- Sodium
- Potassium
- Beryllium
- Magnesium
- Calcium
Other metals that are also water reactive are zirconium,

titanium, aluminum, and zinc. Like the alkali metals, these
metals are very common as they frequently are used for
commercial purposes.
Characteristics of Water Reactive Metals
Water reactive metals tend to be soft metals that have low

melting points. Thus, they vaporize at very low temperatures.
During the course of a fire, they burn at high temperatures
and generate a lot of heat. When water is applied to such
metals, hydrogen gas is liberated from the water molecules.
The heat of the fire will automatically ignite the hydrogen gas
that is being generated. Sometimes this reaction will be mild,
while at other times it can be very violent.
Some of the metals that are water reactive (e.g., lithium and
sodium) do not need fire conditions in order to react with
water or air. When they come in contact with water, they
replace the hydrogen in the water molecules. This also
releases hydrogen gas. The heat from the reactions between
water and these metals is enough to ignite the liberated
hydrogen and this also will produce a violent reaction. The
amount of violence produced by such reactions is dependent
on the amount of hydrogen that is given off by their reactions
and whether or not such reactions take place in a confined
space. Workers must be very cautious when such reactions
are taking place inside a container.
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Other Water Reactive Materials
Workers must also be aware that the water reactive metals which
have been discussed thus far are not the only materials that are
water reactive. Metals that are part of compounds containing
carbon (i.e., organometallic compounds) will produce flammable
gases when exposed to water.
For example, calcium carbide (calcium + carbon) creates

acetylene gas when water is applied. Strong acids (like
hydrochloric or sulfuric acid) or strong bases (like sodium or
potassium hydroxide) will also react vigorously with water to
produce copious amounts of corrosive vapors.
Control and Stabilization
Although water is a primary tool used in many emergency

situations, workers must refrain from using it on water-reactive
materials that have spilled, leaked, or ignited. Many metal fires
cannot be put out with water or by other means, for that matter.
The important point is that workers must attempt to avoid

committing themselves to actions that make a situation worse
instead of better. The inappropriate use of water is a common
example of mistakes in dealing with hazardous materials. At large
fires involving water-reactives, it is best in most situations to
reduce human exposures and let a fire burn.
Unstable Materials
"Unstable material" is not a DOT hazardous materials

classification, but it is important to identify these substances.
Most materials or substances are reactive in one way or
another with the exception of inert gases like helium or argon.
Many substances have very little reactivity when they leak or
spill, but this is not true of some hazardous materials.
Unfortunately, some hazardous materials that are reactive are
also unstable.
OSHA defines "unstable" as any substance that will

spontaneously decompose, polymerize, or self-react under
conditions of shock, temperature, or pressure. In short, a
reactive hazardous material needs an outside stimulus (a
contaminant, another chemical, or an energy source) to get it
to react, but an unstable hazardous material does NOT need
an outside stimulus. As a consequence, many unstable
substances need to be inhibited to prevent decomposition.
Inhibitors may include non-reactive solvents, inert gases, or
vacuum containers. For example, acetylene is inhibited with
acetone, sodium is packed in mineral oil, and acetyl peroxide
is shipped wet (in a 30% water solution).
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Characteristics of Unstable Materials
Unstable hazardous materials exist as liquids or crystalline solids.

Looking at the molecules (two or more atoms that are bonded
together chemically) of unstable materials, it is found that many of
these share electrons in order to form molecules or compounds. The
sharing of electrons between atoms is called "covalent bonding."
Forming or breaking a covalent bond is easy in some situations.
Thus, many unstable materials have bonds that are easy to form and
break; therefore, it doesn't take much to set them off and running.
Two important types or groups of unstable materials are organic

peroxides and monomers. In review, organic peroxides are
compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In other
words, they contain a flammable hydrocarbon material and an
oxygen ion. Consequently, all that is needed in order to initiate
combustion or an explosion is for these substances to begin breaking
down. As they break down, heat is given off. This heat is high enough
to generate the release of a great deal of energy as the material is
instantly decomposed. Thus, organic peroxides are simply bombs just
waiting for the right opportunity. MEK peroxide (methyl ethyl ketone
peroxide) is a well-known example of an organic peroxide.
Characteristics of Unstable Materials (cont’d)
Monomers are materials that undergo a planned

chain reaction, called polymerization, to form
useful plastics and other commercial products.
When monomers like vinyl chloride or styrene
are allowed to polymerize in an uncontrolled
manner, they have tremendous explosive
potential.
Such materials are quite dangerous during the

course of a fire and may be just as dangerous
after the fire has been extinguished. Keep in
mind that cooling a container in which the chain
reaction of polymerization is ongoing may
simply place the worker "in harm's way." Thus,
such cooling should be accomplished with
unmanned monitors.
Control and Stabilization
Treat unstable materials as explosives until they are

proven otherwise. Do NOT move or handle a material
until its stability can be verified.
Be advised that if you stumble across jars with

chemicals, hermetically sealed 55-gallon drums, or
cargo carriers with hazardous materials that must be
inhibited, you should begin to step lightly. Such
materials may be unstable.
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Explosives
Explosives are chemical compounds or mixtures of various

compounds that are capable of undergoing rapid
transformations with the simultaneous production of large
quantities of heat and gases. This release of high heat in the
presence of gases causes the gases to expand rapidly. Their
rapid expansion exerts an exceedingly high pressure on the
surrounding environment. The pressure exerted by such
explosives causes shock waves to travel at velocities that can
exceed the speed of sound.
An explosive device may come in a variety of shapes or

forms. It may be a liquid in a glass container, black powder
in a pipe, a gel, a plastic, a rolled up detonating cord, etc.
Generally speaking, an explosive is any device that contains
fuel, an oxidizer, and a detonating device. This chain of
events is called an explosive train. Although the chain of
events in an explosion can be very complex and can include
a number of variables (factors), some of the basic
components of an explosive train are: 1. An igniter 2. A
primer 3. A detonator 4. A booster charge 5. A main charge.
Explosives (cont’d)
A safety fuse attached to a blasting

cap, which in turn is attached to a
high explosive, becomes an
explosive train. The safety fuse is a
textile cord which acts as an igniter.
Wrapped around the textile cord is
black powder, which primes the
blasting cap at the other end. The
blasting cap in turn detonates the
main charge or the high explosive.
Sometimes a booster charge is used

with a high explosive that is difficult
to detonate. The booster is also a
high explosive, but is much more
sensitive than the main charge.
Explosives (cont’d)
Primary high explosives are extremely sensitive to heat and shock

while secondary high explosives are much more stable. Thus, a
small amount of primary high explosive is used to detonate a much
larger amount of secondary high explosive in some explosive
devices. A primary system for classifying explosives is the one
employed by the Department of Transportation (DOT).
The DOT classifies explosives (Class 1) in the following manner:

1.1 - Explosives with a mass explosion hazard
1.2 - Explosives with a projection hazard
1.3 - Explosives with predominantly a fire hazard
1.4 - Explosives with no significant blast hazard
1.5 - Very insensitive explosives
1.6 - Extremely insensitive explosive articles
Forbidden Explosives - Not allowed to be shipped by common
carrier
One additional classification used by DOT is for blasting agents,
which are a mixture of oxidizers plus fuels and are insensitive to
heat and shock.
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Module Quiz
_______ are chemical compounds or mixtures of various compounds that are capable of
undergoing rapid transformations with the simultaneous production of large quantities of heat
and gases.
A) Equalizers
B) Elements
C) Explosives

Your answer:

completely
continuing
OSHA defines _______ as any substance that will spontaneously decompose, polymerize, or
self-react under conditions of shock, temperature, or pressure.
A) unstable
B) stable
C) volatile
D) hazardous

Your answer:

completely
continuing
5
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Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
Module 63

Radioactive Hazards
Radiological Hazards
Introduction
Radiation hazards and monitoring is often the most neglected
and misunderstood type of monitoring on the hazardous waste
site. For this reason, waste site workers need to have an
understanding of radiation hazards and the different types of
radiation. This will allow the worker to decide the type of
protection necessary for the type of radiation hazard they
encounter.
Radiological Hazards
Unlike many of the other hazards present on a hazardous waste
site, detection of radiation is solely dependent on monitoring by
instrument. Although not commonly considered the primary
hazard on most waste sites, radioactive materials may be
present in drums, including lab packs (pre-packaged materials
that are being exposed of in a larger container), in either solid or
liquid form. Waste from hospitals and research facilities, in
particular, should be suspected of containing ionizing radiation.
In order to avoid exposure, it is important that workers realize
the precautions that must be taken when dealing with
radiological waste or sources.
Radiological Hazards (cont’d)
Radiation Types
Radiation is classified as either ionizing or non-ionizing. Both are
energy waves (ionizing radiation can also exist as particles);
however, non-ionizing radiation contains less energy. The major
types of radiation emitted as a result of spontaneous decay are
alpha and beta particles, and gamma rays. X-rays, another
major type of radiation, arise from processes outside of the
nucleus.
Non-ionizing radiation includes radiant heat, radio waves,

ultraviolet radiation, and light. Waste site sources of non-
ionizing radiation include welding (which emits strong visible
light and ultraviolet radiation) and laser instruments, which are
used for measuring and leveling. Equipment that emits radiation
should be used with proper precautions.
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Radiation Types (cont’d)
Ionizing radiation is radiation that has sufficient energy to

remove electrons from atoms. In this module, it will be referred
to simply as radiation. One source of radiation is the nuclei of
unstable atoms. For these radioactive atoms (also referred to as
radionuclides or radioisotopes) to become more stable, the
nuclei eject or emit subatomic particles and high-energy photons
(gamma rays). This process is called radioactive decay. Unstable
isotopes of radium, radon, uranium, and thorium, for example,
exist naturally. Others are continually being made naturally or by
human activities such as the splitting of atoms in a nuclear
reactor. Either way, they release ionizing radiation. This
decaying is caused by instability within the nucleus of the
material.
The three types of ionizing radiation are:

- Alpha
- Beta
- Gamma
Alpha, beta, and gamma are the most common types of
radiation.
Alpha Radiation
Alpha particles are the largest of the

particles emitted from the nucleus of an
atom. Because of their relatively large size,
chances are that soon after alpha particles
are emitted, they will quickly collide with an
atom and lose their energy.
Alpha particles travel only a few

centimeters in the air. A piece of paper,
normal work clothes, or the dead layer of
skin on a human body can stop an alpha
particle. Although alpha particles are easily
stopped, they pose a health hazard if
ingested or inhaled. Once inside the body,
they may be only centimeters away from
vital organs.
Beta Radiation
Beta particles are much smaller in mass

than alpha particles and are less likely to
collide with surrounding atoms. Therefore,
they can travel much farther than alpha
particles and can penetrate some materials,
including human tissue. Certain materials
can stop beta particles, such as a thin piece
of metal or a few centimeters of wood,
plastic, or glass.
Beta radiation presents a health hazard to

the skin of the entire body, the eyes, and
the internal organs if ingested or inhaled.
The cornea of the eye is especially
vulnerable (i.e., sensitive to beta radiation).
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Gamma Radiation
Gamma radiation is by far the most dangerous of

the three common types of radiation. Gamma
waves have no mass or charge and are
considered to be pure energy. They can travel
great distances and have the ability to pass
through the human body and interact with living
cells.
Lead, concrete, and other dense materials are

used to stop gamma waves. Therefore, there is
nothing that you can wear that allows movement
for work and that completely protects you from
gamma radiation. The worker is in danger any
time there is an exposure.
Radiation Dosage and Units
Radiation doses can be measured using standard

radiation units: the Roentgen (R), rad (Radiation
Absorbed Dose), and rem (Roentgen Equivalent Man).
The Roentgen is defined only in terms of the ionizing

effect on air and applies only to X-rays and gamma rays.
It does NOT relate to the effect of radiation on the human
body.
The rad measures Absorbed Dose; i.e., the amount of

ionizing radiation (any type) absorbed into a material.
The rad does NOT take into account the potential effects
that different types of radiation have on the body.
The rem is the most commonly used unit of measure and

is used for dose equivalence. It takes into account the
difference in the potential human biological effects
produced by different types of radiation.
Radiation Dosage and Units (cont’d)
The human body must deal with these exposures on a

daily basis. At a properly monitored worksite, the
occupational exposure that workers could receive is
but a small portion of the exposure with which the
body is already successfully dealing. Any release of
radioactive material is a potential source of radiation
exposure to the population. In addition to exposure
from external sources, radiation exposure can occur
internally by ingesting, inhaling, injecting, or
absorbing radioactive materials.
Both external and internal sources may irradiate the

whole body or a portion of the body. The amount of
radiation exposure is usually expressed in a unit
called millirem (mrem). In the United States, the
average person is exposed to an effective dose
equivalent of approximately 360 mrem (whole-body
exposure) per year from all sources.
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Radiation Dosage and Units (cont’d)
All individuals are exposed to small

amounts of radiation every day. In the
course of a year most people will be
exposed to several hundred mRem due
to natural "background" and human-
made radiation sources.
Examples of those sources are the

sun, rocks, food, medical procedures,
smoke detectors, and cigarette smoke.
Dose Rates
Radiation units include a time factor, and are

commonly referred to as dose rates.
These can be expressed as follows:

R/hr or mR/hr (mR/hr is 1/1000th or 10-3 of the unit
R/hr)
rad/hr or mrad/hr
rem/hr or mrem/hr
Radiation Dosage
When we talk in terms of dosage in radiation,

we use the same terms found in toxicology:
amount of exposure times the duration of
exposure (quantity x time). We also classify
radiation doses as acute or chronic.
Chronic Dose
Chronic doses are small amounts of radiation
over a long period of time, such as our normal
daily exposures over our lifetimes. We know
that the body is able to tolerate a chronic dose
better than an acute dose.
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Dose Limits
Dose Limits represent the maximum permissible

radiation dose equivalent an individual is allowed to
receive. They should never be considered desirable dose
equivalent levels. EPA has established a recommended
action limit of 1 mrem/hr. EPA states that investigation
and monitoring may continue as readings increase
above background radiation levels.
However, at the action level of 1 mrem the area should

be vacated, the boundary clearly marked, and a health
physicist employed. Department of Energy (DOE) limits
are the same as those established for all federal
agencies by the Environmental Protection Agency.
Acute Dose
Acute doses have a greater effect on us

because the body does not have time to
repair or replace the damaged body cells. An
acute dose of 10,000 - 25,000 mrem could
cause slight blood changes, but a normal
individual would not be otherwise affected. An
acute dose greater than 100,000 mrem
causes half of the exposed population to
experience nausea (due to damage to the
intestinal lining). This is common in radiation
therapy patients.
Acute doses greater than 500,000 mrem may

cause so much body damage that the body
cannot recover. For example, the firefighters
at Chernobyl are estimated to have received
doses in excess of 800,000 mrem. This,
compounded with the burns they received,
caused them to succumb to the effects of
their injuries.
Module Quiz
5
7/15/2013
Which of the following forms of radiation will generally not penetrate intact skin, but can be a
serious hazard if ingested or inhaled?
A) Alpha
B) Beta
C) Gamma
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Chronic doses are ______ amounts of radiation over a long period of time, such as our normal
daily exposures over our lifetimes. We know that the body is able to tolerate a chronic dose
better than an acute dose.
A) Small
B) Large
C) Medium
D) Excessive

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
7
7/15/2013
Module 64

Radiation Exposure and Protection
Radiation Exposure
Radiosensitivity is a term which describes how sensitive

a given cell is to radiation damage. Scientists have
found that the faster a cell reproduces, the more
sensitive it is to radiation.
The following cells are considered to be the most

radiosensitive because of their reproductive rate:
• Cells of the unborn child
• Blood and blood producing organs
• Reproductive cells (sperm/egg)
• Digestive tract cells- Immature white blood cells
Those that reproduce slowly and are considered the

least radiosensitive are nerve, muscle and bone cells. Of
course, radiation affects each person differently
depending on such factors as age, medical history, and
physical and mental condition. As with chemical
exposure, the effect of radiation exposure may be acute
or chronic.
Radiation Exposure (cont’d)
Definitions:
• Ionizing Radiation (IR) - Any particles or
rays given off (radiate) from a source that
produces ionization
• Ionization - When atoms or molecules

become charged - unbalanced electron
proton ratio.
• Radiation - Refers to the way particles &

rays radiate from their source at speeds up
to that of light.
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Chronic Radiation Exposure

Chronic radiation exposure involves low levels
of ionizing radiation over a long period of time.
Among the possible effects of chronic exposure
are the increased risk of developing cancer and
cataracts. In addition, research indicates
possible genetic effects in humans from
radiation damage to sperm and egg cells.
Genetic damage may result in birth defects;

furthermore, an exposed worker's genetic
effects may be passed along to future
generations. The potential for chronic exposure
to ionizing radiation is measured in mRem over
many days time. OSHA's ionizing radiation
standard is in 29 CFR 1910.96.
Acute Radiation Exposure
Acute radiation exposure is the result of a

large dose in a short period of time. An
acute exposure, where recovery is
probable, includes the following possible
effects: lowering of the white blood cell
count, nausea, bacterial infections,
vomiting, loss of appetite, reddening of the
skin, diarrhea, fatigue, hair loss, and
possible sterility.
In a more severe exposure, the victim may

suffer fever, abdominal pains, explosive
diarrhea, internal bleeding, infection,
shock, convulsions, coma, and ultimately
death. Acute exposure is usually considered
to be 25 Rem over 24 hours time.
Comparison of Radiation Health Risk
The following table compares the estimated loss of life expectancy due to radiation as compared to other
health risks.
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Average Estimated Days Lost Due To Work Activities
This next table addresses the estimated days lost of life expectancy due to radiation exposure at
radiation-related facilities as compared to other industries.
Radioactive Contamination
Radioactive contamination can be in the form of
any of the three states of matter: solid, liquid, or
gas. Solid contamination is usually in the form of
very small particles such as dirt or dust. These
are most commonly found on the floor, ground,
and other surfaces. Liquids may be contaminated
with suspended or dissolved radioactive solids.
Radioactive gases produced in some processes
have the potential for leaking via ruptures or
failures in containment systems and storage
vessels. Radioactive contamination may be fixed
or transferable/smearable.
Fixed Contamination
Fixed is not easily transferred from one place to
another. It usually becomes fixed by physical or
chemical absorption or by entrapment in physical
irregularities of the surface material.
Transferable/Smearable Contamination
Transferable/smearable contamination, on the

other hand, is easily removed; any object that
makes contact with it will in turn become
contaminated. Cleanup activities where
radioactive dust or dirt is present may lead to
airborne contamination due to the mechanical
action of the sweeping or bagging activities.
Examples of transferable contamination

include (1) surface contamination, which can
be spread by contact; (2) airborne
contamination, which can be spread by
grinding or burning, by air currents, and by
evaporation; and (3) hot particles, which are
small pieces of radioactive material with a very
high radioactivity level. Hot particles may be
especially hazardous to the skin or the
extremities due to their short range and the
intensity of the radiation emitted.
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Transferable/Smearable Contamination (cont’d)
If a worker becomes contaminated, a health

physicist should be consulted for proper
decontamination procedures. The process is NOT
the same as chemical decontamination. The
decontamination methods used depend upon the
location and the form of the contamination.
Normal cleaning techniques for external
decontamination usually involve washing with
soap and lukewarm water, although the aid of
other techniques and medical personnel may be
needed.
Reduction of internal contamination depends on

the radioactive half-life of the particular
contaminant and the normal biological
elimination processes such as urination,
exhalation, defecation, and perspiration. These
processes can be enhanced under proper medical
supervision. The removal of radioactive materials
from one location simply means their
displacement to another location.
Radiation Protection
A human cannot sense if a material is giving

off radiation. Radiation must be detected
and measured using radiation monitoring
instruments. It is vitally important that each
drum, container, and area be checked for
ionizing radiation. Containers must also be
checked as they are opened. Remember that
on a waste site containers may be unmarked
or improperly marked.
Whenever radiation is detected on any

marked or unmarked container, or inside a
container when it is opened, the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission must be contacted
for advice. Some states have a radiation
safety agency which should be contacted.
Radiation Protection (cont’d)
In the event that radioactive material is found, a basic

understanding of protection against the radiation is
needed. A worker who comes into contact with radioactive
material may be radioactively contaminated. This means
that the radioactive material has become attached to the
person's body, clothing, or equipment, or has entered the
body through openings in the skin, inhalation, ingestion,
absorption, or injection. Assistance by a qualified health
physicist technician is highly recommended.
The best protection against radiation is prevention of

contamination and keeping exposures as low as possible.
ALARA is an acronym that stands for the concept of
reducing exposure to ionizing radiation to a level which is
As Low As Reasonably Achievable. The ALARA concept
requires tasks that are to be performed in a radiologically
contaminated area must be reviewed to ensure all
pertinent controls are applied. This concept is integrated
into all site activities involving radioactive materials and is
the responsibility of all individuals involved.
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Time
Obviously, the less time spent exposed to a
radioactive source, the less exposure there is. Keep
in mind that exposures to radiation are additive in
their effect. Federal limits for radiation exposure are
expressed as the total dose received in a given unit
of time.
Distance
The farther away from the source, the smaller the
amount of exposure. Staying away from a radiation
source, even a number of feet, will greatly reduce
worker exposure.
Shielding
Shielding places protective materials between the
worker and the source; for example, walls, barriers,
or protective clothing. Recall that NO protective
clothing shields against gamma radiation.
Distance:
• Dose rate is inversely proportional to the
distance squared from the source.
• I1 = I2(D2/D1)2
• where: I1 = is the intensity at a distance D1,
and I2 = is the intensity at a distance D2
Sources of Exposure
Natural Sources (81%)

• 55% - Radon
• 8% - Cosmic
• 8% - Terrestrial (coal, crude oil & natural gas,
phosphate rock products, sand, hot springs & caves)
• 10% - Food & Water (i.e., Potassium-40)
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Sources of Exposure
Man-made Sources (19%)

• 11% - Medical X-ray (-rays)
• 4% - Nuclear Medical Exposures
• 3% - Consumer Products
• <1% - Other Sources (occupational sources, nuclear
fallout, nuclear fall cycle radioactive waste, hospital
radioactive waste, radioactively contaminated sites,
etc.)
• For the U.S. population, average annual total effective

dose (natural & anthropogenic) is approximately 360
mrem (0.360 rem).
• For the general public, the exposure limit is 0.1

rem/year or 2 mrem/hr.
Effects of Radiation
• DNA is the primary target

• Radiation can produce free radicals elsewhere in the
body that then reacts with DNA
• DNA damage is cumulative
• Cells are most sensitive to radiation damage if
• Have a high mitotic (cell division) rate
• A slow (long) mitotic cycle
• Undifferentiated stem cells
• Exposure to the eyes causes cataract formation.
Worker Limits - Adults Only:
• Radiation workers (Fed & State) = 5 rem/year
Module Quiz
6
7/15/2013
__________ is a term which describes how sensitive a given cell is to radiation damage.
A) Radioitis
B) Extrasensitivity
C) Radiosensitivity

Your answer:

completely
continuing
_________ - Refers to the way particles & rays radiate from their source at speeds up to that
of light.
A) Ionization
B) Light Bursts
C) Radiation
D) Candle-Foot

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
7
7/15/2013
8
7/15/2013
Module 65
Air Monitoring Part 1

Requirements for Air Monitoring Devices
Air Monitoring
Introduction
Waste site workers need to be familiar with the different
types of air monitoring they will be using on the work
site. They need to understand the advantages and
limitations of the equipment and how to interpret the
data they obtain. This information will be used to make
many important decisions concerning worker safety.
Sampling Methods
The atmosphere may be sampled in a potentially
contaminated work area to identify and quantify (i.e.,
measure) any gases, vapors, or particulates to which
workers may be exposed. Such information may be
obtained by two methods:
- Area sampling, which involves placing collection devices
within designated areas and operating them over specific
periods of time
- Personal sampling, which involves collecting samples
from within the breathing zone of an individual,
sometimes by the individual wearing a sampling device
Sampling Methods
Once the sampling method (i.e., area or personal) has

been selected, the type of sample desired must be
determined. Prevailing conditions, the scope of site
operations, and the intended use of the resulting
information dictate the type collected.
Direct-reading instruments utilize instantaneous or grab-

type samples collected over brief periods of time. They
are useful in examining stable contaminant
concentrations or peak levels of short duration.
Instantaneous samples may require highly sensitive
analytical methods due to the small sample volume
collected.
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Sampling Methods
Direct-reading instruments were first developed as early

warning devices for use in industrial settings, where leaks
or an accident could release a high concentration of a
known chemical. Today, some direct reading instruments
can detect concentrations of contaminants as low as one
part contaminant per million parts of air (ppm).
Direct-reading instruments provide information at the

time of sampling and do not require sending samples to a
laboratory for subsequent analysis. This characteristic of
direct-reading instruments (sometimes referred to as
"real time" readings) enables rapid decision-making.
Air Monitoring
Because airborne contaminants may present a

significant threat to workers' health, an essential
component of the Health and Safety Program
(HASP) at a hazardous waste site clean-up is the
identification and measurement of those
contaminants.
The data obtained from air monitoring instruments

is useful for:
- Assessing health risks (public and waste site
worker)
- Selecting personal protective equipment
- Determining areas where protection is needed
- Determining actual or potential effects on the
environment
- Selecting actions to mitigate (control) the hazards
safely and effectively
- Determining the effectiveness of decontamination
activities
Air Monitoring Instruments Characteristics
The sampling instrument or system chosen depends on a

number of factors, including:
• Instrument or system efficiency
• Operational reliability
• Ease of use and portability
• Availability of the instrument and component parts
• Information or analysis desired
• Personal preference
• Calibration requirements
To be useful, these instruments must be:

- Portable and rugged
- Easy to operate
- Inherently safe
- Able to generate reliable and useful results
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Portability and Ruggedness
A prime consideration for field instruments is portability.

Transportation shock resulting from the movement from
one place to another, together with unintentional abuse,
shortens the usable life of an instrument. To reduce these
effects, instruments should have reinforced shells or
frames, shock mounted electronic packages, or padded
containers for shipment. Exposure to the elements and to
the test atmosphere itself is of concern for those
instruments repeatedly used in adverse conditions or as
long-term monitors.
Anodized or coated finishes, weather-resistant packaging

and remote sensors are effective in reducing downtime
and increasing portability. An internal power supply is
important for portability. Some instruments use
replaceable or rechargeable batteries and some do not
require a power supply. An instrument should not be so
heavy or bulky that it is difficult for a response worker to
carry.
Ease of Operation
Since most of these instruments were designed for

industrial use, allowances may not have been made
for using the instrument while wearing protective
equipment. One must consider how easy it is to use
the instrument while wearing gloves or how difficult
it is to read the meter while wearing a respirator.
Another concern is how quickly a worker can learn

to operate the instrument correctly. Preparation
time for use of the instrument should be short.
Rapid warm-up, easy attachment of accessories,
and quick instrument checks shorten preparation
time.
Inherent Safety
A portable instrument used to characterize hazardous material

spills or waste sites must be safe to use. Electrical devices,
including instruments, must be constructed in such a fashion as to
prevent the ignition of a combustible atmosphere. Within an
instrument, the source of ignition might be an arc generated by
the power source itself or might be a small flame that is part of the
function of the instrument. Several engineering, insurance, and
safety organizations have developed standardized test methods
and codes for certifying electrical devices to be used in hazardous
locations. The following three methods of construction define an
instrument's safety in flammable atmospheres:
Explosion-Proof
In an explosion-proof instrument, the ignition source is enclosed in
a rigidly built container. When the flammable atmosphere enters
the instrument during monitoring, both the arc and any small
explosion it generates are contained within the specially built
enclosure. Flames or hot gases in the enclosure are cooled before
they exit the instrument back into the ambient flammable
atmosphere. Thus, the explosion does not spread into the
environment.
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Inherent Safety (cont’d)
Intrinsically Safe
An intrinsically safe instrument reduces the
potential for arcing among components by encasing
the components in a solid insulating material. The
instrument's operational current and voltage may
also be reduced below the energy level necessary
for ignition of the flammable atmosphere. An
"intrinsically safe" device, as defined by the
National Electrical Code, is not capable of releasing
sufficient electrical or thermal energy under normal
or abnormal conditions to cause ignition of a
specific hazardous atmospheric mixture in its most
easily ignited concentration.
Abnormal conditions shall include accidental

damage to any wiring, failure of electrical
components, application of over-voltage,
adjustment and maintenance operations, and other
similar conditions."
Inherent Safety (cont’d)
Purged
In a purged instrument, an inert gas buffers the arcing or flame-producing device from the flammable atmosphere. A
steady stream of nitrogen or helium, for example, is passed by the potential arcing device, keeping the flammable
atmosphere from the ignition source, This type of control, however, does not satisfactorily control analytical devices
that use flame or heat for analysis, such as a combustible gas indicator, (CGI). It also requires a source of gas, which
can reduce instrument portability.
Most portable instrumentation is designed as intrinsically safe as opposed to explosion-proof or purged. All certified
devices must be marked to show Class, Division, and Group. Certification means that a device is certified as explosion-
proof, intrinsically safe, or purged for a given Class, Division, and Group and that if the device is used, maintained, and
serviced according to the manufacturer's instructions, it will not contribute to ignition. A device is certified for use in a
particular atmosphere. To ensure personnel safety, it is recommended that only approved instruments be used on-site
and only in atmospheres for which they have been certified. When used to investigate incidents involving unknown
hazards, the monitoring instruments should be rated for use in the most hazardous locations. (Note: The mention of
"FM" or "UL" in the equipment manufacturer's literature does NOT guarantee certification.)
Reliable and Useful Results
When monitoring the atmosphere for air contaminants, one

must evaluate the reliability of the resulting data. The
reliability of the data depends upon several characteristics
of the monitor: namely, the monitor's response time,
sensitivity, selectivity, and accuracy and precision. When
selecting an instrument, one must compare the
instrument's specifications (i.e., regarding its sensitivity,
range, accuracy, selectivity, and ability to vary amplification
of detector signals) with the desired characteristics.
Response Time
Response time is the length of time the monitor takes from
when it "senses" a contaminant until it generates data. For
direct-reading instruments, response times may range from
a few seconds to several minutes. Short times, of course,
are preferred. The length of the response time depends on
the test(s) to be performed, dead time between sample
periods (the time for analysis, data generation, and data
display), and the sensitivity of the instrument. Response
time establishes the pace of an overall survey and its
individual tests.
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Sensitivity
Sensitivity is defined as the ability of an instrument to

accurately measure changes in concentration. Sensitive
instruments can detect small changes in concentration. Since
even slight concentration changes can be dangerous,
instrument sensitivity is critical. An instrument's operating
range is defined as its lower and upper use limits. The lower
detection limit is the lowest concentration that the instrument
will respond to. The upper detection limit is the instrument's
saturation concentration. It is important to use an instrument
with an operating range that will measure the ambient
concentrations on-site.
Amplification, a term often used synonymously (and

incorrectly) with sensitivity, is the instrument's ability to
increase very small electronic signals emanating from the
detector to the readout. Changing the amplification of the
detector does not change its sensitivity. However, amplification
may be useful in calibration. Instruments with amplifier circuits
can be affected by radio frequency from pulsed DC or AC power
lines, transformers, generators, and radio wave transmitters.
Selectivity
Selectivity is the ability of an instrument to detect and measure a specific

chemical or group of similar chemicals. Interferences from other chemicals can
affect the accuracy of the instrument reading by producing a similar response.
Selectivity and sensitivity must be reviewed and interpreted together.
Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy is defined as the relationship between a true value (i.e., the actual
concentration of a contaminant) and the instrument reading. An instrument's
accuracy is indicated by an error factor, which is expressed as a percentage.
Suppose, for example, that the manufacturer of a certain detector tube has
established its error factor as +15 percent of the true value. This means that
the actual concentration of the chemical being measured falls somewhere
within a range of 15 percent higher than the tube's reading to 15 percent lower
than the tube's reading. Precision is a statistical measurement of an
instrument's ability to reproduce a reading. When an instrument does not
receive routine maintenance the precision of the readings may change
(become more random) this can affect the amount of error in the data
collected. An instrument must give results that are immediately useful.
Instruments should be direct reading; that is, there should be little or no need
to interpolate, integrate, or compile large amounts of data.
Module Quiz
5
7/15/2013
There are 2 types of sampling methods. What are they?
A) Area and Surround
B) Personal and Applied
C) Area and Personal

Your answer:

completely
continuing
_________ instruments utilize instantaneous or grab-type samples collected over brief periods
of time.
A) Indirect-reading
B) Direct-reading
C) Real time reading
D) Personal pumps

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
7
7/15/2013
Module 66

Types of Direct Reading Instruments
Calibration
For an instrument to function properly in the field, it

should be calibrated prior to use. Manufactures include
information on calibration requirements for each
instrument as well as a schedule of needed maintenance
necessary for the instrument to continue to operate at
the specifications listed in the manufacturer's guide.
An instrument should be calibrated. In some cases,

calibration is the process of adjusting the instrument
read-out so that it corresponds to an actual
concentration. Calibration involves checking the
instrument with a known concentration of a gas or vapor
standard to see that the instrument gives the proper
response.
Calibration (cont’d)
A device's calibration kit may consist of a pressurized canister

containing a certain concentration of the calibration gas. For
example, a kit for a certain hydrogen sulfide meter contains 1.0
percent hydrogen sulfide. To check the calibration of that device,
its sensor is exposed to a release of the gas from the canister. The
device's read-out should match the concentration of the canisters
contents.
For example, if a combustible gas meter is calibrated with a gas

that is 20 percent of the lower explosive limit (LEL), then the
instrument should read 20 percent of the LEL. If the device does
not read accurately, then it is out of calibration and should be
adjusted according to manufacturer's instructions until accurate
readings are obtained.
An instrument is calibrated to give a one-to-one response for a

specific chemical (the calibration gas); therefore, its response to
other chemicals may be different. This variability is called relative
response. To interpret the read-out when monitoring for a chemical
(other than the device's calibration chemical), it is necessary to
compare the data to a table of relative responses.
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Toxic Atmospheric Monitors
Another detection concern at uncontrolled hazardous

waste sites relates to toxic concentrations of vapors or
gases. The possible presence of a toxic atmosphere
requires that several functions be performed to protect
health and safety:
• Identify airborne concentration that could pose a toxic

risk to response workers and the public
• Evaluate the need for and type of personal protective
equipment
• Set up work zones or areas where contaminants are or
are not present
Types of Direct-Reading Instruments
Several types of instrumentation are used for detecting

hazardous atmospheres. Some uncontrolled waste sites
may require each of the following types of monitoring
as personnel characterize the site:
1. Oxygen Availability Monitoring

2. Combustibility Monitoring
3. Toxic Atmosphere Monitoring, which includes
Colorimetric indicator tubes (detector tubes)
4. Specific chemical monitors
5. Photo ionization detector
6. Flame ionization detector
7. Aerosol monitor
8. Radiation Monitoring
(Note: Corrosive monitoring is omitted in this lesson

since it does not pertain to air monitoring.)
Oxygen Availability Monitoring
Oxygen indicators are used to evaluate an atmosphere for oxygen

content for respiratory purposes. Normal air is 20.8 percent
oxygen. Generally, if the oxygen content decreases below 19.5
percent, the atmosphere is considered oxygen deficient and special
respiratory protection is needed. Concentrations above 23 percent
are considered oxygen-enriched and; therefore, increase the risk of
combustion. Most indicators have read-outs or meters that display
an oxygen concentration from 0 to 25 percent. Note:
Manufacturer's "Inherent safety" approvals for instruments are
based upon normal atmospheres and not oxygen-enriched
atmospheres.
A decrease in oxygen content can result from the consumption (by

combustion or a reaction such as rusting) of oxygen or the
displacement of oxygen by a chemical. If the reduction is because
of oxygen consumption, then the concern is confined to the lack of
oxygen. However, if the reduction is because of displacement, then
there is the additional hazard of something present that might be
flammable or toxic. Oxygen deficient atmospheres may occur in
unventilated areas or may occur because of terrain variations,
where heavier-than-air vapors may collect.
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Combustibility Monitoring
Combustible gas indicators (CGI) measure the concentration of a

flammable vapor or gas in air. A CGI read-out shows the
concentration as a percentage of the lower explosive limit (LEL) of
the calibration gas. The LEL (or LFL - lower flammable limit) of a
combustible gas or vapor is the lowest concentration in air that will
explode, ignite, or burn when there is an ignition source. The upper
explosive limit (UEL) is the maximum concentration. Above the
UEL, there is insufficient oxygen to support combustion, so ignition
is unlikely. Below the LEL, there is insufficient fuel to support
combustion.
When one monitors with a CGI for a flammable gas, the read-out
actually relates to the device's calibration gas; generally, methane
is the gas to which CGIs are calibrated. Therefore, if a flammable
gas other than methane is detected by the CGI, then the reading
might be somewhat inaccurate for that other gas. For example, if
the gas being detected is known to be xylene, the meter might
show 32 percent of LEL, yet the actual xylene concentration could
be at 100 percent LEL, which is a significant and dangerous
difference.
Combustibility Monitoring (cont’d)
Manufacturers supply conversion charts with their CGIs,

so that the operator may correctly interpret readings of
gases other than methane. However, a rule of thumb is
that whenever the meter reads more than 10 percent of
LEL, it is wise to take protective action if the CGI detects
the presence of an unknown flammable gas or vapor.
CGIs are intended for use in normal oxygen

atmospheres only. Oxygen deficient atmospheres will
produce lowered readings. Also, the safe guards that
prevent the combustion source from igniting a
flammable atmosphere are NOT designed to operate in
an oxygen-enriched atmosphere.
Combustibility Monitoring (cont’d)
Catalytic Combustion Detectors

Catalytic combustion detectors are toxic atmosphere
monitors that use the same detection system as CGIs
but are more sensitive.
In a sense, they are super-sensitive CGIs with readouts

in parts per million (ppm) instead of %LEL. Since the
detection method is similar, they have the same
limitations and considerations as CGIs.
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Toxic Atmospheric Monitors (cont’d)
Colorimetric Indicator Tubes (Detector Tubes)

Colorimetric indicator tubes (such as those from Draeger
and MSA) consist of a glass tube impregnated with an
indicating chemical. The tube is connected to a piston
like the MSA model, or a bellows-type pump like the
Draeger. A known volume of contaminated air is pulled
at a predetermined rate through the tube by the pump.
The contaminant reacts with the indicator chemical in
the tube, producing a change in color. The length of the
colored area is proportional to the contaminant
concentration.
Detector tubes are normally chemical-specific; different

tubes are available for detecting different gases. Some
manufacturers do produce tubes for groups of gases; for
example, aromatic hydrocarbons or alcohols.
Considerations
Detector tubes have the disadvantage of poor accuracy and
precision. Manufacturers report error factors of up to 50% for
some tubes. An advantage that detector tubes have over some
other toxic instruments is that it is possible to select a tube that is
specific to a chemical. However, some tubes will respond to
interfering compounds. Fortunately, the manufacturers provide
information with the tubes on interfering gases and vapors.
Another limitation is that chemical reactions within the tubes may

be affected by temperature. Cold weather slows the reactions and
thus the response. To reduce this problem, it is recommended that
in cold weather the tubes be kept warm (for example, inside a coat
pocket) until they are to be used. Hot temperatures, on the other
hand, may discolor the indicator material within the tube, even
when a contaminant is NOT present. The discoloration may happen
as well in unopened tubes. To counteract these potential problems,
tubes should be stored at a moderate temperature or be
refrigerated. Interpretation of results can be a problem.
Since the tube's length of color change indicates the contaminant

concentration, the user must be able to see the end of the stain.
Some stains are diffused and are not clear cut; others may have an
uneven end-point.
When in doubt about the concentration that is indicated, a

conservative approach is most protective; for example, if it is
difficult to determine whether the end point of a stain indicates a
concentration of 300 ppm or 400 ppm, assume the worst that is,
the 400 ppm concentration. In addition, add the manufacturer's
error factor. For example an error factor of 25 percent would result
in a potential concentration of 400 ppm plus 100 ppm, or 500 ppm.
The total volume to be drawn through the tube varies with the
tubes. The volume needed is given by the manufacturer as the
number of pump strokes needed; that is, the number of times the
piston or bellows is manipulated. Also, the air does not
instantaneously go through the tube. It may take 1 to 2 minutes
for each volume (stroke) to be completely drawn. Therefore,
sampling times can vary from 1 to 30 minutes per tube, this
making the use of detector tubes time consuming.
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Due to these many considerations, it is very important to read the

instructions that are provided with and are specific to a set of
tubes. The manufacturer's instructions include the number of pump
strokes needed, the timing of each pump stroke, the interfering
gases and vapors, the effects of humidity and temperature, shelf
life, proper color change, and whether the tube is reusable.
While there are many limitations and considerations for using

detector tubes, detector tubes allow the versatility of being able to
measure a wide range of chemicals with a single pumping device.
Also, for some chemicals, detector tubes are the only direct-
reading indicators.
Module Quiz
5
7/15/2013
For an instrument to function properly in the field, it should be __________ prior to use.
A) in equilibrium
B) calibrated
C) reviewed
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
_______________ measure the concentration of a flammable vapor or gas in air.
A) Flame Resistant Monitor (FRM)
B) Combustible Gas Indicators (CGI)
C) Photoionization Detector (PID)
D) Oxygen Meter

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
7
7/15/2013
Module 67

Types of Direct Reading Instruments Continued
Specific Chemical Monitors
Several gas monitors use electrochemical cells

or metal oxide semi-conductors (MOS) for
detecting specific chemicals. MOS detectors
change conductivity when exposed to certain
gases or vapors. They can be designed to
respond to either a large group of chemicals or
to a specific chemical.
The most common monitors are used to detect

carbon monoxide or hydrogen sulfide, but
monitors are also available for hydrogen
cyanide, ammonia, and chlorine. MOS detectors
are more accurate than detector tubes, but only
about a dozen different chemicals can be
monitored by them.
Photoionization Detector (PID)
All atoms and molecules are composed of

particles: electrons, protons, and neutrons.
Electrons, which are negatively charged
particles, rotate in orbit around the nucleus, the
dense inner core of the atom. The nucleus
consists of protons (positively charged particles)
equal in number to the electrons found in the
orbital cloud.
The interaction of the oppositely charged

particles and the laws of quantum mechanics
keep the electrons in orbits outside the nucleus.
The energy required to remove the outermost
electron from the molecule is called the
ionization potential (IP) and is specific for any
compound or atomic species. Ionization
potentials are measured in electron volts (eV).
High frequency radiation (ultraviolet and above)
is capable of causing ionization and is hence
called ionizing radiation.
Atom with orbiting electron, neutron and proton
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Photoionization Detector (PID) (cont’d)
When a photon (energy) of ultraviolet radiation

strikes a chemical compound, it ionizes the
molecule if the energy of the radiation is equal
to or greater than the IP of the compound.
Since ions are charged particles, they may be

collected on a charged plate and produce a
current. The measured current will be directly
proportional to the number of ionized
molecules.
Photon striking chemical compound creating ionization
The previously principles are applied in the design of

the photo ionization detector (PID). The PID contains
an ultraviolet (UV) lamp that affects the ionization of
compounds to be detected. Since the ability to detect a
chemical depends on the ability to ionize it, the IP of a
chemical to be detected must be compared to the
energy generated by the UV lamp of the instrument.
There is a limit to this imposed by the components of

air; that is, the lamp cannot be too energetic, because
that would cause oxygen and nitrogen from the
atmosphere to ionize and thus interfere with the
readings for contaminants. UV lamps are available in a
number of electron volt levels: 8.3, 8.4, 9.5, 10.2,
10.6, 11.4, 11.7 and 11.8 eV. (Note: Not all lamps are
available from a single manufacturer.) To detect a
particular chemical, it is necessary to select the
appropriate lamp for the PID. During monitoring, the
sample drawn into the instrument passes over the UV
lamp where it is ionized.
PID UV lamp
If a spill of propane and vinyl chloride were to be monitored with

a PID, the first check would be to see if they could be detected.
The IP of propane is 11.1 eV and the IP of vinyl chloride is 10.0
eV. To detect both, a lamp with an energy greater than 11.1 eV
is needed (like an 11.7 or 11.8). If vinyl chloride were the
chemical of concern, then a lamp with an energy greater than
10.0 but less than 11.1 eV (such as 10.2 of 10.6) could be used.
The propane would neither be ionized nor detected. Thus,
propane would not interfere with the vinyl chloride readings.
Photo ionization detectors are calibrated to a single chemical.
The instrument's response to chemicals other than the
calibration gas/vapor can vary.
Considerations
Dust in the atmosphere can collect on the lamp and block the
transmission of UV light, causing a reduction in instrument
reading. This problem will be detected during calibration and the Bacteria glow from UV light
lamp should be cleaned on a regular basis. Humidity can cause
two problems. When a cold instrument is taken into a warm
moist atmosphere, the moisture can condense on the lamp. Like
dust this will reduce the available light.
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Moisture in the air also reduces the ionization of chemicals and

causes a reduction in readings. Since an electric field is
generated in the sample chamber of the instrument, radio-
frequency interference from pulsed DC or AC power lines,
transformers, generators, and radio wave transmission may
produce an error in response. As the lamp ages, the intensity of
the light decreases. It will still have the same ionization energy,
but the response will decline. This will be detected during
calibration and adjustments can be made. However, the lamp
will eventually burn out. In some cases, at high concentrations
of contaminant, the instrument response can decrease.
For example, a concentration of 900 ppm may only give a meter

response of 700 ppm. Photo ionization is considered
nondestructive testing. In some cases only 0.1% of the chemical
is ionized. Thus, whatever is drawn into the instrument for
analysis is vented (unchanged) out of the instrument into the
atmosphere.
Moisture on window
Some instruments have a connection point on

the exhaust end of the instrument for a gas
bag or sample tube. Therefore, further
analysis can be done on the atmosphere and
compared with instrument readings. Units
that utilize photo ionization include the
Thermo Environmental Instruments Model
580, the Photovac TIP, and the HNU PI 101.
Photo ionization detectors are also used in
gas chromatographs.
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Flame Ionization Detectors (FID)
Flame ionization detectors (FID) use a hydrogen

flame as the means to ionize organic vapors. FID
responds to virtually all organic compounds (i.e.,
compounds that contain carbon-hydrogen or carbon-
carbon bonds). The flame detector analyzes by the
mechanism of breaking bonds. Inside the detector
chamber, the sample is exposed to a hydrogen flame
that ionizes the organic vapors.
When most organic vapors burn, positively charged

carbon-containing ions are produced, which are
collected by a negatively charged electrode in the
chamber. An electric field exists between the
conductors surrounding the flame and a collecting
electrode. As the positive ions are collected, a current
proportional to the hydrocarbon concentration is
generated on the input electrode.
Flame Ionization Detectors (FID)
This current is measured with a preamplifier which

has an output signal proportional to the ionization
current. A signal-conducting amplifier is used to
amplify the signal from the preamplifier and to
condition it for subsequent meter or external recorder
display. Flame ionization detectors have a more
generalized response in detecting organic vapors. This
generalized sensitivity is due to the breaking of
chemical bonds which require a set amount of energy
and is a known reproducible event.
When this is compared to Photo ionization Detection

(PID), a major difference should be noted between
the detectors. PID detection is dependent upon the
ionization potential, eV, and the ease in which an
electron can be ionized (displaced) from a molecule.
This mechanism is variable and highly dependent on
the individual characteristics of a particular substance.
This results in a more variable response factor for the
vast majority of organic molecules that are ionizable.
Flame Ionization Detectors (FID) (cont’d)
Therefore, in general, one does not see large sensitivity

shifts between different substances when using an FID as
compared to a PID. Flame ionization detectors are the
most sensitive for saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) and
unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes). Substances that
contain substituted functional groups such as hydroxide
(OH-) and chloride (Cl-) tend to reduce the detector’s
sensitivity. However, overall, the detectabilities remain
good.
Considerations
Flame ionization detectors respond only to organic
compounds. Thus, they do not detect inorganic
compounds like chlorine, hydrogen cyanide, or ammonia.
As with all instruments, flame ionization detectors
respond differently to different compounds. Since most
instruments are factory calibrated to methane, all
responses are relative to methane. Thus with all survey-
type instruments, the identity of the chemical of interest
must be ascertained before its concentration can be
determined. Carbon as listed in Periodic Table of Elements
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Aerosol Monitors
Beta attenuation measures the attenuation (i.e.,

reduction or weakening) of beta radiation by particles
collected on a surface between the beta source and a
beta detector. GCA Corporation's Model RDM-101 is an
instrument using this type of detector.
Accessories for these types of instruments include an

attachment that allows collection of only "respirable"
particles (i.e., able to be breathed into the lungs) instead
of the total particles in air and an integrator for giving
average concentrations. It is important to remember that
these instruments determine the total amount of
particulates but not the type of particulate. The actual
content of contaminated air (e.g., with lead or arsenic)
must be analyzed separately. However, if the content of
the air sample is known, then the direct-reading
instrument can be used to measure the weight of the
contaminant per volume of air, so long as the content of
the dust is assumed to remain constant.
Aerosol Monitors (cont’d)
Not all toxic materials dispersed in air are in the

form of a gas or vapor. Solids and liquids can
become suspended in air by combustion, by
splashing liquids, or by disturbing soil. Direct-
reading instruments that measure aerosols (i.e.,
dust, mist, fume, smoke, fog, or spray) usually
have a light source and a light sensor that
measure the amount of light scattered by the
aerosol.
Read-outs are in milligrams per cubic meter

(mg/m3 ). Other methods of detection are the
piezoelectric crystal mass monitor and beta
attenuation. The piezoelectric crystal mass
monitor uses a crystal that resonates at a certain
frequency as electric current is applied to it. As
particles collect on the crystal, it's resonant
frequency changes and the change is measured.
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Radiation Monitors and Detection
Since the presence of radiation cannot be

confirmed or ruled out by any of the five senses,
a survey instrument must be used to determine
the presence or absence of radiation. When
radiation or radioactive situations are found on a
site, appropriate precautions are necessary to
protect personnel.
The area must be cordoned off, appropriate

agencies must be notified, and a health physicist
should be consulted. No further action by the
waste site personnel themselves should be taken
in these areas. Several types of detectors are
used for radiation monitoring. These survey
meters are presented in the following sections.
Nuclear reactor rods
Radiation Monitors and Detection (cont’d)
Alpha Radiation Monitoring

Even though alpha radiation is a high energy particle,
it is large and thus dissipates (i.e., uses up) its energy
very quickly. An alpha particle travels an extremely
short distance in air, actually only a few centimeters,
and can be shielded by a sheet of paper or a layer of
dried skin. Because of the easy shielding of alpha
radiation, an alpha monitor utilizing a detector probe
with a thin Mylar or plastic window must be used.
Additionally, the probe must be held close to the

alpha emitter because of the short travel distance of
the alpha particle. The two types of alpha instruments
most commonly used are Portable Proportional
Counters and Portable Scintillation Counters. Since a
layer of dried skin or protective clothing is sufficient
shielding for alpha particles, and because on initial
entry workers use appropriate respiratory protection Alpha radiation shielded by a box
anyway, alpha radiation is not normally monitored for
initially, unless there is an indication of alpha emitters
being present on site.
Beta and Gamma Radiation Monitoring

Beta and gamma are the most common types of
radiation found at hazardous waste sites. Normally,
when beta radiation is present, gamma radiation is
also present; therefore, it is permissible to monitor for
both types of radiation with a single survey meter.
The instrument's probe (or ionization chamber) has a

"window" which is opened to monitor beta/gamma
radiation or closed to monitor only gamma radiation.
Geiger-Mueller Counters are an example of this type
of monitor and are among the most commonly used
radiation survey instruments at hazardous waste
sites. EPA recommends that a radiation monitor be
used during initial site entry, since radiation can only
be detected by survey instruments.
Handheld Geiger counter
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Calibration Requirements for Radiation Detectors

Before the appropriate instrument is used, it must be
properly calibrated. Among its calibration
requirements, the NRC (Nuclear Regulatory
Commission) states that a survey instrument may be
considered properly calibrated when the instrument
readings are within ±10 percent of the calculated or
known values for each point checked. Readings within
±20% are considered acceptable if a calibration chart
or graph is attached to the instrument.
Background Radiation Check

When monitoring for radiation at a waste site, the
instrument should be checked in a "clean" area, just as
would be done for any other instrument. At that time,
the level of background radiation should be noted,
normally from 10 to 20 microR. As entry onto the site
takes place, the instruments should be observed for an
increase of radiation above background levels.
U.S. NRC logo
Radiation Action Level

EPA has established, in their Standard Operating Safety
Guidelines, an action limit of 1 mR (milliRoentgen). If this
level or above is detected, you should vacate the area,
delineate and mark the perimeter of the area where the
radiation has been detected, and then contact a health
physicist for appropriate guidance.
U.S. EPA logo
Module Quiz
7
7/15/2013
All atoms and molecules are composed of particles: __________________.
A) electrons, protons, and shells
B) electrons, photons, and neutrons
C) electrons, protons, and neutrons
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
A Flame ionization detector (FID) is used for_______.
A) detecting organic vapors
B) detecting inorganic vapors
C) detecting acids and bases
D) detecting acids only

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
8
7/15/2013
9
7/15/2013
Module 68

Active and Passive Sampling Equipment
Personal Monitors
Personal monitoring means sampling the

immediate surroundings of persons in their work
environment. Potential contamination at such
sites requires that individuals as well as the
general environment be continually monitored for
the presence of dangerous gases, vapors and
particulate.
One means of doing this is by sampling the

immediate surroundings of persons working in a
contaminated environment. Placing sampling
devices on the affected workers in their breathing
zones can aid in determining and verifying
contamination levels previously obtained by
direct-reading equipment.
Sampling Systems
Two types of personal sampling systems are:
• Active samplers mechanically move contaminated air

through a collection medium
• Passive samplers rely on natural rather than mechanical
forces to collect samples
Passive samplers are classified as either diffusion or

permeation devices according to their principle of
operation. These systems rely on the collection of
integrated samples.
Integrated samples are collected when the sensitivity of

an analytical method requires minimum sample periods
or volumes, or when comparison must be made to an 8-
hour, time-weighted average threshold limit value (TLV)
or to an OSHA permissible exposure limit (PEL).
Therefore, these are typical of onsite measurements.
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Active Samplers
General Considerations
Active sampling systems mechanically collect samples on or
into a selected medium (i.e., filtering or collection substance).
The medium is then analyzed in the laboratory to identify and
quantify the contaminant(s) collected. Such a system typically
consists of the following components:
• An electrically powered pump to move the contaminated air.
Such a pump should contain a flow regulator to control the
rate of movement and a flow monitor to indicate that flow.
• A sampler consisting of an appropriate sampling medium and
a container designed for that medium. The sampler used
depends largely upon the contaminant(s) to be sampled and
the selected sample method.
• Flexible, nonporous, inert tubing to link the sampler to the
pump
Integrated samples are commonly collected over known time

periods and at known fixed flow rates. Thus, sample pump
calibration and accurate time measurement are critical to the
proper interpretation of data collected by active systems.
Active Samplers (cont’d)
Sampling Pumps
Active sampling systems typically rely on
electrically powered pumps to mechanically produce
air movement. The most practical electrical
sampling pumps are powered by rechargeable
batteries and can operate continuously at constant
flow rates for at least eight hours. Generally, they
are compact, portable, and quiet enough to be worn
by individuals when monitoring personal exposures.
The type of portable pump selected is generally

determined by such factors as the physical
properties of the contaminant, the collection
medium, and the collection flow rates specified by
the analytical method used.
Active Samplers (cont’d)
Calibration
Atmospheric sampling systems must be accurately calibrated
(i.e., adjusted) to a specific flow rate. Calibration ensures that
the measurement data can be correctly interpreted. For
example, it is important to calibrate the flow rate of an
electrically powered pump. This ensures that a constant flow
rate, which often is specified in standard analytical methods
(such as EPA-specified analytical methods), may be achieved.
Passive sampling systems, however, because of their
simplicity of design and operation, require no formal
calibration.
As a minimum, an active sampling system should be

calibrated both before and after a prescribed sampling period.
The overall frequency of calibration depends upon the general
handling and use a sampling system receives. Pump
mechanisms should be recalibrated after they have been
repaired, when newly purchased, and following any suspected
abuse.
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Passive Samplers
The few passive samplers now available apply to gas and vapor
contaminants only. These devices primarily function as
personal exposure monitors, although they have some
usefulness in area monitoring.
Passive samplers are commonly divided into two groups:

• Diffusion Samplers - Some diffusion samplers may be read
directly; for example, colorimetric length-of-stain tubes.
Others require laboratory analysis similar to that performed on
solid sorbents.
• Permeation Samplers - Permeation samplers are useful in

identifying a single contaminant within a mixture of airborne
contaminants. This is possible because of selective permeation
of chemicals through a membrane. As with diffusion samplers,
some passive samplers may be of the direct reading type
while others may require laboratory analysis.
Passive Samplers (cont’d)
The key advantage of passive samplers (i.e.,

"dosimeters") is their simplicity. These small,
lightweight devices do not require a mechanical
pump to move a contaminant through a collection
medium.
Thus, calibration and maintenance are reduced or

eliminated, although the sampling period must still
be accurately measured. Despite this obvious
advantage, errors may occur in observer
interpretations. Temperature and humidity may
affect accuracy as well in both active and passive
systems.
Radiation Dosimeters
Radiation Dosimeters measure personal dose exposures to

radiation. These dosimeters are used on sites where
radioactive materials are known to be present and careful
monitoring of personnel is necessary. As there are different
monitors for the different types of radiation, there are also
different types of personal dosimeters for different types of
radiation.
Thermoluminescent Dosimeter
The TLD (Thermoluminescent Dosimeter) badges provide a
permanent record of an individual's dose equivalent of beta,
gamma, and x-ray radiation. The Albedo TLD is a neutron
dose detection device worn when working in or around a
neutron radiation field. Such dosimeters must be sent to a
laboratory for analysis.
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Direct-Reading Dosimeters
Direct-Reading Dosimeters are also available, which are

pencil-type devices that allow personnel to read and
evaluate their exposures between TLD readings. Another
direct-reading type of dosimeter is the Chirpy, which is a
device worn by personnel involved in radiography work.
The device emits "chirps" based on the strength of the
radiation field. The more "chirps," the stronger the field.
The Digital Dosimeter

The Digital Dosimeter is a battery-powered direct-
reading instrument with a digital read-out in mR. This
device also emits "chirps" based on the strength of the
radiation field. Along with the chirpies and other
dosimeters are dosimeters that meet the requirements
for the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). One such
device is called the "Chest Thumper" because it vibrates
or "thumps" the chest of the hearing impaired. If a site
has radioactive materials present and these types of
personal monitoring devices are needed, then a health
physicist should be present to supervise their correct
usage.
Personal Sampling Plan
A sampling plan may be complex because:

• It is often difficult to decide what to sample
• Many workers move around on the work area; some workers
perform a variety of tasks
• Efficiently keeping track of sampling data requires attention
and organization
Currently, full OSHA standards have been published in 29 CFR

1910 Subpart Z for only 31 substances. Among those included
in Subpart Z are standards for lead, asbestos, benzene,
cadmium, vinyl chloride, formaldehyde, and acrylonitrile.
The Subpart Z standards set specific requirements for

exposure monitoring of workers. No required sampling method
exists for other substances; thus, if air concentrations do not
exceed permissible exposure limits (PEL) in Table Z (29 CFR
1910.1000), personnel monitoring is NOT required.
Personal Sampling Plan (cont’d)
If PELs exceed limits on the site for these 31 substances,

personal monitoring is required and the following guidelines
may be used.
• Sample workers who are known to be in the most highly

exposed locations
• If the most hazardous locations have not been determined,
sample all workers for a week
• Group workers by exposure levels
• Sample some members of each group every week
• Change the plan each time conditions change on the site
4
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Module Quiz
____________ means sampling the immediate surroundings of persons in their work

environment.
A) Personal monitoring
B) Ambient monitoring
C) Area monitoring
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Passive samplers are commonly divided into two groups. What are they?
A) Permeation and Filtration
B) Diffusion and Fitting
C) Diffusion and Permeation
D) Refusion and Permeation

Your answer:

completely
continuing
5
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Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
Module 69

OSHA Exposure Limits
Measuring Particles
When we measure the concentration of a

substance in a given volume of air,
the following units are used.
• Weight in milligrams - mg
• Volume in cubic meters m3
• mg/m3 = milligrams per cubic meter
Measuring Gases or Vapors
• Volume concentration of gas in air

• Parts per million
– Parts of gas in million parts of air
– Cups in a million cups
– Quarts in a million quarts
– Similar to percent, which is actually
parts per hundred
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OSHA PEL’s
PEL = Permissible Exposure Limit

The concentration of a chemical a worker can be
exposed to . . .
– 8 hours per day
– working lifetime without experiencing
health problems
Kinds of PEL’s
• TWA = Time Weighted Average

• Levels vary over a day
• OK for chemicals causing chronic disease
TWA Example
14
12
TWA Napthalene
Exposure in PPM
10
0
8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00
AM AM AM AM PM PM PM PM PM
Time
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Ceiling PEL
• Chemical concentrations can never exceed the

ceiling limit
• Indicated by OSHA as “C”
• Appropriate for chemicals causing acute
disease
• If this limit cannot be measured
instantaneously, take 15 minute (worst case)
sample
STEL
STEL = Short term exposure limit

• Period of time shown in standard where PEL
can be exceeded
• Still an absolute maximum that cannot be
exceeded (a ceiling)
• Must still meet the TWA
Compute TWA
Napthalene exposure measurements
15 ppm for 6 hours

5 ppm for 2 hours
15 ppm x 6 hours = 90 ppm hrs
5 ppm x 2 hours = 10 ppm hrs
So, for a total of 8 hours the exposure to

Napthalene is 100 ppm per hours.
____________________________
100 ppm hrs ÷ 8 hours = 12.5 ppm
3
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Module Quiz
Please define the acronym STEL.
A) Term Exposure Limit
B) Short Term Exposure Limit
C) Long and Short Term Exposures
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
mg/m3 = ?
A) milliliters per cubic meter
B) milligrams per cubic centimeter
C) milligrams per cubic meter
D) micrograms per cubic meter

Your answer:

completely
continuing
4
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
Module 70

Site Monitoring
Site Monitoring
Priorities for air monitoring should be

based on the information gathered
during initial site characterization or a
Phase I and Phase II Site Assessment.
This information serves as the basis for
selecting the appropriate monitoring
equipment and personal protective
equipment (PPE) to use when
conducting site monitoring.
Depending on site conditions and

project goals, four categories of site
monitoring may be necessary:
monitoring for IDLH and other
dangerous conditions, general onsite
monitoring, perimeter monitoring, and
periodic monitoring.
Site Monitoring (cont’d)
Monitoring for IDLH and Other Dangerous Conditions
As a first step, air monitoring should be conducted to identify

any IDLH and other dangerous conditions, such as flammable
or explosive atmospheres, oxygen-deficient environments,
and highly toxic levels of airborne contaminants. Direct-
reading monitoring instruments will normally include
combustible gas indicators, oxygen meters, colorimetric
indicator tubes, and organic vapor monitors. Other
monitoring instruments may be necessary based on the
initial site characterization. When time permits, air samples
should be collected for laboratory analysis.
Extreme caution should be exercised in continuing a site

survey when atmospheric hazards are indicated. Monitoring
personnel should be aware that conditions can suddenly
change from nonhazardous to hazardous.
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Monitoring for IDLH and Other Dangerous Conditions (cont’d)
Acutely hazardous concentrations of chemicals

may persist in confined and low-lying spaces for
long periods of time. Look for any natural or
artificial barriers, such as hills, tall buildings, or
tanks, behind which air might be still, allowing
concentrations to build up. Examine any confined
spaces such as cargo holds, mine shafts, silos,
storage tanks, box cars, buildings, bulk tanks, and
sumps where chemical exposures capable of
causing acute health effects are likely to
accumulate. Low-lying areas, such as hollows and
trenches, are also suspect. Monitor these spaces
for IDLH and other dangerous conditions.
Also consider whether the suspected contaminants

are lighter or heavier than air. Then, based on the
type of contaminants present, consider sampling
on hilltops, under any cover or canopy where
workers might work or congregate, and in
trenches and low-lying areas.
Monitoring for IDLH and Other Dangerous Conditions (cont’d)
In open spaces, toxic materials tend to be emitted

into the atmosphere, transported away from the
source, and dispersed. Thus acutely hazardous
conditions are not likely to persist in open spaces for
extended periods of time unless there is a very large
and readily identifiable source. An example is an
overturned tank car.
Open spaces are therefore generally given a lower

monitoring priority.
General Onsite Monitoring
Air sampling should be conducted using a variety of media

to identify the major classes of airborne contaminants and
their concentrations. The following sampling pattern can
be used as a guideline. First, after visually identifying the
sources of possible generation, collect air samples
downwind from the designated source along the axis of the
wind direction. Work upwind, until reaching or getting as
close as possible to the source. Level B protection should
be worn during this initial sampling. Levels of protection
for subsequent sampling should be based upon the results
obtained and the potential for an unexpected release of
chemicals.
After reaching the source, or finding the highest

concentration, sample cross-axis of the wind direction to
determine the degree of dispersion. Smoke plumes, or
plumes of instrument detectable airborne substances, may
be released as an aid in this assessment. To ensure that
there is no background interference and that the detected
substance(s) are originating at the identified source, also
collect air samples upwind of the source.
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Perimeter Monitoring
Fixed-location monitoring at the "fence line" or

perimeter, where personal protective equipment is
no longer required, measures contaminant migration
away from the site and enables the Site Safety
Officer to evaluate the integrity of the site's clean
areas.
Since the fixed-location samples may reflect

exposures either upwind or downwind from the site,
wind speed and direction data are needed to
interpret the sample results.
Periodic Monitoring
Site conditions and thus atmospheric chemical conditions

may change following the initial characterization. For this
reason, monitoring should be repeated periodically,
especially when:
• Work begins on a different portion of the site.

• Different contaminants are being handled.
• A markedly different type of operation is initiated (e.g.,
barrel opening as opposed to exploratory well drilling).
• Workers are handling leaking drums or working in areas
with obvious liquid contamination (e.g., a spill or lagoon).
Variables of Hazardous Waste Site Exposure
Complex, multi-substance environments such as those

associated with hazardous waste sites pose significant
challenges to accurately and safely assessing airborne
contaminants. Several independent and uncontrollable
variables, most notably temperature and weather
conditions, can affect airborne concentrations.
These factors must be considered when developing an air

monitoring program and when analyzing data. Some
demonstrated variables include:
• Temperature. An increase in temperature increases the

vapor pressure of most chemicals.
• Wind speed. An increase in wind speed can affect vapor

concentrations near a freestanding liquid surface dusts
and particulate-bound contaminants are also affected.
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Variables of Hazardous Waste Site Exposure

• Rainfall. Water from rainfall can essentially cap or plug vapor
emission routes from open or closed containers, saturated
soil, or lagoons, thereby reducing airborne emissions of
certain substances.
• Moisture. Dusts, including finely divided hazardous solids, are

highly sensitive to moisture content. This moisture content
can vary significantly with respect to location and time and
can also affect the accuracy of many sampling results.
• Vapor emissions. The physical displacement of saturated

vapors can produce short term, relatively high vapor
concentrations. Continuing evaporation and/or diffusion may
produce long-term low vapor concentrations and may involve
large areas.
• Work activities. Work activities often require the mechanical

disturbance of contaminated materials, which may change the
concentration and composition of airborne contaminants.
Module Quiz
4
7/15/2013
Why should periodic monitoring be done of the site?
A) Because OSHA requires it.

Site conditions and thus atmospheric chemical conditions remain
B)
stable following the initial characterization.
C) There is no need.
Site conditions and thus atmospheric chemical conditions may
D)
change following the initial characterization.

Your answer:

completely
continuing
An increase in temperature___________ the vapor pressure of most chemicals.
A) increases
B) decreases
C) influences
D) does nothing

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
6
7/15/2013
Module 72
Hazardous Materials Sampling Part 2

Soil, Surface Water and Groundwater Sampling
Soil Sampling
Soil samples may be collected using a variety of methods and

equipment. The methods and equipment used are dependent
on the depth of the desired sample, the type of soil, and
whether the sample is required to be from disturbed or
undisturbed soil. Once collected, soil samples should be kept at
their in-ground temperature or lower. Refrigeration at 4°C with
a minimal holding time is the best approach. Samples should
also be protected from direct light. The two primary problems
associated with soil sampling involve cross-contamination of
samples and improper sample collection.
Therefore, these areas should be addressed in the sampling

plan. Cross-contamination problems can be eliminated or
minimized through the use of dedicated (i.e., assigned only to
that purpose) sampling equipment. If this is not possible, care
should be taken to properly decontaminate equipment.
Adhering to proper SOPs can reduce errors due to improper
collection.
Surface Soil Samples
Surface material can be removed to the required depth

using spades, shovels, and scoops. Next, a stainless
steel scoop, plastic spoon, or trowel is used to remove
and discard a thin layer of soil from the area that came
into contact with the spade. Most soil types can then
be sampled using a stainless steel scoop or plastic
spoon.
A flat, pointed mason trowel may be used to cut a

block of soil when undisturbed profiles are required.
One should avoid the use of equipment that is plated
with chrome or other materials.
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Soil Sampling at Given Depths
Soil samples at certain depths can be taken with

various sampling devices, such as a split spoon
sampler, a trier, and an auger. The method and
equipment used are dependent on the type of soil and
the type of sample required.
Auger
If the soil is not hard and rocky, an auger may be used
to bore a hole to a desired sampling depth. If
satisfactory, a sample can be collected directly from
the auger. If a core sample is needed, the auger tip is
replaced with a thin-wall tube sampler. The device is
then carefully lowered down the borehole and driven
into the soil. Once it is withdrawn, the core sample can
be collected. Several types of augers are available.
Bucket Augers
Bucket augers are better for direct sample recovery
since they provide a large volume of sample in a short
time.
Soil Sampling at Given Depths (cont’d)
Continuous Flight Augers

When continuous flight augers are used, the sample
can be collected directly from the flights, which are
usually at five foot intervals. The continuous flight
augers are satisfactory for use when a composite of the
complete soil column is desired.
Post Hole Augers

Post hole augers have limited use for sample
collection.
Trier
Shallow soil samples can be taken using a trier. The
trier must be inserted at an angle to minimize sample
spillage. The trier is rotated once or twice to cut a core
of undisturbed soil. It is then slowly withdrawn with the
slot facing upward.
Soil Sampling at Given Depths (cont’d)
Split Spoon Sampler

For undisturbed soil cores 18 to 24 inches in
length, a split spoon sampler is used. It may be
used on the soil surface but is generally used
with a power-operated drill rig. The split spoon
sampler can therefore be used in a wide variety
of soil types and at greater depths than other
types of equipment.
Backhoe
When a detailed examination of soil
characteristics is required, it may be necessary
to excavate a test pit or trench using a backhoe.
However, because of the relatively high cost of
the backhoe operation, this is the least cost
effective sampling method.
2
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Surface Water Sampling
To collect a shallow sample that is more than 10 feet

from the water's edge, a pond sampler or a small
peristaltic pump with stiff-walled tubing may be
used. Surface water may be sampled at greater
depths with an extended bottle sampler or a
weighted bottle. In both cases, the exterior of the
bottle is exposed to contamination. At depths up to
18 to 24 feet, a peristaltic pump may be used. If the
depth exceeds the lift capacity of the pump, a
Kemmerer bottle is typically used.
Note: When working around ponds or lagoons,

especially in PPE, drowning is a potential hazard. The
PPE can restrict one's movement and vision,
resulting in a trip or fall. Once in the water, the
weight of the PPE and the restricted movement can
be deadly. Also, be aware that a SCBA, which is part
of level A or B protection, does NOT work
underwater.
Groundwater Sampling
• Well installation plans must be carefully

followed to ensure that the well will
provide representative information. The
plans will also help to avoid puncturing
through a separating layer to an
uncontaminated aquifer (i.e., a water-
bearing rock formation).
• Decontaminate drilling and sampling

equipment thoroughly after to avoid
cross-contamination of the next well
• Avoid over pumping, which can alter

groundwater flow or affect
• Proper safety precautions must be taken

by sampling personnel. Any material that
comes out of a drill hole or well, either on-
site or off-site, may be contaminated.
Groundwater Sampling (cont’d)
Purging
It is important to realize that the water standing in a well, and
immediately surrounding a well, does not generally represent the
groundwater to be sampled. Therefore, the well must be purged
(i.e., removal of standing water) before sampling by pumping or
bailing. The purged water should be containerized and stored until
samples are analyzed. If the samples indicate that the purged water
is contaminated, the site-specific project plan should specify the
method of handling or disposal.
The volume of purged water to be removed should be specified in

the sampling plan. An alternative to volume-based removal is to
monitor the water level, temperature, conductivity, and pH as the
well is purged. When these factors stabilize, the well is sufficiently
purged. Wells may be purged using a variety of equipment including
a gas pressure displacement system, a submersible pump, and a
peristaltic pump. The most complete purging occurs if water is
pumped from just below the water surface. Care must also be taken
to purge the wells at the correct rate to avoid over pumping and
excessive draw-down (i.e., lowering of the water level).
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Gas Pressure Displacement System

In a gas pressure displacement system, the water is
displaced up the discharge tube by the increased gas
pressure above the water level. It is particularly useful when
the well depth is beyond the lifting capacity of a peristaltic
pump. However, the potential for increased gas diffusion into
the water makes this system unsuitable for when sampling
for volatile (i.e., vaporous) organic compounds or for most
pH factors.
Submersible Pumps
Submersible pumps are portable and have relatively high
pumping rates. However, they are heavy, awkward,
expensive, and difficult to decontaminate in the field.
Peristaltic Pumps
Peristaltic pumps are limited in their lifting capacity;
however, they have an advantage in that the same system
can be used not only for purging but also for sample
collection.
A peristaltic pump is useful when relatively large samples

are needed. However, a pump system may strip volatile
components as a result of the vacuum created by lifting.
Therefore, volatile organic analysis samples should be
collected using a bailer.
When collecting a sample with a peristaltic pump, the

following guidelines should be observed:
• Install clean medical-grade silicon tubing in the pump head

• Attach pump to required length of Teflon suction line; lower
to mid-point of well screen or slightly below the existing
water level
• The first liter of liquid collected is considered a system purge
• Fill sample bottles, letting the discharge flow gently down the
side of the bottle with a minimum of turbulence (i.e.,
disturbance)
• Preserve the sample (if directed by EPA sampling guidelines),
check the Teflon liner in the cap, and then secure the cap
• Complete the label, the chain of custody form, and the log
entry
• Place the sample bottle in a carrying container at 4 degrees
C
• Allow the system to drain, disassemble, and return tubing for
decontamination
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Bailers
Bailers are useful when samples must
be taken from depths beyond a
pump's lifting capacity and when
volatile component stripping is a
concern. A bailer allows samples to be
recovered with a minimum of aeration
(i.e., mixing with air). This is
accomplished by slowly lowering the
bailer until it contacts the water and
then by allowing the bailer to sink as it
fills.
The disadvantage of using bailers is

that they are time-consuming because
of their limited sample volume. In
addition, transfer of the sample to the
collection jar may cause aeration.
Pouring the water slowly down the side
of the sample bottle may reduce
aeration, by avoiding turbulence.
Module Quiz
For undisturbed soil cores 18 to 24 inches in length, a _____________ is used.
A) split spoon sample
B) shot spoon sample
C) short spoon sample
D) shot moon sample

Your answer:

completely
continuing
5
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______ are useful when samples must be taken from depths beyond a pump's lifting capacity
and when volatile component stripping is a concern.
A) Lifts
B) Bailers
C) Railers
D) Drills

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
Module 73
Hazardous Materials Sampling Part 3

Container Sampling
Container Sampling
Opening
Drums are usually opened and sampled in
place during site investigations. However,
remedial and emergency operations may
require a separate drum opening area.
Procedures for opening drums are the

same, regardless of where the drums are
opened. To enhance the efficiency and
safety of drum-opening personnel, the
following procedures should be instituted.
Container Sampling (cont’d)
• If a supplied-air respiratory protection system is used,

place a bank of air cylinders outside the work area and
supply air to the operators via air lines and escape
SCBAs. This enables workers to operate in relative
comfort for extended periods of time.
• Protect personnel by keeping them at a safe distance

from the drums being opened. If personnel must be
located near the drums, place explosion-resistant plastic
shields between them and the drums to protect them in
case of detonation. Locate controls for drum opening
equipment, monitoring equipment, and fire suppression
equipment behind the explosion-resistant plastic shield.
• If possible, monitor continuously during drum opening.

Place sensors of monitoring equipment, such as
colorimetric tubes, dosimeters, radiation survey
instruments, explosion meters, organic vapor analyzers,
and oxygen meters, as close as possible to the source of
contaminants (i.e., at the drum opening).
1
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Remote-controlled Opening
Use the following remote-controlled
devices for opening drums:
I. Pneumatically operated impact wrench to
remove bungs
II. Hydraulically or pneumatically operated
drum piercers
III. Backhoes equipped with bronze spikes for
penetrating drum tops in large-scale
operations
Drum Opening
a) Do not use picks, chisels and firearms to open
drums
b) Hang or balance the drum opening equipment to
minimize worker exertion
c) If the drum shows signs of swelling or bulging,
perform all steps slowly. Relieve excess pressure
before opening and, if possible, from a remote
location using such devices as a pneumatic impact
wrench or hydraulic penetration device. If pressure
must be relieved manually, place a barrier such as
explosion-resistant plastic sheeting between the
worker and bung to deflect any gas, liquid, or solids
which may be expelled as the bung is loosened.
d) Open exotic metal drums and polyethylene or
polyvinyl chloride-lined (PVC-lined) drums through
the bung by removal or drilling. Exercise extreme
caution when manipulating these containers.
Drum Opening (cont’d)
d) Do not open or sample individual containers within

laboratory packs.
e) Reseal open bungs and drill openings as soon as
possible with new bungs or plugs to avoid explosions
and/or vapor generation. If an open drum cannot be
resealed, place the drum into an overpack. Plug any
openings in pressurized drums with pressure-venting
caps set to a 5-psi (pounds per square inch) release to
allow venting of vapor pressure.
f) Decontaminate equipment after each use to avoid
mixing incompatible wastes.
g) Drum and container sampling can be one of the most
hazardous activities to worker safety and health because
it often involves direct contact with unidentified wastes.
2
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Drum Opening (cont’d)
When manually sampling from a drum, use the following safety

techniques:
h) Keep sampling personnel at a safe distance while drums are
being opened. Sample only after opening operations are
complete.
i) Do not lean over other drums to reach the drum being
sampled, unless absolutely necessary
j) Cover drum tops with plastic sheeting or other suitable non-
contaminated materials to avoid excessive contact with the
drum tops
k) Never stand on drums. This is extremely dangerous. Use
mobile steps or another platform to achieve the height
necessary to safely sample from the drums.
l) Obtain samples with either glass rods or vacuum pumps. Do
not use contaminated items such as discarded rags to sample.
The contaminants may contaminate the sample and may not be
compatible with the waste in the drum. Glass rods should be
removed prior to pumping to minimize damage to pumps.
Selection of Sampling Equipment
Selection of sampling equipment is dependent on

the type of container and the material to be
sampled. Sludge and sediment sampling is similar
to soil sampling in that the material may in some
cases be collected as though it were a solid.
Therefore, scoops, triers, corers, or a grain thief

may be used for collection. Again with containerized
liquids, the selection of sampling equipment is
dependent on the material and the container. A
device that is commonly used is a drum thief. These
glass tubes are inexpensive and can therefore be
disposed of instead of decontaminated.
Selection of Sampling Equipment (cont’d)
One draw back is that if the liquid has a low viscosity

it may be difficult to maintain the vacuum in the tube
and the sample may dribble from the tube as it is
withdrawn from the drum. Also, glass tubing should
not be used with materials containing hydrofluoric
acid or strong alkali solutions. PVC tubing may also be
used in a manner similar to the drum thief; however,
compatibility is a concern.
Another common device is the coliwasa, which is

often used for multi-phase samples. However, the
main disadvantage of the coliwasa is
decontamination. Note: The methods discussed for
surface water sampling may be an option, depending
on the size and accessibility of the container.
3
7/15/2013
Module Quiz
Do not ______ other drums to reach the drum being sampled, unless absolutely necessary.
A) sample
B) reach over
C) lean over

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Protect personnel by keeping them at a ________ from the drums being opened.
A) safe distance
B) near distance
C) close distance
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
4
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
Module 74
Site Emergencies Part 1

Planning and Personnel
Site Emergencies
The nature of work at hazardous waste sites makes

emergencies a continual possibility, no matter how
infrequently they may actually occur. Emergencies
happen quickly and unexpectedly and require
immediate response. At a hazardous waste site, an
emergency may be as limited as a worker
experiencing heat stress, or as vast as an explosion
that spreads toxic fumes throughout a community.
Any hazard on site can precipitate an emergency:

chemicals, biologic agents, radiation or physical
hazards may act alone or in concert to create
explosions, fires, spills, toxic atmospheres, or other
dangerous and harmful situations. The following lists
common causes of site emergencies.
Worker-Related
• Minor accidents (slips, trips, falls).

• Chemical exposure.
• Medical problems (host stress, heat stroke,
aggravation of pre-existing conditions)
• Personal protective equipment failure, air source
failure, tearing or permeation of protective clothing,
face piece fogging).
• Physical injury (injuries from hot or flying objects,
loose clothing entangling in machinery, serious falls,
vehicle accidents).
• Electrical (burns, shock, electrocution).
1
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Waste-Related
• Fire
• Explosion
• Leak
• Release of toxic vapors
• Reaction of incompatible chemicals
• Collapse of containers
• Discovery of radioactive material
Site emergencies are characterized by their potential

for complexity: uncontrolled toxic chemicals may be
numerous and unidentified; their effects may be
synergistic. Hazards may potentiate one another-for
example, a flammable spill feeding a fire. Rescue
personnel attempting to remove injured workers may
themselves become victims. This variability means that
advance planning, including anticipation of different
emergency scenarios and thorough preparation for
contingencies, is essential to protect worker and
community health and safety.
Waste-Related (cont’d)
This module outlines important factors to

be considered when planning for and
responding to emergencies.
It defines the nature of site emergencies,

lists the types of emergencies that may
occur, and outlines a Contingency Plan
and its components, which include
personnel roles, lines of authority,
training, communication systems, site
mapping, site security and control,
refuges, evacuation routes,
decontamination, a medical program,
step-by-step emergency response
procedures, documentation, and
reporting to outside agencies.
Planning
When an emergency occurs, decisive action is required. Rapidly

made choices may have far reaching, long-term consequences.
Delays of minutes can create life-threatening situations.
Personnel must be ready to immediately rescue or respond;
equipment must be on hand and in good working order. In order
to handle emergencies effectively, planning is essential. For this
purpose, a Contingency Plan should be developed.
A Contingency Plan is a written document that sets forth policies

and procedures for responding to site emergencies. It should
incorporate the following:
Personnel: Site:
- Mapping
- Roles
- Security and control
- Lines of authority - Refuges
- Training - Evacuation routes
- Communication - Decontamination stations
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Planning (cont’d)
• Medical/first aid
• Equipment
• Emergency procedures
• Documentation
• Reporting
Overall, a Contingency Plan should:

• Be designed as a discrete section of the Site Safety Plan.
• Be compatible and integrated with the pollution response,
disaster, fire, and emergency plans of local, state, and
federal agencies.
• Be rehearsed regularly using drills and mock situations.
• Be reviewed periodically in response to new or changing
site conditions or information.
Personnel
This component of the plan includes not only onsite and

offsite personnel with specific emergency response roles,
but also others who may be on site, such as contractors,
other agency representatives, and visitors.
Emergency personnel may be deployed in a variety of

ways. Depending on the nature and scope of the
emergency, the size of the site, and the number of
personnel, the emergency response cadre can include
individuals, small or large teams, or several interacting
teams. Although deployment is determined on a site-by-
site basis, pertinent general guidelines and
recommendations are listed below.
In all cases the organizational structure should show a

clear chain-of-command, every individual should know his
or her position and authority, and the chain-of-command
must be flexible enough to handle multiple emergencies,
such as a rescue and a spill response or two rescues with
a fire and spill response.
Leader
In an emergency situation, one person must be able to

assume total control and decision making on site. This
leader must:
• Be identified in the emergency response plan. This

person may be, for example, the Project Team Leader,
Site Safety Officer, or Field Team Leader.
• Be backed up by a specified alternate(s).
• Have the authority to resolve all disputes about health
and safety requirements and precautions.
• Be authorized to seek and purchase supplies as
necessary.
• Have control over activities of everyone entering the
site, for example, contractors, fire departments, and
police.
• Have the clear support of management.
3
7/15/2013
Site Safety Officer
• Recommends that work be stopped if any operation

threatens worker or public health or safety.
• Knows emergency procedures, evacuation routes, and
the appropriate telephone numbers including: the
ambulance, medical facility, poison control center, fire
department, and police department.
• Notifies local public emergency officials.
• Provides for emergency medical care on site.
Command Post Supervisor
• Notifies emergency support personnel by telephone or

radio in case rescue operations are required.
• Assists the Site Safety Officer in a rescue, if necessary.
Rescue Team
• An emergency rescue team stands by, partially dressed
in protective gear, near the Exclusion Zone ready to
rescue any workers whose health or safety is
endangered.
• State emergency response personnel (varies among
states).
Decontamination Station Officers
• Perform emergency decontamination.
24-Hour Medical Team

• Transportation and treatment of victims by ambulance
personnel, personnel at local clinics or hospitals, and
physicians.
Communication Personnel
• Local emergency service networks provide
communication links for mutual aid.
• Civil Defense organizations and local radio and
television stations provide information to the public
during an emergency.
4
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Environmental Scientists
• Predict the immediate and future movement of released hazardous

substances through the geologic and hydrologic environment and air.
• Assess the effect of this movement on groundwater quality, surface
water quality, and air quality.
• Determine the probable movement of released toxic gases.
• Estimate the expected concentration of gases in the community and the
expected duration of exposure.
• Predict the exposure levels of people and the ecosystem to the materials.
Hazardous Chemicals Experts

• Provide immediate advice to those at the scene of a chemical-related
emergency.
Firefighters
• Respond to fires that occur at a site; rescue victims.
Meteorologists
• Provide meteorological information needed by environmental scientists.
Teams
Although individuals (e.g., the Site Safety Officer)

may perform certain tasks in emergencies, in most
cases teams provide greater efficiency and safety.
Teams composed of onsite personnel may be
created for specific emergency purposes, such as
decontamination, rescue, and entry. Rescue teams
can be used during a particularly dangerous
operation, or at large sites with multiple work
parties in the Exclusion Zone.
Their sole function is to remain near hazardous

work areas, partially dressed in protective gear,
ready for full suiting and immediate rescue of any
endangered worker. These teams should be capable
of administering cardiopulmonary resuscitation
(CPR) and emergency first aid. Other teams can be
formed for responding to containment emergencies
and fire-fighting until offsite assistance arrives.
Emergency Recognition and Prevention
On a day-to-day basis, individual personnel should be constantly alert for

indicators of potentially hazardous situations and for signs and
symptoms in themselves and others that warn of hazardous conditions
and exposures. Rapid recognition of dangerous situations can avert an
emergency. Before daily work assignments, regular meetings should be
held.
Discussion should include:

• Tasks to be performed.
• Time constraints (e.g., rest breaks, air tank changes).
• Hazards that may be encountered, including their effects, how to
recognize symptoms or monitor them, concentration limits, or other
danger signals.
• Emergency procedures.
After daily work assignments, a debriefing session should be held to

review work accomplished and problems observed.
5
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Offsite Personnel
These may include individual experts such as meteorologists or toxicologists

and representatives or groups from local, state, and federal organizations
offering rescue, response, or support. As part of advance
planning, site personnel should:
• Make arrangements with individual experts to provide guidance as needed.

• Make arrangements with the appropriate agencies (e.g., local fire department,
state environmental agency, EPA regional office) for support.
• Alert these authorities to the types of emergencies that may arise.
• Determine their estimated response time and resources.
• Identify backup facilities.
• Provide training and information about hazards on site and special procedures
for handling them.
• Establish a contact person and means of notification at each agency.
If a significant chemical release occurs at a hazardous waste site, the National

Response Center in Washington, D.C., should be contacted (Telephone: 800-
424-8802). The NRC will activate federal response under the National
Contingency Plan.
Module Quiz
A _________ is a written document that sets forth policies and procedures for responding to
site emergencies.
A) Rescue Plan
B) Contingency Plan
C) Do Plan

Your answer:

completely
continuing
6
7/15/2013
Who performs emergency decontamination?
A) Decontamination Experts
B) Decontamination Station Officers
C) Emergency Station Officers
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
7
7/15/2013
Module 75

Communications, Safe Distances and Site Mapping
Communications
In an emergency, crucial messages must be conveyed

quickly and accurately. Site staff must be able to
communicate information such as the location of injured
personnel, orders to evacuate the site, and notice of
blocked evacuation routes, even through noise and
confusion.
Outside support sources must be reached, help obtained,

and measures for public notification ensured, if necessary.
To do this, a separate set of internal emergency signals
should be developed and rehearsed daily. External
communication systems and procedures should be clear and
accessible to all workers.
Internal Communications
Internal emergency communication systems are used to alert

workers to danger, convey safety information, and maintain site
control. Any effective system or combination may be employed.
Radios or field telephones are often used when work teams are
far from the Command Post. Alarms or short clear messages can
be conveyed by audible signals, e.g., bullhorns, megaphones,
sirens, bells, whistles, or visual signals such as colored flags,
flares, lights, and hand or whole-body movements. The primary
system must have a backup. For example, hand signals may be
used as a backup if radio communications fail.
All internal systems should be:
• Clearly understood by all personnel.

• Checked and practiced daily.
• Intrinsically safe (spark-free).
1
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Internal Communications (cont’d)
A special set of emergency signals should be set up. These

should be:
• Different from ordinary signals
• Brief and exact
• Limited in number so that they are easily remembered.
Examples include: stop, evacuate, help, all clear. Any set of

signals may be used to convey these messages as long as all
personnel understand their meaning.
When designing and practicing communication systems,

remember that:
• Background noise on site will interfere with talking and listening.
• Wearing personal protective equipment will impede hearing and
limit vision (e.g., the ability to recognize hand and body signals).
• Inexperienced radio users may need practice in speaking clearly.
External Communications
Offsite sources must be contacted to get assistance or

to inform officials about hazardous conditions that
may affect public or environmental safety. The
telephone is the most common mode of offsite
communication; cell phones are considered a
necessity at all but the most remote sites.
The National Response Center (NRC) (Telephone:

800-424-8802) should be contacted in the event of a
significant chemical release. The NRC will contact the
appropriate federal On-Scene Coordinator.
All personnel must be familiar with the protocol
(phone number or emergency code, contact person)
for contacting public emergency aid teams such as
fire departments, ambulance units, and hospitals.
If there is no site telephone system, all personnel

must know the location of the nearest public
telephone. A supply of telephone change and the
necessary phone numbers must be readily available.
Site Mapping
Detailed information about the site is essential for advance

planning. For this purpose, a site map is a valuable tool. It
serves as a graphic record of the locations and types of
hazards, a reference source, and a method of
documentation. This map can be a duplicate of the one
developed for the Site Safety Plan but it should focus on
potential areas where emergencies may develop. Pins and
colored flags can be used to mark changes in personnel
deployment, hazard areas, and equipment locations.
The map should highlight:

• Hazard areas, especially potential IDLH conditions.
• Site terrain: topography, buildings, barriers.
• Evacuation routes.
• Site accessibility by land, sea, and air.
• Work crew locations.
• Changes (e.g., work activities, vandalism, accidents).
• Offsite populations or environments at potential risk.
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Safe Distances and Refuges
Safe Distances
No single recommendation can be given for evacuation

or safe distances because of the wide variety of
hazardous substances and releases found at sites. For
example, a "small" chlorine leak may call for an
isolation distance of only 140 feet (43 meters), while a
"large" leak may require an evacuation distance of 1
mile (1.6 kilometers) or more, depending on the wind
direction.
Safe distances can only be determined at the time of

an emergency, based on a combination of site-and
incident-specific factors. However, planning and
outlining potential emergency scenarios will help
familiarize personnel with points to consider.
Factors that influence safe distances include:

• The toxicological properties of the substance.
• The physical state of the substance.
Safe Distances and Refuges (cont’d)
• The quantity released

• The rate of release
• The method of release
• The vapor pressure of the substance
• Vapor density relative to air
• Wind speed and direction
• Atmospheric stability
• The height of release
• Air temperature and temperature change with
altitude
• Local topography (e.g., barriers may enhance or
retard a cloud or plume, and attenuate a blast)
Public Evacuation
If an incident may threaten the health or

safety of the surrounding community, the
public will need to be informed and
possibly evacuated from the area.
Site management should plan for this in

coordination with the appropriate local,
state and federal groups, such as the
Federal Emergency Management Agency,
the Civil Defense, county sheriff, local
radio and television stations, municipal
transportation systems, National Guard,
and police.
3
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Module Quiz
All internal communication systems should be:
A) Clearly understood by all personnel.
B) Checked and practiced daily.
C) Intrinsically safe (spark-free).
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
__________ systems and procedures should be clear and accessible to all workers.
A) Decontamination Experts
B) Procedures
C) External communication
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
4
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
Module 76

Evacuations and Emergency Decontamination
Personal Locator Systems
In an emergency, it is vital for the

Project Team Leader (or designee) and
rescue personnel to rapidly determine
where workers are located and who may
be injured. A passive locator system (i.e,
a written record of the location of all
personnel on site at any time) could be
used to help find personnel in an
emergency.
Any such system should be:

• Graphic (such as a drawing with a
written key).
• Roughly drawn to scale, with the scale
and visible landmarks included.
• Kept current
• Easy to locate
• Stored outside the Exclusion Zone
Personal Locator Systems (cont’d)
A good passive locator system is a site map

with flags or color-headed pins identifying each
worker.
Active locator systems can also be used. These

are worn or carried by individual personnel, and
are activated by actions such as flipping a
switch, a decrease in air supply, or a fall. They
have the advantage of precisely locating
Individuals.
1
7/15/2013
Evacuation Routes and Procedures
A severe emergency, such as a fire or explosion, may cut

workers off from the normal exit near the Command Post.
Therefore, alternate routes for evacuating victims and
endangered personnel should be established in advance,
marked, and kept clear.
Routes should be directed (1) from the Exclusion Zone through

an upwind Contamination Reduction Zone to the Support Zone,
and (2) from the Support Zone to an offsite location in case
conditions necessitate a general site evacuation.
Evacuation Routes and Procedures (cont’d)
The following guidelines will help in establishing safe evacuation

routes.
Place the evacuation routes in the predominantly upwind direction

of the Exclusion Zone. (At a very large site, or one with many
obstacles, some exits may be placed in the downwind fence line,
normally an undesirable location. If this is done, workers must
know that they are not "out" until they reach the designated safety
area.)
Run the evacuation routes through the Contamination Reduction

Zone. Even if there is not enough time to process the evacuees
through decontamination procedures, there should be a
mechanism for accounting for all personnel.
Consider the accessibility of potential routes. Take into

account obstructions such as locked gates, trenches, pits,
tanks, drums, or other barriers, and the extra time or
equipment needed to maneuver around or through them.
Develop two or more routes that lead to safe areas and
that are separate or remote from each other. Multiple
routes are necessary in case one is blocked by a fire, spill,
or vapor cloud. These routes must not overlap because if a
common point were obstructed by a fire or other
emergency, all intersecting routes would be blocked.
Mark routes "safe" or "not safe" on a daily basis according

to wind direction and other factors. Mark evacuation routes
with materials such as barricade tape, flagging, or traffic
cones. Equally important, mark areas that do not offer safe
escape or that should not be used in an emergency, such
as low ground, which can fill with gases or vapors, or
routes blocked by natural barriers, such as cliffs or
streams.
2
7/15/2013
Consider the mobility constraints of personnel wearing

protective clothing and equipment. They will have
difficulty crossing even small streams and going up and
down banks. Place ladders across any cut or excavation
that is more than 3 feet (1 meter) deep. For long cuts,
place ladders at least every 25 feet (7.5 meters), and
for deep cuts, place plywood or planks on top of
ladders.
Provide ladders for rapid descent from areas or

structures elevated more than 3 feet (1 meter). Use
only ladders capable of supporting a 250-lb (114-kg)
load.
Secure ladders to prevent slipping.
Place standard cleated ramps ("chickenboard") across

ditches and other similar obstacles. Add a railing and
toe boards if the board is narrow or steeply sloped.
Check the toe and body clearance of ladders to make

sure that personnel wearing protective clothing and
SCBA’s can use them.
Check the clearance of access ports, such as

crawlspaces, hatches, manholes, and tunnels to make
sure that personnel wearing a protective ensemble can
get through. In any case, access ports should be at
least 3 feet (1 meter) in diameter where possible.
(Standard tank man ways are smaller.)
Make escape routes known to all who go on site.
Decontamination
When planning for decontamination in

medical emergencies, procedures should be
developed for:
• Decontaminating the victim.
• Protecting medical personnel.
• Disposing of contaminated protective
equipment and wash solutions.
These activities should be coordinated. The

decision whether or not to decontaminate a
victim is based on the type and severity of
the illness or injury and the nature of the
contaminant. For some emergency victims,
immediate decontamination may be an
essential part of life-saving first aid. For
others, decontamination may aggravate the
injury or delay life-saving treatment. If
decontamination does not
interfere with essential treatment, it should
be performed.
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7/15/2013
If decontamination can be done:

- Wash, rinse and/or cut off protective
clothing and equipment.
If decontamination cannot be done:

- Wrap the victim in blankets, plastic,
or rubber to reduce contamination of
other personnel.
- Alert emergency and offsite medical
personnel to potential contamination;
instruct them about specific
decontamination procedures if
necessary.
- Send along site personnel familiar
with the incident.
Equipment
In an emergency, equipment will be necessary to

rescue and treat victims, to protect response
personnel, and to mitigate hazardous conditions on
site (e.g., to contain chemicals or fight fires).
Some regular equipment can double for emergency

use. Because of its high cost, most heavy
equipment (e.g., bulldozers, drum movers, pumps)
employed in emergencies will also be used for
regular work assignments. All equipment should be
in working order, fueled, and available when an
emergency occurs. Provide safe and unobstructed
access for all firefighting and emergency equipment
at all times.
Refill all empty self-contained breathing

apparatus (SCBA) tanks and prepare them
for emergencies immediately after normal
use.
Stock higher levels of protective equipment

than required for anticipated hazards (e.g., a
site where Level C equipment is normally
used should have Level A and B equipment
available for emergencies).
Special equipment should be obtained

depending on the specific types of
emergencies that may occur at a particular
site and the capabilities of backup offsite
personnel. For example, if the nearest fire
department is small and only carries one
bucket of foaming solution because of its high
cost and short shelf life, a site may need to
stock a large quantity of foam.
4
7/15/2013
Personal Protective Equipment (cont’d)
When determining the type and quantity of special

equipment, the following factors should be
considered:
• The types of emergencies that may arise. For each

emergency, consider a probable and a worst-case
scenario.
• The types of hazards that site personnel may be
exposed to and the appropriate containment,
mitigative, and protective measures.
• The capabilities and estimated response times of
offsite emergency personnel.
• The number of site personnel who could be victims
during an emergency.
• The probable number of personnel available for
response.
Medical Treatment/First Aid
In emergencies, toxic exposures and

hazardous situations that cause
injuries and illnesses will vary from
site to site. Medical treatment may
range from bandaging of minor cuts
and abrasions to life-saving
techniques. In many cases, essential
medical help may not be immediately
available.
For this reason, it is vital to train

onsite emergency personnel in on-
the-spot treatment techniques, to
establish and maintain telephone
contact with medical experts and to
establish liaisons with local hospitals
and ambulance services.
Medical Treatment/First Aid (cont’d)
When designing this program, these essential points should

be included:
• Train a cadre of personnel in emergency treatment such as

first aid and CPR. Training should be thorough, frequently
repeated, and geared to site-specific hazards.
• Establish liaison with local medical personnel, for example:

24-hour on-call physician, medical specialists, local
hospitals, ambulance service, and poison control center.
• Inform and educate these personnel about site-specific

hazards so that they can be optimally helpful if an
emergency occurs. Develop procedures for contacting them;
familiarize all onsite emergency personnel with these
procedures.
• Set up onsite emergency first-aid stations; see that they

are well supplied and restocked immediately after each
emergency.
5
7/15/2013
Module Quiz
When planning for decontamination in medical emergencies, procedures should be developed

for:
A) Decontaminating the victim.
B) Protecting medical personnel.

Disposing of contaminated protective equipment and wash
C)
solutions.
D) All of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
It is vital to train ____________ in on-the-spot treatment techniques.
A) decontamination experts
B) onsite emergency personnel
C) all visitors
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
6
7/15/2013
Your Score {score}

Attempts
7
7/15/2013
Module 77

Emergency Response Procedures and Documentation
Emergency Response Procedures
Notify onsite emergency response

personnel about the emergency and
include essential information:
• What happened
• Where it happened
• Whom it happened to
• When it happened
• How it happened
• The extent of damage
• What aid is needed
Emergency Response Procedures
Response operations usually follow a sequence that starts

with the notification of trouble and continues through the
preparation of equipment and personnel for the next
emergency.
Notification
Alert personnel to the emergency. Sound a site alarm to:
• Notify personnel
• Stop work activities if necessary
• Lower background noise in order to speed communication
• Begin emergency procedures
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7/15/2013
Size-Up
Available information about the incident and

emergency response capabilities should be evaluated.
The following information should be determined, to
the extent possible:
· What happened:
- Type of incident
- Cause of incident
- Extent of chemical release and transport
- Extent of damage to structures, equipment, and
terrain
Size-Up (cont’d)
· Casualties:
- Victims (number, location, and condition)

- Treatment required
- Missing personnel
· What could happen. Consider:
- Types of chemicals on site

- Potential for fire, explosion, and release of hazardous
substances
- Location of all personnel on site relative to hazardous
areas
- Potential for danger to offsite population or
environment
Size-Up (cont’d)
· What can be done. Consider:
- Equipment and personnel resources needed for victim rescue and

hazard mitigation
- Number of uninjured personnel available for response
- Resources available on site
- Resources available from outside groups and agencies
- Time for outside resources to reach the site
- Hazards involved in rescue and response
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Size-Up (cont’d)
· Rescue/Response Action
Based on the available information, the type of

action required should be decided and the
necessary steps implemented. Some actions
may be done concurrently. No one should
attempt emergency response or rescue until
backup personnel and evacuation routes have
been identified.
Rescue/response actions may include:

Enforce the buddy system: Allow no one to
enter an Exclusion Zone or hazardous area
without a partner. At all times, personnel in
the Exclusion Zone should be in line-of-sight or
communications contact with the Command
Post Supervisor or designee.
Rescue/Response Action
· Survey casualties:
- Locate all victims and assess their condition.
- Determine resources needed for stabilization and
transport.
· Assess existing and potential hazards to site

personnel and to the offsite population.
Determine:
- Whether and how to respond.
- The need for evacuation of site personnel and offsite
population.
- The resources needed for evacuation and response.
Rescue/Response Action (cont’d)
· Allocate resources - Allocate onsite personnel and equipment to

rescue and incident response operations.
· Request aid - Contact the required offsite personnel or facilities,

such as the ambulance, fire department, and police.
· Control - Bring the hazardous situation under complete or

temporary control; use measures to prevent the spread of the
emergency.
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7/15/2013
· Extricate - Remove or assist victims from the area.
· Decontaminate - Use established procedures to

decontaminate uninjured personnel in the Contamination
Reduction Zone. If the emergency makes this area
unsafe, establish a new decontamination area at an
appropriate distance. Decontaminate victims before or
after stabilization as their medical condition indicates.
· Stabilize - Administer any medical procedures that are

necessary before the victims can be moved. Stabilize or
permanently fix the hazardous condition (e.g., repack;
empty filled runoff dikes). Attend to what caused the
emergency and anything (e.g., drums, tanks) damaged or
endangered by the emergency.
· Transport - Take measures to minimize chemical

contamination of the transport vehicle and
ambulance and hospital personnel. Adequately
protected rescuers should decontaminate the victims
before transport. If this is not possible, cover the
victims with adequate sheeting. Before
transportation, determine the level of protection
necessary for transport personnel.
Provide them with disposable coveralls, disposable

gloves, and supplied air, as necessary, for their
protection. If appropriate, have response personnel
accompany victims to the medical facility to advise
on decontamination.
· Evacuate - Move site personnel to a safe distance

upwind of the incident.
- Monitor the incident for significant changes. The

hazards may diminish, permitting personnel to
reenter the site, or increase and require public
evacuation.
- Inform public safety personnel when there is a

potential or actual need to evacuate the offsite
population. Do not attempt large-scale public
evacuation. This is the responsibility of government
authorities.
4
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Follow-Up
Before normal site activities are

resumed, personnel must be fully
prepared and equipped to handle
another emergency.
· Notify appropriate government

agencies as required. For example,
OSHA must be notified if there have
been any fatalities or five or more
hospitalizations.
· Restock all equipment and supplies.

Replace or repair damaged
equipment. Clean and refuel
equipment for future use.
· Review and revise all aspects of the

Contingency Plan according to new
site conditions and lessons learned
from the emergency response.
Follow-Up (cont’d)
When reviewing the information, consider typical

questions such as:
- Cause: What caused the emergency?
- Prevention: Was it preventable? If so, how?
- Procedures: Were inadequate or incorrect orders
given or actions taken?
Were these the result of bad judgment, wrong or

insufficient information, or poor procedures? Can
procedures or training be improved?
Site profile: How does the incident affect the site

profile? How are other site cleanup activities
affected?
- Community: How is community safety affected?
- Liability: Who is liable for damage payments?
Documentation
The Project Team Leader should initiate the

investigation and documentation of the incident.
This is important in all cases, but especially so
when the incident has resulted in personal injury,
onsite property damage, or damage to the
surrounding environment.
Documentation may be used to help avert

recurrences, as evidence in future legal action, for
assessment of liability by insurance companies,
and for review by government agencies. Methods
of documenting can include a written transcript
taken from tape recordings made during the
emergency or a bound field book (not a loose leaf
book) with notes.
5
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Documentation (cont’d)
The document must be:
· Accurate: All information must be recorded

objectively.
· Authentic: A chain-of-custody procedure should
be used.
Each person making an entry must date and sign

the document. Keep the number of documenters to
a minimum (to avoid confusion and because they
may have to give testimony at hearings or in
court).
Nothing should be erased. If details change or

revisions are needed, the person making the
notation should mark a horizontal line through the
old material and initial the change.
Module Quiz
Take measures to ______________ of the transport vehicle and ambulance and hospital
personnel.
A) minimize chemical contamination
B) maximize chemical contamination
C) undress people

Your answer:

completely
continuing
6
7/15/2013
Evacuate means to___________.
A) move site personnel to an unsafe distance upwind of the incident.
B) move site personnel to a safe distance downwind of the incident.
C) move site personnel to a safe distance upwind of the incident.
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
7
7/15/2013
Module 78
Compressed Gases
Introduction
Many industrial and laboratory operations require the use of

compressed gases for a variety of different operations.
Compressed gases present a unique hazard. Depending on
the particular gas, there is a potential for simultaneous
exposure to both mechanical and chemical hazards.
Gases may be:

• Flammable or combustible
• Explosive
• Corrosive
• Poisonous
• Inert
• Cryogenic
• or a combination of hazards
All cylinders are under high pressure!
Types and Hazards of Compressed Gases
Asphyxiating Gas: Is usually inert, that may cause suffocation

by displacing the oxygen in the air necessary to sustain life.
Examples: Acetylene, Argon, Carbon Dioxide, Ethane, Helium,
Hydrogen, Liquid Nitrogen, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Propane,
Sulfur Hexafluoride.
Compressed Gas: A gas or mixture of gases having an absolute

pressure exceeding 40 psi at 70 degrees Fahrenheit or, A gas or
mixture of gases having an absolute pressure exceeding 104 psi
at 130 degrees Fahrenheit regardless of the pressure at 70
degrees Fahrenheit, or, A liquid having a vapor pressure
exceeding 40 psi at 100 degrees Fahrenheit.
Corrosive Gas: A gas that causes visible destruction of, or

irreversible alterations in living tissues by chemical action at the
point of contact or which has a DOT label Corrosive. Examples:
Ammonia, Chlorine.
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Types and Hazards of Compressed Gases (cont’d)
Cryogenic fluid: A refrigerated liquefied gas having a boiling

point colder than -130 degrees Fahrenheit at 14.7 psi absolute, or
which DOT requires the label of non-flammable, nonpoisonous
compressed gas including - compressed gas, liquefied gas,
pressurized cryogenic gas, compressed gas in solution,
asphyxiating gas and oxidizing gas. Examples: Ammonia, Ethane,
Liquid Nitrogen, Propane.
Flammable Gas: A gas which, at ambient temperature and

pressure, forms a flammable mixture with air at a concentration of
13 percent by volume or less, or a gas which at ambient
temperature and pressure, forms a range of flammable mixtures
with air wider than 12 percent by volume, regardless of the lower
limit, or one for which the DOT requires their red flammable gas
label. Examples: Acetylene, Ammonia, Arsine, Carbon Monoxide,
Ethane, Germane, Hydrogen, Methane, Propane, Silane.
Oxidizer Gas: A gas that is nonflammable

but can support and vigorously accelerate
combustion in the presence of an ignition
source and fuel or is labeled by the DOT as
oxidizer. Examples: Compressed air, Chlorine,
Nitric Oxide, Nitrous Oxide, Oxygen.
Toxic Gas: a gas that has a lethal

concentration (LC 50) in air of 2000 ppm or
less by volume of gas (Highly Toxic has an LC
50 of 200 ppm or less) or gas that required
DOT label poison. Examples: Arsine, Carbon
Monoxide, Chlorine, Germane, Nitric Oxide.
Types of Compressed Gases (cont’d)
If the gas is flammable, flash points lower

than room temperature compounded by
high rates of diffusion present a danger of
fire or explosion. Additional hazards of
reactivity and toxicity of the gas, as well
as asphyxiation, can be caused by high
concentrations of even "harmless" gases
such as nitrogen.
Since the gases are contained in heavy,

highly pressurized metal containers, the
large amount of potential energy resulting
from compression of the gas makes the
cylinder a potential rocket or
fragmentation bomb.
2
7/15/2013
Careful procedures are necessary for

handling the various compressed
gases, the cylinders containing the
compressed gases, regulators or valves
used to control gas glow, and the
piping used to confine gases during
flow.
Users of compressed gas should

become familiar with the proper
procedures for operating the cylinders
and the properties and inherent
hazards of the products they contain.
Reference labeling, material safety data

sheets and other safety literature for
specific hazard information.
Identification
The contents of any compressed gas cylinder must

be clearly identified. Such identification should be
stenciled or stamped on the cylinder or a label.
Commercially available three-part tag systems may
also be used for identification and inventory.
No compressed gas cylinder should be accepted for

use that does not legibly identify its contents by
name. If the labeling on a cylinder becomes unclear
or an attached tag is defaced to the point the
contents cannot be identified, the cylinder should
be marked "contents unknown" and returned
directly to the manufacturer.
Identification (cont’d)
Never rely on the color of the cylinder for

identification. Color coding is not reliable
because cylinder colors may vary with the
supplier. Additionally, labels on caps have
little value because caps are
interchangeable. The labels should be color
coded to distinguish hazardous gases (such
as flammable, toxic, or corrosive
substances) (e.g., a yellow background and
black letters).
All gas lines leading from a compressed gas

supply should be clearly labeled to identify
the gas, the laboratory or area served, and
the relevant emergency telephone
numbers. Signs should be conspicuously
posted in areas where flammable
compressed gases are stored, identifying
the substances and appropriate precautions
(e.g., HYDROGEN - FLAMMABLE GAS - NO
SMOKING - NO OPEN FLAMES).
3
7/15/2013
Identification (cont’d)
Module Quiz
Never rely on the _______ of the cylinder for identification.
A) label
B) color
C) weight

Your answer:

completely
continuing
4
7/15/2013
A gas that is nonflammable but can support and vigorously accelerate combustion in the
presence of an ignition source and fuel is a _________.
A) Oxidizer Gas
B) Toxic Gas
C) Reactive Gas
D) Compressed Gas

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
5
7/15/2013
Module 79
Compressed Gas Cylinders Handling and Use
Handling and Use
Gas cylinders must be secured AT ALL TIMES to prevent

tipping. Cylinders may be attached to a bench top, individually
to the wall, placed in a holding cage, or have a non-tip base
attached. Chains or sturdy straps may be used to secure
them.
If a leaking cylinder is discovered, move it to a safe place (if it

is safe to do so). You should also call the vendor as soon as
possible. Under no circumstances should any attempt be made
to repair a cylinder or valve!
Cylinders must be secured in an upright position at all times.
The user shall not modify, tamper with, obstruct, remove, or

repair any part of the cylinder, including the pressure relief
device and the cylinder valve or the valve protective device.
Compressed gas streams shall not be directed toward any

person as this may cause serious injury to the eyes or body.
Handling and Use (cont’d)
Standard cylinder-valve outlet connections have been

devised by the Compressed Gas Association (CGA) to
prevent mixing of incompatible gases. The outlet
threads used vary in diameter; some are internal, some
are external; some are right-handed, some are left-
handed.
In general, right-handed threads are used for non-fuel

and water-pumped gases, while left-handed threads are
used for fuel and oil-pump gases. To minimize
undesirable connections, only CGA standard
combinations of valves and fittings should be used in
compressed gas installations; the assembly of
miscellaneous parts should be avoided. The threads on
cylinder valves, regulators and other fittings should be
examined to ensure they correspond and are
undamaged.
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7/15/2013
Cylinders should be placed with the valve

accessible at all times. The main cylinder valve
should be closed as soon as it is no longer
necessary that it be open (i.e., it should never
be left open when the equipment is unattended
or not operating).
This is necessary not only for safety when the

cylinder is under pressure, but also to prevent
the corrosion and contamination resulting from
diffusion of air and moisture into the cylinder
after it has been emptied.
Cylinders are equipped with either a

hand wheel or stem valve. For cylinders
equipped with a stem valve, the valve
spindle key should remain on the stem
while the cylinder is in service. Only
wrenches or tools provided by the
cylinder supplier should be used to open
or close a valve.
At no time should pliers be used to open

a cylinder valve. Some valves may
require washers; this should be checked
before the regulator is fitted.
Cylinder valves should be opened slowly. Main

cylinder valves should never be opened all the
way. When opening the valve on a cylinder
containing an irritating or toxic gas, the user
should position the cylinder with the valve
pointing away from them and warn those
working nearby.
Cylinders containing flammable gases such as

hydrogen or acetylene must not be stored
in close proximity to open flames, areas
where electrical sparks are generated, or
where other sources of ignition may be
present.
2
7/15/2013
Cylinders containing acetylene shall never be

stored on their side.
An open flame shall never be used to detect

leaks of flammable gases. Hydrogen flame is
invisible, so "feel" for heat. One common
practice is to use a natural bristle broom to
"sweep" the air in front of you.
All cylinders containing flammable gases should

be stored in a well-ventilated area.
Oxygen cylinders, full or empty, shall not be stored in the

same vicinity as flammable gases. The proper storage for
oxygen cylinders requires that a minimum of 50 feet be
maintained between flammable gas cylinders and oxygen
cylinders or the storage areas be separated, at a
minimum, by a fire wall five feet high with a fire rating of
0.5 hours.
Greasy and oily materials shall never be stored around

oxygen; nor should oil or grease be applied to fittings.
Always use a cylinder wrench or other tightly fitting

wrench to tighten the regulator nut and tube connections.
Use "backup" wrenches to minimize stress on tubing and
fittings where appropriate.
Teflon tape should never be used on cylinder connections

or tube-fitting connections. Use Teflon tape only on pipe
threads where the seal is made at the threads. All other
connections have metal to metal face seals or gasket seals.
3
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Regulators are gas specific and not

necessarily interchangeable!
Always make sure that the regulator

and valve fittings are compatible.
If there is any question as to the

suitability of a regulator for a particular
gas, call your vendor for advice. After
the regulator is attached, the cylinder
valve should be opened just enough to
indicate pressure on the regulator
gauge (no more than one full turn) and
all the connections checked with a soap
solution for leaks. Never use oil or
grease on the regulator of a cylinder
valve.
The following rules should always be followed in regards

to piping:
• Copper piping shall not be used for acetylene.

• Plastic piping shall not be used for any portion of a
high pressure system.
• Do not use cast iron pipe for chlorine.
• Do not conceal distribution lines where a high
concentration of a leaking hazardous gas can build up
and cause an accident.
• Distribution lines and their outlets should be clearly
labeled as to the type of gas contained.
• Piping systems should be inspected for leaks on a
regular basis.
• Special attention should be given to fittings as well as
possible cracks that may have developed.
A cylinder should never be emptied to a pressure lower

than (25 psi) (the residual contents may become
contaminated if the valve is left open).
When work involving a compressed gas is completed, the

cylinder must be turned off, and if possible, the lines bled.
Empty and full cylinders should be stored in separate

areas.
When the cylinder needs to be removed or is empty, all

valves shall be closed, the system bled, and the regulator
removed. The valve cap shall be replaced, the cylinder
clearly marked as "empty,"; and returned to a storage
area for pickup by the supplier. All compressed gas
cylinders, including lecture-size cylinders, must be
returned to the supplier when empty or no longer in use.
4
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Where the possibility of flow reversal exists, the

cylinder discharge lines should be equipped with
approved check valves to prevent inadvertent
contamination of cylinders connected to a closed
system.
"Sucking back" is particularly troublesome where

gases are used as reactants in a closed system. A
cylinder in such a system should be shut off and
removed from the system when the pressure
remaining in the cylinder is at least 25 psi.
If there is a possibility that the container has been

contaminated, it should be so labeled and
returned to the supplier.
Liquid bulk cylinders may be used in laboratories

where a high volume of gas is needed. These
cylinders usually have a number of valves on the top
of the cylinder. All valves should be clearly marked as
to their function. These cylinders will also vent their
contents when a preset internal pressure is reached,
therefore, they should be stored or placed in service
where there is adequate ventilation.
Always use safety glasses (preferably with a face

shield) when handling and using compressed gases,
especially when connecting and disconnecting
compressed gas regulators and lines.
Module Quiz
5
7/15/2013
Cylinders should be placed with the valve ________ at all times.
A) up
B) closed
C) accessible
D) inaccessible

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Cylinder valves should be opened_________.
A) at any pace
B) slowly
C) quickly
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
6
7/15/2013
7
7/15/2013
Module 80
Compressed Gas Cylinder Leaks
Cylinder Leaks
• If the cylinder contains a flammable, inert, or oxidizing

gas, remove it to an isolated area, away from possible
ignition sources. Allow it to remain isolated until the gas
has discharged, making certain that appropriate warnings
have been posted.
• If the gas is a corrosive, remove cylinder to an isolated,

well-ventilated area. The stream of leaking gas should be
directed into an appropriate neutralizing material.
• For toxic material, the cylinder should be removed to an

isolated, well-ventilated area, but only if this is possible
while maintaining personal safety. It may be necessary to
evacuate the facility.
• If the leak is at the junction of the cylinder valve and

cylinder, do not try to repair it. Contact the supplier and
ask for response instructions.
Cylinder Leaks (cont’d)
• General: Assess the likely effects of the gas leakage and

the affected area. This will determine the subsequent
emergency action taken and the level of personnel
protection needed.
• Leaking cylinder: Most leaks occur at the valve fitted into

the top of the cylinder. Leakage areas that may be
involved are:
– Valve outlet connection: Leakage here is frequently
due to dirt in the connection, or damaged
connections or washers where required. Such leaks
are easily rectified.
• Valve stem (i.e., around valve operating spindle):

Leakage from valves fitted with an adjustable gland can
easily be cured by gently tightening the gland nut while
the valve is partially open. A quarter turn is normally
sufficient (maximum torque: 50 ft-lbs). All gland nuts
have "right-hand" threads. Some gland nuts are backed
with a lock-nut (which must be loosened before gland nut
adjustment and tightened afterwards).
1
7/15/2013
Cylinder Leaks (cont’d)
• Joint between cylinder valve and cylinder: Leakage here is

extremely rare and where it does occur, is normally
identified and rectified by the cylinder filler. No attempt
should be made to tighten a cylinder valve into a full
cylinder. Such cylinders must be set aside for the attention
of the supplier.
• Valve closure: Leakage from a cylinder valve that will not

readily shut off can usually be reduced by careful
application of a greater closing torque (using a wrench or
other means of greater leverage). All defective cylinders
should be clearly labeled before being returned to the
supplier.
• Leaking gas control equipment/pipelines, etc: Isolate the

gas supply. Before attempting to repair leaking equipment,
ensure that the pressure has been released and the
equipment purged to remove all hazardous gases.
Module Quiz
If a cylinder is leaking, and if the cylinder contains a flammable, inert, or oxidizing gas,
_______ it to an isolated area, away from possible ______________.
A) remove it to an isolated area, away from possible visibility
B) remove it to an isolated area, away from possible ignition sources
remove it to an isolated area, away from possible OSHA
C)
inspection

Your answer:

completely
continuing
2
7/15/2013
Joint between cylinder valve and cylinder: Leakage here is extremely_____.
A) rare
B) common
C) loud

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
3
7/15/2013
Module 81
Compressed Gas Cylinder

Transportation and Storage
Transportation of Cylinders
The cylinders that contain compressed gases are

primarily shipping containers and should not be
subjected to rough handling or abuse. Such
misuse can seriously weaken the cylinder and
render it unfit for further use or transform it into
a rocket having sufficient thrust to drive it
through masonry walls.
• To protect the valve during transportation, the

cover cap should be screwed on hand tight and
remain on until the cylinder is in place and ready
for use.
• Cylinders should never be rolled or dragged.
• When moving large cylinders, they should be
strapped to a properly designed wheeled cart to
ensure stability.
• Only one cylinder should be handled (moved)
at a time.
Storage of Cylinders
• Containers shall not be placed where they might become part

of an electrical circuit or arc.
• Containers shall not be exposed to temperature extremes.

Storage areas shall not exceed 125 degrees F.
• Valve protection caps must remain in place at all times except

when cylinders are secured and connected to dispensing
equipment.
• Adequate spacing, or segregation by partitioning shall be

provided to group cylinders by hazard class. When oxygen and
any fuel gas are stored, they shall be separated by a distance
of 20 feet or by a non-combustible barrier at least 5 feet high
with a fire rating of one half hour.
• Full and empty cylinders should be separated.
• Containers are not to be stored near readily ignitable

substances or be exposed to corrosive chemicals or fumes.
1
7/15/2013
Empty Cylinders
• Empty containers are not really empty. They contain

gas at atmospheric pressure, which of course does
not cause deflection of the gauge needle because the
gauge reports psi, the pressure greater than
atmospheric. In absolute terms the cylinder still
contains approximately 15 psia (pounds per square
inch absolute). Depending on cylinder size, this can
be a substantial quantity of toxic or flammable
substance.
• It is important to ensure that gas containers are in a

safe condition after use. Before returning empty gas
containers, a check should be carried out to ensure
that:
- the container valve is closed and not leaking
- the container valve outlet plug or cap nut, when
supplied, has been securely refitted. This is
particularly important if the contents of the container
are toxic
- the container valve protection device is properly
fitted
Storage of Cylinders
• Containers shall not be stored near elevators,

walkways, building egresses, unprotected platform
edges, or in locations where heavy moving objects
may strike or fall on them.
• All cylinders shall be secured to prevent

falling/tipping/rolling and shall be stored and used
valve end up. Secure with straps or chains
connected to a wall bracket or other fixed surface,
or by use of a cylinder stand. Do not secure by the
valve.
Storage of Cylinders (cont’d)
2
7/15/2013
Segregation of Cylinders
Flammables
• Methane, Propane, Hydrogen
Reactive
• Acetylene, Vinyl Chloride, Tetrafluoroethylene
Oxidizers
• Hydrazine, Hydrogen
Corrosives
• Ammonia, Methylamine, Chlorine
• Oxygen and nitrous oxide cylinders must be

separated from flammables by minimum of 20 feet.
Compressed Gas Cylinders and Torpedoes
Something to remember: There is not a lot of

difference between a compressed gas cylinder
and a torpedo.
Module Quiz
3
7/15/2013
To protect the valve during transportation, the______ should be screwed on hand tight and
remain on until the cylinder is in place and ready for use.
A) cover cap
B) end
C) bottom of cylinder
D) top of cylinder

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Cylinders should never be_________.
A) stored right side up

B) rolled or dragged
C) different colors
D) all of the above

Your answer:

completely
continuing
Your Score {score}

Attempts
4
7/15/2013

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NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL TRAINERS, INC.

3812 SHOAL CREEK COURT

The Official Site of Environmental Health & Safety Training®

This course features the exclusive OSHA accepted HAZWOPER Hands–on

Cost: $395.00 per person Course Description

Aesthetically pleasing course layout that is user friendly.

Group discounts available (3 or more people). Please email

40 hours (OSHA 40 Hour HAZWOPER Training

Module 12: Medical Surveillance Part 2

Module 13: Hazard Recognition

Module 14: Respiratory Protection Part 1

Module 15: Respiratory Protection Part 2

Module 26: Decontamination Part 1

Module 27: Decontamination Part 2

Module 28: Decontamination Part 3

Module 42: Confined Space Pre-Entry Procedure

Module 43: Confined Space Entry

Module 44: Confined Space Protective Devices,

Module 45: Confined Space Protective Devices,

Module 57: Chemical Awareness Part 1

Module 58: Chemical Awareness Part 2

Module 59: Chemical Awareness Part 3

Module 60: Chemical Awareness Part 4

Module 61: Chemical Awareness Part 5

How Teams assist in Emergencies

Module 75: Site Emergencies Part 2

Module 76: Site Emergencies Part 3

Module 77: Emergency Response Procedures and

Module 78: Compressed Gas Cylinders

Module 79: Compressed Gas Cylinders Handling

Module 80: Compressed Gas Cylinder Leaks

Module 81: Compressed Gas Cylinder

HAZWOPER Hands-On Simulator

• Welcome to the training session entitled 40 Hour

• OSHA requires that you spend a minimum of 40

How to Use This Course Part 1

• Once you have completed a module, the results are stored in a

• Quizzes are located in the modules that must be taken in order

• Study Timer – You will notice at the bottom right of your

How to Use This Course Part 2

• Certificates – You will receive a total of 3 certificates when

• We hope you enjoy the course! Our contact info is listed on

Course Study Timer

40 Hour HAZWOPER (29 CFR 1910.120)

• There are a total of 77 modules associated with this course

• A final exam is located at the end of the course and you

• The complete list of modules is present on the main menu

• Ready? Let’s get started!

Overview of Pertinent Regulations

Congress passed the OSHA in 1970 to

The primary components of the OSHA

The Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER)

The training must train workers and supervisors on a) personnel responsible

Where Does HAZWOPER Apply?

• Cleanup operations required by a governmental body, whether Federal, state local or

• Corrective actions involving cleanup operations at sites covered by the Resource

• 1910.120(a)(1)(iii) Voluntary cleanup operations at sites recognized by Federal,

• Operations involving hazardous waste that are conducted at treatment, storage,

General Site Workers

• a. The HAZWOPER standard requirements

General Site Workers

Other Related Regulations

The Bloodborne Pathogens standard (29 CFR 1910.1030) may interface