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To cite this article: Manuel Pacheco, Agustín Espinosa & Mathias Schmitz (2017) Influence of
musical genres with Andean contents on the components of Peruvian national identity / Influencia
de géneros musicales con contenidos andinos en los componentes de la identidad nacional
peruana, Revista de Psicología Social, 32:3, 539-565, DOI: 10.1080/02134748.2017.1352167
Download by: [Mr Manuel Pacheco] Date: 27 November 2017, At: 10:36
Revista de Psicología Social / International Journal of Social Psychology, 2017
Vol. 32, No. 3, 539–565, https://doi.org/10.1080/02134748.2017.1352167
This paper was accepted by the last editorial team. / Este artículo fue aceptado por el
anterior equipo editorial.
English version: pp. 539–550 / Versión en español: pp. 551–562
References / Referencias: pp. 562–565
Translated from Spanish / Traducción del español: Mary Black
Authors’ Address / Correspondencia con los autores: Manuel Pacheco, Miembro del
Grupo de Psicología Política y Social de la PUCP, 15088, Avenida Universitaria 1801,
Lima, Perú. E-mail: manuel.pacheco@pucp.pe
ship’ (Tajfel, 1984, p. 292). The core processes arise during the process of
constructing one’s social identity and understanding intergroup relationships:
social categorization and social comparison (Leonardelli, Pickett, & Brewer,
2010).
On the one hand, social categorization is defined as the process by which the
stimuli provided by the social milieu are organized and systematized into under-
standable units of social information (Abrams & Hogg, 1990). Hogg (2013)
adds that social categorization consists of segmenting the social world into
groups. This process enables the subject to categorize people in terms of ‘us’
(ingroup) and ‘them’ (outgroup) (Tajfel, 1984), which helps them identify with
one of the groups observed (Leonardelli et al., 2010). On the other hand, social
comparison is viewed as a cognitive and motivational process in which one’s
own group is evaluated in reference to others (Lisbona, 2010), taking into
consideration several relevant dimensions for the individual (Herrera, Sani, &
Bowe, 2010).
National identity is a subtype of social identity (Nigbur & Cinnirella, 2007)
and can be considered the subjective feeling of a person who belongs to a national
community in which there are elements that generate a sense of belonging and
cohesion that make them perceive it as unique (Vicente & Moreno, 2009). One of
the basic characteristics is that national identity excludes other nationalities in
order to differentiate itself (Salgado, 1999). However, when a nation is multi-
ethnic and multicultural, it becomes difficult to build an inclusive national identity
(Espinosa, 2011).
One essential component related to the construction, establishment and main-
tenance of identity is self-esteem. Self-esteem is regarded as an essential identity-
based motive (Vignoles, Regalia, Manzi, Golledge, & Scabini, 2006). It is defined
as a person’s evaluation of their self-concept, and it serves as motivation to be
able to maintain, protect and strengthen a positive self-conception (Vignoles et al.,
2006), so it is also a reason for being able to be part of and remain in a group
(Kirkpatrick & Ellis, 2004). In this sense, collective self-esteem is understood as
an individual’s evaluation of the groups to which they belong and the significance
they assign them (Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992).
Andean music and national identity / Música andina e identidad nacional 541
different intergroup conflicts in Peru, where the groups with the most power tend
to exercise practices of social exclusion towards the groups regarded as inferior or
of lower status (Espinosa et al., 2007; Pancorbo, Espinosa, & Cueto, 2011).
A study by Espinosa and Calderón-Prada (2009) sought to analyse the rela-
tionship between national identity and the evaluation of gastronomy in Peru.
Overall, the results showed that the negative self-stereotype is predominant in
terms of the representation of the national ingroup. However, a positive evaluation
of the culinary culture was directly associated with a higher degree of identifica-
tion with Peru, with higher national self-esteem, and with a view of Peruvians as
more successful and capable. Based on these results, in this study we view artistic
and cultural expressions as important factors defining a social group. For this
reason, we shall explore how some forms of musical expression affect the
processes of constructing national identity.
students from their own school (ingroup) and another school (outgroup). The
results indicate that the participants associated musical genres that they evaluated
positively with their own group and those evaluated negatively with the outgroup.
With regard to national identity, we could expect there to be a tendency to seek
a kind of music that can reflect or represent the national group that produces it (cf.
Frith, 1996). However, the music scene in Peru is extraordinarily complex due to
its variety of expressions and cultural groups, where each region identifies with its
own musical forms and styles (Pineau & Mora, 2011). Therefore, we could claim
that there is no single style but instead several, and they correspond to the
different regions in the country with their own cultural practices (Romero, 2008).
A musical style that can be regarded as a cultural representative of a country is
determined by the tastes and preferences of the dominant class (Wade, 1998), and
in Peru this status is generally attributed to certain power groups concentrated in
the capital. Under this premise, popular Andean music, which is associated with a
low-status group, has traditionally been excluded from this scenario, fostered by
the status quo (Hernández et al., 2002; Pineau & Mora, 2011). However, in recent
years this situation has begun to reverse (Mendívil, 2014). For this reason, it is
important to ascertain how musical genres with Andean contents may be affecting
the construction and maintenance of national identity in a group of students from
Lima. In particular, for this study we worked with three musical genres with
Andean variations: Huayno, Chicha and Rock/Fusion.
In the case of traditional Andean music, we used the genre that Arguedas
(cited in Alfaro, 2005) regarded as the Andean genre par excellence: Huayno.
According to García Miranda (1993), this musical genre is a form of oral tradition
through which the settlers of Andean communities were able to express a wide
variety of cultural expressions and activities. This musical genre has been
excluded and distanced from urban society by some of the elites of Lima precisely
because it does not fit within the hegemonic musical tastes of the capital
(Hernández et al., 2002; Pineau & Mora, 2011). However, in recent years this
kind of music has begun to be more highly valued in the country, particularly in
the capital (Mendívil, 2014).
On the other hand, Chicha music originated from the mass migrations from the
country to the city and appeared as a marginal urban phenomenon which became
Andean music and national identity / Música andina e identidad nacional 543
popular in the 1980s. It is partly a more Andean style fused with a more tropical
genre (Pineau & Mora, 2011). However, this musical genre was stigmatized by
the elites of Lima because the elements were not in line with the artistic canons
valued by these elites (Pineau & Mora, 2011).
Finally, Rock/Fusion with Andean contents signals the coexistence of the
mixture between the urban culture with the unresolved problems of a misunder-
stood Andean-rural population (Rozas, 2007). One can notice a complex socio-
cultural construct in this genre which reveals the features of each style, generating
a new musical product (Patiño, 2014). Currently, native musical genres of Peru
with Andean contents are still misunderstood by the urban public, particularly the
upper-middle class in Lima (Romero, 2008). Nonetheless, a process of revaluation
of the Andean genre is being generated (Mendívil, 2014) as well as an adaptation
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of the experience of the working-class world by the middle and upper classes in
the capital thanks to different famous bands in Lima (Patiño, 2014). This is
generating discourses where we can see that a hybrid music which appropriates
some elements from groups regarded as low status may be better tolerated and
accepted than a fully Andean genre (Patiño, 2014).
Therefore, the purpose of this research is to analyse the influence of musical
genres with Andean contents in the components of national identity. Likewise, the
specific objectives are to analyse (1) the influence of attitudes towards the music
presented, (2) the emotional responses generated when the participants are
exposed to music with Andean contents and (3) the potential mediating role of
attitudes towards music and emotions in this process. Based on this, our hypoth-
esis is that the musical genre with fewer Andean connotations (Rock/Fusion) will
have a more positive impact on the components of national identity, attitude
towards music and emotions compared to the musical genres with more Andean
elements (Huayno and Chicha).
Method
Participants
The sample consisted of university students from a private university in the Lima
metropolitan area (n = 92) between the ages of 18 and 25 (M = 19.91, SD = 1.95),
a majority of them female (51.1%). The first experimental group was exposed to
Huayno (n = 30), the second was exposed to Chicha music (n = 31), and the third
group listened to Rock/Fusion (n = 31). Participants who had any kind of formal
music training were excluded from the study.
Procedure
An open call for participation was announced on social media. We also had a
recruiter in order to select as many participants as possible. Those who agreed to
participate were given an informed consent form which explained that their
participation was anonymous, confidential and voluntary. Likewise, the
544 M. Pacheco et al.
participants were informed that the data collected would be used strictly for
academic research purposes.
The subjects were randomly assigned to each experimental condition (Rock/
Fusion vs. Huayno vs. Chicha). The experiments were carried out in groups in
computer rooms so that each person could listen to the musical stimuli with
earphones. The questionnaires were digitalized using Google online surveys,
and the respondents filled them out on personal computers.
The experiment was carried out in a single session divided into three parts.
The questionnaires administered in the first part were a form with sociodemo-
graphic data, level of identification with Peru and collective Peruvian self-esteem
scale. In the second part, the participants were exposed to the musical genre
corresponding to their experimental group. In the third part, the participants filled
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out the second battery of scales, which included the scale of attitudes towards
music, the emotional differential scale, the national self-stereotypes scale, level of
identification with Peru and the collective Peruvian self-esteem scale. The time
lapse between the first and third parts was approximately five minutes (the
duration of the musical stimuli).
We should stress that in the choice of the musical stimuli, we selected three
unknown songs in order to prevent recognition from affecting the evaluation of
the stimulus. The songs were previously evaluated in a pilot study comprised of
20 people who judged the degree to which each song fit within the pre-established
genres (Huayno, Chicha or Rock/Fusion). Furthermore, we took into account
several characteristics in an effort to standardize the stimuli: only instrumental
versions in a minor tone, a moderately quick tempo (110–120 bpm/allegro
moderato) and a length of 3–5 minutes.
National self-stereotypes
This scale seeks to analyse the contents of self-stereotypes related to collective
self-esteem and the degree of national identification in the different nations of
Latin America (Espinosa et al., 2016). The scale contains 22 items, each of them a
characteristic which could reflect a group positively or negatively (antonym)
through a semantic opposition from 1 to 7 (example: dishonest 1-2-3-4-5-6-7
honest, in which 1 is ‘very dishonest’, 4 ‘neither dishonest nor honest’, and 7
‘very honest’). This instrument has four factors: competence (example: incapable-
capable), warmth (example: unsociable-sociable), morality (example: corrupt-
honest) and ideal nationalism (example: unpatriotic-patriotic). Regarding trust-
worthiness, the dimension of morality, trust and competence showed a high
internal consistency (α > .80), and the area of ideal nationalism had an alpha of
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Emotional differential
We used this measure to evaluate the intensity of emotions a person can feel in
relation to a stimulus to which they are exposed (Izard, 1991), in this case the
song they heard. The instrument evaluates 10 emotions: joy, surprise, sadness,
interest, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, guilt and shame, and the response options
are on a Likert scale from 1 to 7. These 10 emotions were grouped into two
dimensions: positive emotions (α = .73) and negative emotions (α = .84).
Furthermore, we used Thompson’s index to measure emotional ambivalence
(Thompson, Zanna, & Griffin, 1995).
Statistical analysis
To meet the main objective, we performed a MANOVA for a mixed 3 (musical
genre: Chicha vs. Rock/Fusion vs. Andean) × 2 (time of measurement: pre-test vs.
post-test) design with the degree of national identification and national self-esteem
as the dependent variables.
In the subsequent analyses, the planned comparisons between conditions were
performed via two orthogonal contrast codes. The first contrast code (D1)
546 M. Pacheco et al.
compared the Rock/Fusion genre (−2/3) to the Andean musical genre, which was
comprised of Huayno (1/3) and Chicha (1/3). The second contrast code (D2)
compared the Huayno musical genre (−1/2) to Chicha (1/2), with Rock/Fusion
coded as 0.
Specific objectives 2 and 3 were addressed by a series of ANOVAs. This
allowed us to analyse the impact of the musical genre on national self-stereotypes
(i.e., warmth, competence, morality, ideal nationalism), attitudes towards the
music presented and emotions (i.e., positive, negative, level of emotional ambiva-
lence). The level of emotional ambivalence was measured using Thompson’s
index (Thompson et al., 1995), which is defined as the mean of the intensity of
the positive and negative affect minus the difference of both intensities in absolute
values.
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Results
Impact of musical genre on the degree of identification and national self-esteem
A MANOVA was performed for a mixed 3 (musical genre: Chicha vs. Rock/
Fusion vs. Andean) × 2 (time of measurement: pre- vs. post-test) design with
the degree of national identification and national self-esteem as the depen-
dent variables. The effect of the interaction between the time of measurement
and the musical genre on the combined dependent variables was not sig-
nificant F(4, 106) = 1.514, Wilks’ Lambda = .066, p = .198, partial
η2 = .033.
We then examined the principal multivariate effects of each of the inde-
pendent variables on the combined dependent variables. The principal effect of
the time of measurement was not significant F(2, 88) = 1.941, Wilks’
Lambda = .958, p = .150, partial η2 = .033; nor was the principal effect of
the musical genre, F(4, 176) = 1.295, Wilks’ Lambda = .944, p = .274, partial
η2 = .029.
Andean music and national identity / Música andina e identidad nacional 547
Impact of the musical genre on emotions and attitude towards the music
We analysed the impact of musical genre on the emotions generated via a series of
ANOVAs, using the same set of contrast codes mentioned above. The results
show that there are significant differences in positive emotions between Rock/
Fusion (MRock = 4.89) and the Andean musical genre (MAndean = 4.08), F(1,
89) = 7.582, p < .01, partial η2 = .079, as well as between Huayno
(MHuayno = 4.54) and Chicha (MChicha = 3.61), F(1, 89) = 7.370, p < .01, partial
η2 = .076. Conversely, no significant differences were found in negative emotions
between Rock/Fusion (MRock = 1.34) and the Andean musical genre
(MAndean = 1.51), F(1, 89) = 0.913, p = .342, or between Huayno
(MHuayno = 1.61) and Chicha (MChicha = 1.41), F(1, 89) = 1.017, p = .316.
Finally, we examined the differences between groups in the level of emotional
ambivalence (measured via Thompson’s index) and no significant differences
were found between Rock/Fusion (MRock = 2.01) and the Andean musical genre
(MAndean = 2.08), F(1, 89) = 0.132, p = .717, or between Huayno (MHuayno = 2.20)
and Chicha (MChicha = 1.96), F(1, 89) = 1.221, p = .272.
We then analysed the impact of the musical genre on the attitude towards
music. The results show that there are no significant differences in this variable
between Rock/Fusion (MRock = 4.34) and the Andean musical genre
(MAndean = 3.83), F(1, 89) = 2.968, p = .088, partial η2 = .032, but there were
significant differences between Huayno (MHuayno = 4.36) and Chicha
(MChicha = 3.30), F(1, 89) = 9.203, p < .01, partial η2 = .094.
548 M. Pacheco et al.
Table 1. Mediating effect of positive emotions on the influence of the musical genre on
the national self-esteem post-test with the self-esteem pre-test as a covariable.
Independent variables: ci ciʹ ai aib [CI95%]
Mediator: positive emotions (b = 0.06)
Rock vs. Andean (D1) −0.12 −0.07 −0.82** −0.05 [−0.17, −0.01]
Huayno vs. Chicha (D2) −0.29* −0.23 −0.91** −0.06 [−0.18, −0.00]
National self-esteem pre-test 0.74** 0.73** 0.13 0.01 [−0.01, 0.05]
Note: Non-standardized regression coefficients; b = partial effect of the mediator on the dependent
variable; ci = total relative effect; ciʹ = direct relative effect; ai = simple relative effect on the
mediator; aib = indirect relative effect; *p < .05; **p < .01.
Table 2. Mediating effect of positive emotions on the influence of the musical genre on
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Discussion
The results show that Rock/Fusion is the musical genre that presents a more
positive effect on the self-stereotypes of morality, warmth and ideal nationalism.
Andean music and national identity / Música andina e identidad nacional 549
This reinforces the idea that from the participants’ perspective, the distance from
the more traditional Andean musical contents or those associated with lower-
status social groups is consistent with the negative representation of the groups
perceived as low status in Peruvian society, and this seems to affect the shaping of
a positive sense of national identity in Peru (Espinosa, 2011; Espinosa et al.,
2007). However, this does not mean wholesale disdain of Andean contents in
music, since the musical version of Rock/Fusion evaluated includes this element
(to a lesser extent) in its artistic style. In this sense, the westernization of Andean
via rock or the Andeanization of western via fusion seem to be more acceptable
alternatives to including Andean culture in what is aesthetically established by the
elites, to the detriment of the more traditional Andean musical expressions or
those associated with marginal urban settings (Patiño, 2014).
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However, we can descriptively report that Huayno is more highly rated than
Chicha music, which translates into a more positive effect on the self-stereotype of
warmth. Despite Chicha music’s cultural contact with urban environments, the
representation of those who compose and consume it is cholos and low-status
Andeans (Leyva, 2005). In this sense, it is reasonable to think that their proximity
to urban settings may be perceived as threatening to the more conservative sectors
and those with greater access to the power structures (Rodríguez, 2015). Chicha
music emerged when Peru was experiencing an economic crisis and political
violence, which pushed migrations from the countryside into the city, giving
rise to what are called marginal urban settlements (Hurtado, 1995). These new
inhabitants were affected by rejection from Lima’s traditional population, who
worriedly witnessed as their society underwent a transformation that was attrib-
uted to the ‘provincial invasion’ (Lloréns, 1999).
Thus, Chicha music could be viewed as a cultural product that is stigmatized
by certain sectors of Peruvian society because it is associated with a social group
regarded as low status (Espinosa et al., 2007; Pancorbo et al., 2011). Furthermore,
it is important to mention that Chicha music was the musical genre that earned the
lowest scores on the indicators of attitude towards music and positive emotions,
which means that it is a musical style perceived as less pleasant. This could be
attributed more to the social characteristics associated with the genre (Hurtado,
1995; Pineau & Mora, 2011) than to the musical properties of the piece evaluated.
On the other hand, Huayno’s relatively higher positive impact on the self-
stereotype of warmth, as well as its higher ratings than Chicha, seem to be due not
to a positive representation of Andean but to a perception of relative ‘distance’. In
other words, the distance between Huayno and the capital is large enough that it
does not pose a threat to high-status groups. In this way, unlike Chicha, Huayno
would not affect the social system upon which the elites’ artistic and cultural
preferences are built. On the other hand, the greater acceptance of Huayno and its
positive effects seems to be associated with the modern indigenous visions which
represent the Andean as the moral reserve of the nation (Espinosa, 2011). We
should highlight that the explanations of this phenomenon are far from being
contradictory but instead are complementary.
550 M. Pacheco et al.
In summary, the results suggest that Chicha is a musical genre that negatively
affects the representation of belonging to Peru among a particular sector of Lima.
From this, we can understand that in Peru there is still a certain tendency to shape
a fragile national identity among its citizens, where it is difficult to conceive of a
dynamic of social cohesion based on inclusion which could represent the different
group and cultures in the country due to the existing social differences and
structures of exclusion (Espinosa et al., 2007; Pancorbo et al., 2011).
Likewise, it is important to highlight the role played by positive emotions as
mediators of the impact of the experimental manipulation on collective self-
esteem and the self-stereotype of morality. This supports the idea that music is
capable of evoking a vast store of emotions that can influence people’s behaviour
(Scherer, 2004). Vygotsky (cited in Adrián, Páez, & Álvarez, 1996) states that art,
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Burga, & Güimac, 2007). La gestión inadecuada de esta diversidad puede ser
considerada como uno de los fundamentos de distintos conflictos intergrupales en
el Perú, donde los grupos que tienen más poder tienden a ejercer prácticas de
exclusión social hacia aquellos grupos considerados como inferiores o de bajo
estatus (Espinosa et al., 2007; Pancorbo, Espinosa, & Cueto, 2011).
Una investigación de Espinosa y Calderón-Prada (2009) buscó analizar la
relación que hay entre la identidad nacional y la valoración de la gastronomía
en el Perú. A nivel general, los resultados demuestran que existe una predomi-
nancia de la autoestereotipia negativa en lo que refiere a la representación del
endogrupo nacional. Sin embargo, una valoración positiva de la cultura culinaria
se encontraba asociada directamente con un mayor grado de identificación con el
Perú, con una mejor autoestima nacional, así como una visión de los peruanos
como más exitosos y capaces. Partiendo de estos resultados, en esta investigación
se considera que las expresiones artísticas y culturales se constituyen como
elementos importantes para la definición de un grupo social. Por tal motivo, se
explorará cómo algunas formas de expresión musical inciden en los procesos de
construcción de la identidad nacional.
(Bakagiannis & Tarrant, 2006). Hargreaves and North (1997) mencionan que las
preferencias musicales se van definiendo desde la adolescencia y se convierten en
una imagen específica del self, lo cual contribuye a la construcción de su identidad
social (Hargreaves, Miell, & Macdonald, 2002).
Tarrant, North, y Hargreaves (2001) preguntaron a adolescentes en el Reino
Unido en qué medida atribuían a alumnos de su propia escuela (endogrupo) y a
alumnos de otra escuela (exogrupo), las preferencias por ciertos estilos musicales.
Los resultados indican que los participantes asociaron los géneros musicales
evaluados positivamente al propio grupo y aquellos valorados negativamente al
exogrupo.
En relación con la identidad nacional, se esperaría que exista una tendencia a
buscar una música que pueda reflejar o representar al grupo nacional que la
produce (cf. Frith, 1996). No obstante, el panorama de la música en el Perú es
sumamente complejo debido a su variedad de expresiones y grupos culturales,
donde cada región se identifica con sus propias formas y estilos musicales (Pineau
& Mora, 2011). Por lo tanto, se podría afirmar que no existe un único estilo, sino
que hay varios y que corresponden a las distintas regiones del país con sus propias
prácticas culturales (Romero, 2008).
Un estilo musical que pueda considerarse como representante cultural de un
país, está determinado por los gustos y preferencias de la clase dominante (Wade,
1998), siendo esta prerrogativa en el Perú usualmente atribuida a ciertos grupos de
poder concentrados en la capital. Bajo esa premisa, la música popular andina,
asociada a un grupo de bajo estatus, ha sido tradicionalmente relegada de este
escenario, propiciado por el estatus quo (Hernández et al., 2002; Pineau & Mora,
2011); sin embargo, en los últimos años esta situación se ha ido revirtiendo
(Mendívil, 2014). Por tal motivo, es importante conocer cómo géneros musicales
con contenidos andinos podrían estar afectando la construcción y mantenimiento
de la identidad nacional en un grupo de estudiantes limeños. En particular, para
esta investigación se trabajó con tres géneros musicales con variantes andinas: el
Huayno, la Chicha y el Rock/Fusión.
En el caso de la música tradicional andina, se utilizó el género que Arguedas
(citada en Alfaro, 2005) consideraba el tema andino por excelencia: el Huayno.
Según García Miranda (1993), este género musical es una forma de tradición oral,
554 M. Pacheco et al.
esta música no iban acorde a los cánones artísticos valorados por dichas élites
(Pineau & Mora, 2011).
Por último, la música Rock/Fusión con contenidos andinos, marca la convi-
vencia entre la mezcla de la cultura urbana con los problemas aún sin resolver de
una población andina-rural incomprendida (Rozas, 2007). Se aprecia una com-
pleja construcción sociocultural en estos temas, donde se evidencian los rasgos de
cada estilo, generando un producto novedoso (Patiño, 2014). Actualmente,
géneros musicales oriundos del Perú con contenidos andinos, siguen siendo
incomprendidos por el público urbano, principalmente capitalino de clase
media-alta (Romero, 2008). No obstante, se está generando un proceso de
revalorización de lo andino (Mendívil, 2014) y una adaptación de la experiencia
del mundo popular por los sectores medios y altos en la capital peruana, gracias a
distintas bandas conocidas de Lima (Patiño, 2014). Es así que se generan dis-
cursos donde se observa que un tipo de música híbrida, que se apropia de algunos
elementos de grupos considerados de bajo estatus, podría ser más tolerado y
aceptado en contraposición con un tema netamente andino (Patiño, 2014).
De esta forma, la presente investigación tiene como objetivo general analizar
la influencia de los géneros musicales con contenidos andinos en los componentes
de la identidad nacional. Asimismo, como objetivos específicos se plantea anali-
zar (1) la influencia de las actitudes hacia la música presentada, (2) las respuestas
emocionales que se generan ante la exposición a la música con contenidos
andinos; y (3) el potencial papel mediador de las actitudes hacia la música y de
las emociones en dicho proceso. En base a ello, se plantea como hipótesis que los
géneros musicales con connotaciones menos andinas (Rock/Fusión) producirán un
impacto más positivo en los componentes de la identidad nacional, actitud hacia la
música y emociones, en comparación de los géneros musicales con elementos más
andinos (Huayno y Chicha).
Método
Participantes
La muestra estuvo compuesta por jóvenes universitarios de una universidad
privada de Lima Metropolitana (n = 92), con edades oscilando entre los 18 y 25
Andean music and national identity / Música andina e identidad nacional 555
Procedimiento
Se realizó una convocatoria abierta a través de las redes sociales. Además, se contó
con un reclutador para poder seleccionar una mayor cantidad de participantes. A
aquellas personas que aceptaron participar se les presentó un documento de consen-
timiento informado donde se daba cuenta de las condiciones de anonimato, con-
fidencialidad y voluntariedad de la participación. Asimismo, se informó que los datos
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Instrumentos y variables
Nivel de identificación con el Perú
Esta medida consta de un solo ítem, el cual plantea la siguiente pregunta: ‘¿Cuál
es su grado de identificación con el Perú?’, con opciones de respuesta que van del
1 al 5. Esta pregunta ha sido incluida y utilizada en este mismo contexto en otros
556 M. Pacheco et al.
Autoestereotipos nacionales
Esta escala busca analizar los contenidos autoestereotípicos relacionados con la
autoestima colectiva y el grado de identificación nacional en distintas naciones de
América Latina (Espinosa et al., 2016). Esta escala consta de 22 ítems, siendo
cada uno de ellos una característica que puede reflejar a un grupo de manera
positiva, pero también de forma negativa (antónimo) mediante un diferencial
semántico del 1 al 7 (ejemplo: deshonestos 1-2-3-4-5-6-7 honestos. 1 es ‘muy
deshonesto’, 4 ‘ni deshonesto, ni honesto’, 7 ‘muy honesto’). Este instrumento
posee cuatro factores: competencia (ejemplo: incapaces-capaces), calidez (ejem-
plo: no sociables-sociables), moralidad (ejemplo: corruptos-honrados) y naciona-
lismo ideal (ejemplo: no patriotas-patriotas). En cuanto a la confiabilidad, la
dimensión de moralidad, calidez y competencia tienen una alta consistencia
interna (α > .80); el área de nacionalismo ideal obtuvo un alfa de .54,
manteniéndose como un índice aceptable según lo propuesto por Mezulis,
Abramson, Hyde, y Hankin (2004).
Diferencial de emociones
Se utilizó esta medida para poder evaluar la intensidad de las emociones que
puede sentir una persona en relación a un estímulo expuesto (Izard, 1991), siendo
en este caso el tema musical escuchado. Las emociones que evalúa el instrumento
son 10: alegría, sorpresa, tristeza, interés, ira, asco, desprecio, miedo, culpa y
vergüenza, y las opciones de respuesta van en una escala Likert del 1 al 7. Estas
10 emociones se agruparon en dos dimensiones: emociones positivas (α = .73) y
emociones negativas (α = .84). Además, se utilizó el índice de Thompson para
medir la ambivalencia emocional (Thompson, Zanna, & Griffin, 1995).
Análisis estadístico
Para responder al objetivo principal, se realizó un MANOVA para un diseño
mixto 3 (género musical: Chicha vs. Rock/Fusión vs. Andino) × 2 (tiempo de la
medición: pre- vs. post-test) con el grado de identificación nacional y autoestima
nacional como variables dependientes.
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Resultados
Impacto del género musical en el grado de identificación y la autoestima
nacional
Se realizó un MANOVA para un diseño mixto 3 (género musical: Chicha vs.
Rock/Fusión vs. Andino) × 2 (tiempo de la medición: pre- vs. post-test) con grado
de identificación nacional y autoestima nacional como variables dependientes. El
efecto de la interacción entre el tiempo de medida y el género musical sobre las
variables dependientes combinadas resultó ser no significativo F(4, 106) = 1.514,
Lambda de Wilks = .066, p = .198, η2 parcial = .033.
A continuación, se examinaron los efectos principales multivariados de cada
una de las variables independientes en las variables dependientes combinadas. El
efecto principal del tiempo de medición no fue significativo F(2, 88) = 1.941,
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Lambda de Wilks = .958, p = .150, η2 parcial = .033. Por otra parte, el efecto
principal del género musical tampoco fue significativo, F(4, 176) = 1.295,
Lambda de Wilks = .944, p = .274, η2 parcial = .029.
(MRock = 4.89) y el género musical Andino (MAndino = 4.08), F(1, 89) = 7.582,
p < .01, η2 parcial = .079; y también entre el Huayno (MHuayno = 4.54) y la Chicha
(MChicha = 3.61), F(1, 89) = 7.370, p < .01, η2 parcial = .076. Por el contrario, no
se reportaron diferencias significativas con respecto a las emociones negativas
entre el Rock/Fusión (MRock = 1.34) y el género musical Andino (MAndino = 1.51),
F(1, 89) = 0.913, p = .342; ni entre el Huayno (MHuayno = 1.61) y la Chicha
(MChicha = 1.41), F(1, 89) = 1.017, p = .316. Finalmente, se examinó las
diferencias entre grupos con respecto al nivel de ambivalencia emocional (medido
a través del índice de Thompson). En relación a ello, no se reportan diferencias
significativas entre el Rock/Fusión (MRock = 2.01) y el género musical Andino
(MAndino = 2.08), F(1, 89) = 0.132, p = .717; ni entre el Huayno (MHuayno = 2.20)
y la Chicha (MChicha = 1.96), F(1, 89) = 1.221, p = .272.
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Tabla 1. Efecto mediador de las emociones positivas en la influencia del género musical
sobre la autoestima nacional post-test con la autoestima pre-test como covariable.
Variables independientes: ci ci ʹ ai aib [CI95%]
Mediador: emociones positivas (b = 0.06)
Rock vs. Andino (D1) −0.12 −0.07 −0.82** −0.05 [−0.17, −0.01]
Huayno vs. Chicha (D2) −0.29* −0.23 −0.91** −0.06 [−0.18, −0.00]
Autoestima nacional pre-test 0.74** 0.73** 0.13 0.01 [−0.01, 0.05]
Nota: Coeficientes de regresión no estandarizados; b = efecto parcial del mediador sobre la variable
dependiente; ci = efecto relativo total; ciʹ = efecto relativo directo; ai = efecto relativo simple sobre el
mediador; aib = efecto relativo indirecto; *p < .05; **p < .01.
560 M. Pacheco et al.
Tabla 2. Efecto mediador de las emociones positivas en la influencia del género musical
sobre el autoestereotipo nacional de moralidad.
Variables independientes: ci ci ʹ ai aib [CI95%]
Mediador: emociones positivas (b = 0.15*)
Rock vs. Andino (D1) −0.56** −0.44* −0.81** −0.12 [−0.30, −0.03]
Huayno vs. Chicha (D2) −0.07 −0.07 −0.93** −0.14 [−0.35, −0.03]
Nota: Coeficientes de regresión no estandarizados; b = efecto parcial del mediador sobre la variable
dependiente; ci = efecto relativo total; ciʹ = efecto relativo directo; ai = efecto relativo simple sobre el
mediador; aib = efecto relativo indirecto; *p < .05; **p < .01.
Discusión
Los resultados muestran que el Rock/Fusión es el género musical que presenta un
efecto más positivo en los autoestereotipos de moralidad, calidez y nacionalismo
ideal. Lo anterior refuerza la idea de que, desde la perspectiva de los participantes,
el distanciamiento de los contenidos musicales andinos más tradicionales o
ligados a grupos sociales de menor estatus, es consistente con la representación
negativa de grupos percibidos como de bajo estatus en la sociedad peruana, y esto
parece afectar la configuración de un sentido positivo de identidad nacional en el
Perú (Espinosa, 2011; Espinosa et al., 2007). Sin embargo, esto no supone una
desvalorización tajante de los contenidos andinos en la música, pues la versión
musical de Rock/Fusión evaluada, incorpora (en menor medida) estos elementos
en la propuesta artística. En este sentido, la occidentalización de lo andino a través
del rock o la andinización de lo occidental a través de la fusión, parecen ser
alternativas más aceptables de incorporación de la cultura andina a lo establecido
como estéticamente deseable por las élites, y ello en desmedro de las expresiones
musicales andinas más tradicionales o más ligadas a contextos urbano-marginales
(Patiño, 2014).
No obstante, se reporta descriptivamente que el Huayno goza de una mejor
valoración que la música Chicha, lo que se traduce en un efecto más positivo en el
autoestereotipo de calidez. A pesar del contacto cultural de la música Chicha con
los entornos urbanos, la representación de aquellos que la componen y consumen
es la de ‘cholos’ y andinos de bajo estatus (Leyva, 2005). En ese sentido, es
razonable pensar que su proximidad a los entornos urbanos sea percibida como
amenazante por aquellos sectores más conservadores y con mayor acceso a las
estructuras de poder (Rodríguez, 2015). La música Chicha surgió cuando el Perú
se encontraba en una época de crisis económica y violencia política, la cual
impulsó las migraciones del campo a la ciudad, dando origen a los asentamientos
denominados urbano-marginales (Hurtado, 1995). Estos nuevos habitantes se
vieron afectados por el rechazo de la población limeña tradicional que veía con
Andean music and national identity / Música andina e identidad nacional 561
preocupación que la sociedad estaba sufriendo una transformación que fue atri-
buida a la ‘invasión provinciana’ (Lloréns, 1999).
Así, la música Chicha puede entenderse como un producto cultural estigma-
tizado por ciertos sectores de la sociedad peruana debido a que está asociada a un
grupo social considerado de bajo estatus (Espinosa et al., 2007; Pancorbo et al.,
2011). Además, es importante mencionar que la música Chicha ha sido el género
musical que obtuvo las menores puntuaciones en los indicadores de actitud hacia
la música y emociones positivas, lo que la convierte en un estilo musical percibido
como menos agradable. Esto podría atribuirse más a las características sociales
vinculadas al género (Hurtado, 1995; Pineau & Mora, 2011), antes que a las
propiedades musicales de la pieza evaluada.
Por otra parte, el Huayno, y su relativo mayor impacto positivo en el auto-
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de alto estatus de Lima. En ese sentido, los resultados no son generalizables a los
ciudadanos limeños o peruanos en su totalidad. Sin embargo, es un primer intento
por explorar el efecto de la música en los procesos identitarios de un individuo en
relación con un colectivo y permite observar que aún existen brechas sociales
entre los distintos grupos sociales que conforman el país. Asimismo, los resulta-
dos muestran que ciertas expresiones musicales pueden influir en algunos com-
ponentes identitarios, según las características sociales y culturales con las que son
asociadas (cf. Borras, 2012; Shepherd, 2003).
En cuanto a las limitaciones del estudio, se tiene que considerar el lapso que
hubo entre las pruebas aplicadas en el pre y el post test. La cantidad de tiempo
entre ambas fue de máximo cinco minutos, ya que en ese tiempo debían escuchar
el estímulo musical, así que es probable que el efecto de recencia haya jugado un
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Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors./ Los autores no han referido
ningún potencial conflicto de interés en relación con este artículo.
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