Department of Civil and Chemical Engineering

CONCRETE
TECHNOLOGY IV
Only Study guide for

CNT4701
Author: Prof BD Ikotun
Moderator: Mr JP Jooste


©  2018 University of South Africa

All rights reserved

Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria

CNT4701/1/2019–2021

70685118

InDesign
Florida

PR_Tour_Style
 CONTENTS

 Page
Prefacev
1. Getting started v
2. Purpose and outcomes of this module v
3. Learning resources vi
4. Assessment in this module vii
Learning unit 1: The importance of concrete1
Learning outcomes 1
1.1 Introduction1
1.2 Why concrete? 2
1.3 Sustainable concrete 2
1.4 Conclusion3
Learning unit 2: Concrete materials4
Learning outcomes 4
2.1 Introduction 4
2.2 Cementitious materials 4
2.2.1 Manufacture and composition 5
2.2.2 Hydration 6
2.3 Aggregates 7
2.4 Mixing water 8
2.5 Chemical admixtures 9
2.6 Special concretes 9
2.7 Conclusion 10
Learning unit 3: Fresh concrete, hardened concrete and durability11
Learning outcomes 11
3.1 Introduction 11
3.2 Fresh concrete 11
3.3 Hardened concrete 12
3.3.1 Testing the strength of hardened concrete 13
3.3.2 Factors that influence the strength of concrete 13
3.4 Deformation of hardened concrete 14
3.5 Durability 15
3.5.1 Properties affecting durability 15
3.5.2 Durability index tests 16
3.6 Conclusion 17
Learning unit 4: Concrete manufacture, handling and quality control18
Learning outcomes 18
4.1 Introduction 18
4.2 Production of concrete 18
4.2.1 Receiving and storing materials on site 19
4.2.2 Batching materials for concrete 19

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 4.2.3 Mixing concrete 19
4.2.4 Ready-mix concrete 20
4.3 Transporting concrete 20
4.4 The placing of concrete 20
4.5 Compacting concrete 21
4.6 Finishing concrete floors 21
4.7 Protection and curing 21
4.8 Concreting in cold weather 22
4.9 Concreting in hot weather 22
4.10 Quality control 23
4.11 Conclusion 23
Learning unit 5: Concrete mix proportioning24
Learning outcomes 24
5.1 Introduction 24
5.2 Methods of mix design 24
5.2.1 Eye-ball mix design 24
5.2.2 The Cement and Concrete Institute (C&CI) design method 25
5.3 Conclusion 28
Learning unit 6: The use of formwork, refinforcement, sand-cement
mixes and finishes in construction29
Learning outcomes 29
6.1 Introduction 29
6.2 Formwork 30
6.3 Reinforcement 31
6.4 Sand-cement mixes 33
6.4.1 Important properties 33
6.4.2 Mortar, plaster and floor screed 34
6.4.3 The appearance of concrete 34
6.5 Conclusion 35
Referencev

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iv
 PREFACE

1. Getting started
Welcome to Concrete Technology IV (CNT4701), a module that is offered in
Unisa’s Department of Civil and Chemical Engineering. I would like to take
this opportunity to wish you success with your academic year.

Your study material for this module includes the following:

•• This study guide

•• Your prescribed textbook (to be purchased)
•• Tutorial Letter 101
•• Any additional information provided on the module site on myUnisa
•• Any additional electronic communications you may receive, e.g.
announcements from your lecturer

Details of your prescribed book are given later in this Introduction, and also
in Tutorial Letter 101.

Tutorial Letter 101 will be part of your study pack or will be posted to you,
but you can also access it on myUnisa. You can do this by clicking on Official
Study Material in the menu on the left.

Tutorial Letter 101 is just one of the tutorial letters you will be receiving during
the year. It is extremely important that you should read this tutorial letter
carefully.

Your study guide, textbook and tutorial letter contain everything you need
to complete this module. However, you may benefit from also using the module
website on myUnisa. By using the site, you can

•• submit assignments
•• access your official study material
•• have access to the Unisa Library functions
•• “chat” to your lecturer and fellow students and participate in online discussion
forums
•• obtain access to a variety of learning resources

Check the site regularly for updates, posted announcements and additional
resources uploaded throughout the semester.

2. The purpose and outcomes of this module

Look around you as you travel from home to work and back again today.
On your route, how many places can you see where concrete has been
used? Concrete is used for buildings, foundations, walls, pavements, bridges,

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v CN T4701/1
PR EFACE

overpasses, highways, parking areas, dams, fences and poles. In fact, concrete
is the most widely used building material in the world today, after water. If
you are working or will be working in the building industry, it is vital that you
should have a detailed understanding of the manufacture and applications of
this material.

The purpose of the module is to enable you to explain how concrete and
other concrete-related construction materials are constituted, manufactured
and used, and to design concrete mixes according to given parameters. You
will also be able to appraise the contribution of concrete to environmental,
economic and social sustainability.

More specifically, the outcomes of this module are that, after completing the
module, you should be able to

•• appraise the contribution of concrete to environmental, economic and social

sustainability, and evaluate its use as a construction material
•• identify the various components of concrete, describe their properties and
relate their properties to the properties of fresh and hardened concrete
•• identify the properties of fresh and hardened concrete, including deformation
and durability, and explain the methods used to test or measure these
properties
•• explain how concrete and special concretes are mixed, manufactured and
handled and how their quality is controlled
•• design concrete mixes according to given parameters
•• discuss the use of formwork, reinforcement, sand-cement mixtures and
finishes in construction

This study guide is divided into six study units, as shown in the table of contents.

3. Learning resources
Your main learning resources for this module will be your prescribed textbook
and this study guide (which is a summary of the prescribed textbook). These
resources will be supported by a tutorial letter.

The prescribed textbook to be used in conjunction with this material is:

Fundamentals of concrete, 3rd edition, 2013, edited by Gills Owens, and

published by the Concrete Institute, Midrand. ISBN: 9780992217600.

The textbook is a comprehensive guide to the subject field. You will need to
study the chapters that are mentioned at the beginning of each learning unit
of this study guide, as well as any recommended reading sections.

In the text of the study guide, the textbook will be referred to as the “prescribed
textbook”.

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vi
 Pr e f a ce

4. Assessment in this module

Please consult Tutorial Letter 101 for details about the assessment in this module.
Make sure to read the following information in the tutorial letter:

•• How your assignment and exam marks will be calculated

•• The due dates and unique numbers of your assignments
•• How you should submit your assignments
•• Examination periods, examination admission and marks

Tutorial Letter 101 also contains the actual assignment questions.

Remember that while Tutorial Letter 101 will be sent to you, you can also
access an electronic version on myUnisa, by clicking on the option Official
Study Material.

Good luck and enjoy the course!

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viii
LEARNING UNIT
1  1

1 The importance of concrete

L E A R N I N G O U TCO M E S
After studying this unit, you should be able to

•• give reasons why concrete remains important and relevant as a construction

material
•• appraise the contribution of concrete to environmental, economic and
social sustainability, using the triple bottom line (TBL) concept

1.1 INTRODUCTION

READING
For this unit, you should study the chapters Why concrete? and Sustainable
concrete in your prescribed textbook.

Think of any concrete building or other structure with which you are familiar.
When do you think it was built? How long do you think it might last? Do you
think that the use of concrete in the structure is functional?

FIGURE 1.1
A well-known concrete structure in South Africa
(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:UNISA_Main_Campus.jpg)

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I am sure that concrete has been used for different purposes even before
you were born and until now, it is still being used. The reason for concrete’s
longevity as a construction material will be explored in this unit.

1.2 WHY CONCRETE?

1 Ac tivit y 1.1
All of you will already have some knowledge of concrete as a building
material, even if it is just from being inside a concrete building; and some
of you may be working with concrete daily. Use the knowledge you already
have to note down some advantages of using concrete. See if you can
name at least five.

A summary of the benefits of concrete is given below and you will find more
detail in your prescribed book. How many of these did you mention?

•• Concrete is durable.
•• Concrete is environmentally friendly.
•• Setting and hardening take place at ordinary ambient temperatures.
•• Concrete is strong.
•• Concrete’s strength is cost-effective.
•• Concrete can be moulded into virtually any shape or size.
•• Concrete is compatible with reinforcing steel.
•• Concrete can be prestressed.
•• Concrete has a high resistance to fire and does not burn or add to the fire
load.
•• Concrete has excellent sound and thermal insulation properties.
•• Concrete can be made to be watertight, even in thin sections.
•• Concrete has good abrasion resistance.
•• Concrete can set and harden under water.
•• Many different construction methods can be used to produce concrete
structures, depending on the circumstances.

1.3 SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE

You might be wondering why the topic of sustainability is featuring in concrete
technology. Research has shown that a holistic study on sustainability is
needed, such that the present development will not compromise the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs. Total sustainability involves
balanced development that favours economic as well as environmental and
social factors. This is encompassed in the “triple bottom line” concept. Wise
use of concrete can contribute to total sustainability by reducing the embodied
energy, consumed energy and the use of resources.

To actually improve on modern concrete, the life-cycle approach to sustainable

development has to be considered. The highest percentage of energy is being
consumed during the service life of the structure, rather than during construction
and recycling. The emission of carbon dioxide is one of the challenges facing the
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 L E AR N I N G U N I T   1:   T h e i m p o r t a n ce o f co n c r e te

concrete industry and steps have been taken to reduce the total CO2 emissions
during cement and concrete production, some of which are:

•• new technology and the use of alternative fuels in cement kilns

•• the reduction of clinker (a dark grey stony residue made by heating ground
limestone and clay at a temperature of about 1400 °C – 1500 °C) in cement
by extending the cement using extenders
•• the production of synthetic gypsum
•• reduced usage of non-renewable fossil fuels by introducing alternative fuels
and co-combustion materials

The quantities of CO2 emissions of the different constituents of concrete

(cement, aggregates, admixtures, cement extenders and water) are given in
the prescribed book.

2 Ac tivit y 1. 2
(1) Explain in detail (with a sketch) what you understand by the triple
bottom line concept.
(2) Think about how the business that you work for (or would like to work
for) could apply the triple bottom line. Briefly explain your ideas in
writing. If you have internet access, you could also post your answer
in the Discussions space on the module site on myUnisa, and see
what other students have posted.

If you have internet access, you can consult the following website for some
more information on question 1 above:

10 Triple Bottom Line Businesses, by the “Inspired Economist”: http://

inspiredeconomist.com/2016/03/14/10-triple-bottom-line-businesses/

1.4 CONCLUSION
This first unit has introduced you to the importance of concrete and the need
to use it sustainably. From here, we will focus on the more technical aspects
of concrete, starting with a closer look at its composition and properties.

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LEARNING UNIT
2  2

2 Concrete materials

L E A R N I N G O U TCO M E S
After studying this unit, you should be able to

•• identify and discuss the properties of cementitious materials, aggregates,

and water
•• indicate how these properties will influence the characteristics of fresh
and hardened concrete
•• describe the manufacturing of cementitious materials and aggregates
•• distinguish the different types of chemical admixtures and extenders, and
indicate their effects on the characteristics of fresh and hardened concrete

2.1 INTRODUCTION

READING
Study the chapters on Cementitious materials, Aggregates, Mixing water and
Chemical admixtures in your prescribed book.

Do you know that you can make your own artificial rock? Not only can you
make your own artificial rock, but you can also decide in which shape and
what dimensions you want it to be. This is exciting, isn’t it? Concrete can be
regarded as artificial rock that is being used for construction purposes. Different
materials (cementitious materials, aggregates, mixing water and chemical
admixtures) are put together to make concrete. Just like cooking, concrete also
has specific “recipes” for specific types of concrete.

In this learning unit, we will be looking at the different concrete materials, their
properties and how they affect the “recipe” of the concrete.

2.2 CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS

Materials that contribute to the binding properties of concrete are referred to as
cementitious materials. They are more generally known as cement. Cement can
be classified into different types, depending on the composition and purpose
of the cement. The general cement which is being used for most purposes and
has become the benchmark for other cements, is Portland cement. Portland

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 L E AR N I N G U N I T   2:   Co n c r e te m ate r ia ls

cement is relatively cheap; it sets and hardens at normal temperature and

pressure, and under water if necessary.
In South Africa, the following cementitious materials are available:
•• common cements
•• masonry cements
•• cement extenders
These materials are discussed in detail in your prescribed book.

3 Ac tivit y 2.1
What are the differences between common cements, masonry cements
and cement extenders?
You can find an answer to this question in your prescribed book. You can
also do an internet search for more information.

2.2.1 Manufacture and composition

Let us look at the manufacture and composition of Portland cement and
cement extenders.
•• Portland cement

Portland cement is made from oxides of calcium, silica, aluminium and

iron. These four oxides function differently in the manufacturing process.
Lime (oxide of calcium) and silica form compounds that will hydrate to form
cementing compounds. Alumina (oxide of aluminium) and ferric oxide (from
iron) act as fluxing agents in the process of clinker burning. The cement
manufacturing process happens in a kiln (check your prescribed book for full
details), and the end product is what is referred to as cement clinker.
Cement clinker contains four main compounds, which are: tricalcium silicate
(C3S), dicalcium silicate (C2S), tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and tetracalcium
aluminoferrite (C4AF). The rate of hydration of the clinker is controlled by the
gypsum which is added to the clinker at the milling stage.
For more information on how cement is manufactured, you could view the
following online video clip:

“Cement – how it is made”, by Burhan Alam, at https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=n-Pr1KTVSXo

4 Ac tivit y 2. 2
Describe the process of converting calcium carbonate (limestone) to
cement clinker. You can support your answer with a flow chart.
Check your answer against the information in your prescribed textbook.

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 • Cement extenders

The common extenders used in South Africa are ground granulated blast-
furnace slag (GGBS), fly ash (FA) and condensed silica fume (CSF).

• GGBS is a secondary product of the blast-furnace process which is used

to produce iron.
• FA is extracted by electrostatic precipitators or bag filters from the flue gases
of furnaces fired with pulverised coal.
• CSF is a secondary product of the ferrosilicon smelting process. CSF is the
condensed vapour from the process.

Full details on these materials are given in your prescribed book.

2.2.2 Hydration
As stated earlier, cementitious materials are responsible for the binding process
of concrete. This binding process starts when cement reacts with water and the
reaction is called the hydration reaction. All four the compounds of clinker
are involved in the hydration reaction.

• The reactions of the tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate compounds

are responsible for the development of the strength of the cement paste.
Tricalcium silicate is the most important compound for the early strength
development up till 28 days. The reactions of these two compounds (C3S and
C2S) result in calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide, as shown in
Equations (2.1) and (2.2). (Consult the prescribed book for more information
about these hydration products.)

For tricalcium silicate,

(2.1)

For dicalcium silicate,

(2.2)

• The hydration reaction of tricalcium aluminate in the presence of gypsum

produces ettringite, and on further reaction, produces monosulphate. This
reaction is more complex than the reactions of C3S and C2S. In the absence
of gypsum, the C3A compound reacts quickly and causes the paste to set
quickly, which is referred to as “flash set”. Gypsum is added to control
the setting time of concrete, giving more time for the concrete to hydrate
before setting.
• The hydration reaction of tetracalcium aluminoferrite is similar to that of
tricalcium aluminate, but occurs more slowly. The major difference between
the two reactions is that some aluminium in the reaction products of C3A
are substituted for iron in C4AF reaction products. In the case of C4AF,
gypsum reacts with the compound to form calcium sulphoaluminates and
calcium sulphoferrite.

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 L E AR N I N G U N I T   2:   Co n c r e te m ate r ia ls

You can watch the following online video clip for a simple explanation of
cement chemistry (starts at 1:49):

“Minutecement – Introduction to cement chemistry” by Schmitozen at https://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=L4OLBNXMdHk

5 Ac tivit y 2. 3
(1) The hydration reactions result in the setting and hardening of cement
paste. Describe the processes involved in the setting and hardening
of cement paste.
(2) Discuss how bagged and bulk cement should be handled.

To check your answers to these questions, consult your prescribed textbook

or a reliable internet resource.

2.3 AGGREGATES
Aggregates are derived from the crushing of rock, which is added in concrete
to provide dimensional stability to the concrete and also to reduce the cost
of concrete. Aggregates are classified as fine aggregates (aggregates that pass
through a 4.75 mm sieve) and coarse aggregates (aggregates that cannot go
through a 4.75 mm sieve).

Since aggregates make up around 70% of the volume of concrete, their

properties influence the general properties of concrete. The properties of
aggregates that affect concrete properties include dimensional properties,
grading, the organic materials in aggregates, particle density, particle shape,
surface texture, soundness, strength, geological type and alkali reactivity.
These properties are also used to characterise aggregates. The characteristics
of aggregates are studied to

•• assess the suitability of an aggregate for making concrete

•• compare different aggregates
•• design a concrete mix
•• monitor the uniformity of the aggregates supplied

Full details on these materials are given in your prescribed book.

You can also watch the following online video clip on aggregates:
“What is aggregate?” by Thinkup at https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=YL-a43q6VoM

6 Ac tivit y 2.4
Complete the table to explain the influence of the given aggregate
properties on the properties of both fresh and hardened concrete:

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7 CN T4701/1


Aggregate Effects on fresh concrete Effects on hardened

property concrete

Grading

Bulk density

Particle shape

Strength

2.4 MIXING WATER

Water plays an important role in concrete. It makes fresh concrete workable
and reacts with cement to form strength-giving compounds. The setting time
and the strength development of concrete can be influenced by the quality of
the mixing water. The following impurities can have negative effects on the
quality of the mixing water:

•• chlorides
•• sulphates
•• alkali carbonates and bicarbonates
•• oil
•• sugar
•• algae

Full details on these materials are given in your prescribed book.

7 Ac tivit y 2. 5
Elaborate on the effect of the above-mentioned impurities on the quality
of mixing water.

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 L E AR N I N G U N I T   2:   Co n c r e te m ate r ia ls

Check your answer against the information provided in your prescribed

textbook.

2.5 CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES

Apart from the materials mentioned in sections 2.1 to 2.4, additional materials
called chemical admixtures are added to concrete to modify one or more its
properties. These properties can be modified at the fresh concrete stage or
hardened concrete stage. Fresh concrete can be modified to reduce the water
content, increase slump, adjust the setting time, reduce segregation, improve
pumpability and reduce bleeding. Hardened concrete can be modified to
accelerate or retard strength development and improve durability.

Examples of chemical admixtures include dispersing, plasticising,

superplasticising, air-entraining, accelerating, retarding, water-resisting, mortar
and anti-washout admixtures. Others are corrosion inhibitors and admixtures
for foamed concrete.

Full details on these materials are given in your prescribed book.

8 Ac tivit y 2.6
Discuss the functions of the following chemical admixtures in fresh and
hardened concrete:
•• dispersing,
•• superplasticising,
•• air-entraining,
•• accelerating,
•• retarding, and
•• water-resisting admixtures

Check your answer against information provided in the prescribed textbook

or a reliable internet resource.

You can also view the following online video clip on chemical admixtures:

“Effects and usage of admixtures”’ by Mtutor at https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=4H2ej16k8fA

2.6 SPECIAL CONCRETES

Special concretes are concretes that are made for special purposes that
require special properties of concrete which are not common in conventional
concretes. Special properties that are considered for special concretes include
workability and ease of placement, thermal properties during hardening,
strength development, and crack resistance in the plastic and hardened state.
These concretes include high-strength concrete, high-density concrete, low-

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density concrete, self-compacting concrete, fibre-reinforced concrete, shotcrete,

roller-compacted concrete and no-fines concrete.

Full details on these materials are given in your prescribed book.

9 Ac tivit y 2.7
(1) Pick three of the special concretes and discuss their manufacture,
properties and uses.
(2) Make your own summary of the properties of cementitious materials,
aggregates and water. With each of the properties, indicate what effect
it will have on fresh and hardened concrete (if any). Post your answer
in the Discussions space on the module site on myUnisa. Also read
postings by other students to see if you can improve your answer.
(3) An additional material (apart from the cement and aggregates) was
used in concrete production. The results obtained when compared
with normal concrete with no additional material are as shown in the
table below. Discuss the results to reflect the characteristics of the
material. From the results, what type of material do you think has
been added?

SAMPLES TESTS PERFORMED/RESULTS

Compressive strength (N/ Coefficient of Workability W/C

mm2) permeability, k (slump),
(m/s) mm

7 days 28 days 90 days 28 days 90 days

Normal concrete 28 45 50 8.4E-11 2.5E-11 100 0.5

Concrete with 20 32 60 3.5E-11 0.9E-11 120 0.5

admixture

*W/C: water-cement ratio

(4) Which of the facts you have learnt in this learning unit did you already
know, and which were new to you? Identify the two most significant
new things you have learnt in this unit.

2.7 CONCLUSION
In this unit we have considered the properties of the main components of
concrete – cementitious materials, aggregates and water – and we have seen
which effects they have on the final concrete mixture. We have also identified
different types of special concrete. This fundamental knowledge will underlie
our more detailed investigation into the nature and applications of concrete
in the rest of the module.

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LEARNING UNIT
3  3

Fresh concrete, hardened concrete and

3

durability

L E A R N I N G O U TCO M E S
After studying this unit, you should be able to identify and describe the
following:

•• the different properties of fresh and hardened concrete

•• the factors affecting concrete deformation and poor durability
•• the methods used to test fresh and hardened concrete and to measure
concrete durability

3.1 INTRODUCTION

READING
Study the chapters Properties of fresh concrete and Strength of hardened concrete,
deformation of hardened concrete and durability in your prescribed textbook.

Once concrete has been mixed, concrete goes through different stages from the
fresh state to the hardened state. I am sure you will be interested in knowing
what qualifies as a concrete of good quality and what is considered as one
of low quality. We will now discuss the properties of fresh concrete and
hardened concrete (which we referred to as “artificial rock” in learning unit 2).
The primary properties of concrete in relation to strength and durability will
also be explored. Finally, we will examine some testing methods for concrete.

3.2 FRESH CONCRETE

Once concrete is mixed, it enters into a fresh state. During this state, the concrete
is handled, transported, placed and compacted. Freshly mixed concrete is
plastic and workable. With time, the concrete becomes stiff and unworkable
and gradually changes into a rigid solid which gains strength with time. Though
concrete stays in the fresh state for a short period, its properties in the fresh state
go a long way to affect the overall behaviour of the concrete in the hardened
state. The following properties of concrete in the fresh state are important:

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11 CN T4701/1


•• consistency
•• workability
•• settlement and bleeding
•• plastic shrinkage
•• loss of slump
•• water requirements

(Consult the prescribed book for more information about these properties.)

The following additional properties are also of great importance:

•• The density of fresh concrete: The density of fresh concrete can be influenced
by the density of the constituent materials, the water content, the air content
and the degree of compaction.
•• Cohesiveness: Cohesive concrete has the ability to hold all the concrete’s
constituents together, without segregation. This is an important property
because segregation causes separation of the constituent materials and
results in non-uniform proportions and consistency. This can be observed
when the coarse aggregate separates out and a part of the concrete has a
high stone content.

10 Ac tivit y 3.1
(1) Explain each of the above-mentioned properties of concrete in the
fresh state in more detail, and indicate the effect of each property
on fresh concrete.
You can find an answer to this question in your textbook, or do an
internet search for more information.
(2) Describe how a slump test can be used to check concrete’s consistency.

3.3 HARDENED CONCRETE

With time, concrete changes from the fresh state to the hardened state. This
change in state is caused by hydration of the cement. The rate of hydration
is, however, not uniform. As soon as cement is mixed with water, a rapid
reaction begins. Cement particles start to dissolve, tricalcium silicate is hydrated
to form gel, calcium hydroxide is released and the mixing water becomes
a supersaturated solution of calcium hydroxide. The mixing water leaches
alkalis from the cement grains while the aluminates pass into solution, react
with dissolved gypsum, and precipitate as insoluble calcium sulphoaluminate
(ettringite). Ettringite, it is believed, attaches itself to the aluminate and thus
slows down the access of water to the aluminate and so prevents the too-rapid
setting of the cement. With time, further reactions eliminate this retarding effect.
The processes of setting and hardening are divided into the stages below:

•• During the dormant stage, the paste remains plastic and workable.
•• During the setting stage, the paste becomes stiff and unworkable.

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 L E AR N I N G U N I T   3:  Fr e sh co n c r e te, h a r d e n e d co n c r e te a n d du r a b i li t y

•• During the hardening stage, the paste is a rigid solid, which gains strength
with time.

The strength of hardened concrete is of importance to the structural designer,

because it has a direct effect on the quality of the concrete. It can also be used
as an index for/indicator of## other concrete properties.

3.3.1 Testing the strength of hardened concrete

Hardened concrete can be tested for its compressive strength, tensile strength
and flexural strength.
•• Compressive strength is measured by the ratio of the maximum possible
uniaxial load carried by the concrete to the cross-sectional area of the
concrete specimen.
•• The flexural strength test consists of subjecting concrete specimens to
loading, either by two loads at third points (points that divide the beam
into three) or a single load at midspan, as shown below.

(a) Two loads at third points (b) Single load at midspan

•• The load at failure is used to calculate the theoretical maximum tensile
strength.

11 Ac tivit y 3. 2
Study the procedure of testing concrete’s compressive strength as described
in SANS 5860, 5861-2, 5861-3 and 5863. Also study the procedure of testing
concrete’s tensile splitting strength as described in SANS 6253. Then briefly
summarise these procedures in your own words (or draw a mind map as
a summary).

3.3.2 Factors that influence the strength of concrete

Concrete’s strength is influenced by a number of factors. These factors can
be classified as the nature of concrete, intrinsic factors and extrinsic factors
and are listed below:
•• Nature of concrete
–– Heterogeneity
–– Porosity and flaws
•• Intrinsic factors
–– Aggregate
–– Aggregate-paste interface

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–– Hardened cement paste

–– Porosity
–– Microstructure
•• Extrinsic factors
–– Direction of loading relative to direction of casting
–– Shape of specimen
–– Specimen size
–– Moisture content of specimen
–– Rate of loading
–– Eccentricity of loading
–– Temperature
–– Testing machine issues
–– Ratio of maximum particle size to specimen size

(Consult the prescribed book for more information about these factors.)

12 Ac tivit y 3. 3
In a table, briefly indicate how each of the above-mentioned factors
influences the strength of concrete.

3.4 DEFORMATION OF HARDENED CONCRETE

Deformation happens in concrete structures after being loaded. Long-term
deformation can have adverse effects on the structure. Some of the effects of
deformation are the shortening of columns, sagging of beams and slabs, and
opening of joints. Deflections and cracking result from concrete deformation.
Some forms of deformation are explained in the prescribed book. These are
summarised below:

•• Load-related deformation: Concrete deforms in the direction of the load.

•• Drying shrinkage: Loss of moisture to the atmosphere results in drying
shrinkage.
•• Elastic deformation: This result from the stress-strain relationship of concrete.
The stress-strain relationship of concrete is not constant throughout the
strain range.
•• Creep: This happens under sustained imposed strain and is time-dependent.

(Consult the prescribed book for more information about these forms of
deformation.)

13 Ac tivit y 3.4
Explain the detrimental effects of different forms of deformation on
concrete.

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 L E AR N I N G U N I T   3:  Fr e sh co n c r e te, h a r d e n e d co n c r e te a n d du r a b i li t y

3.5 DURABILITY

3.5.1 Properties affecting durability

Concrete’s durability is the ability of the concrete structure to be serviceable
throughout its design life. Durability may depend on the environment of the
concrete structure. Concrete that is durable in one environment may not be
durable in another. Inadequate concrete durability has serious consequences like
loss of serviceability, unsightly appearance, danger to persons and properties,
expensive repair and life-cycle costs, and a poor perception of concrete as
a material. The properties of concrete that influence durability are threefold,
namely: transport properties, mechanical and physical properties and chemical
properties. These properties can be broken down further, as shown below:
•• Transport properties
–– Permeation
–– Absorption
–– Diffusion
–– Migration
•• Mechanical and physical properties
–– Strength
–– Density
–– Stiffness
•• Chemical properties
–– Quantities of hydrates
–– Pore and micro-structure
(Consult the prescribed book for more information about these factors.)
There are certain mechanisms and processes of deformation that affect
durability. They can be categorised as mechanical and physical, and chemical
and corrosion-of-reinforcement mechanisms.
The mechanical and physical processes that affect durability are:
•• Abrasion
•• Erosion
•• Cavitation
•• Freezing
•• Salt crystallisation
The chemical processes that affect durability are:
•• Attack by pure water
•• Attack by acids
•• Attack by sulphates
•• Alkali-silica reaction
Corrosion of reinforcement is highly dependent on the aggressiveness of
the environment and the ability of the concrete cover to protect the steel.
Reinforcement can easily corrode if the passivation layer is destroyed, if the
pH is reduced, mostly due to carbonation and if attacked by chloride.
(Consult the prescribed book for comprehensive information on durability).

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15 CN T4701/1


3.5.2 Durability index tests

The South African National Standards, SANS 3001-CO3-1, CO3-2 and CO3-3,
detail the three durability index tests that are applied in South Africa, which
are the following:

•• The Oxygen Permeability Index (OPI) test. The OPI test assesses the overall
micro-macro structure of the outer surface of cast concrete.
•• The Chloride Conductivity test. This test assesses the ability of the binder
particles to attach and bind chloride ions and to inhibit their progress
through the concrete.
•• The Water Sorptivity test. This test is very sensitive to the nature and extent
of early curing of the cover concrete and it can be used for quality-control
purposes on site.

The significance and the procedures of these index tests are explained in the
prescribed book.

14 Ac tivit y 3. 5
(1) As a concrete technologist, you are asked to visually examine a cracked
concrete structure. What are the characteristics that will show you
that the concrete structure has cracked due to the following factors?
•• alkali-silica reaction
•• shrinkage
•• differential settlement
•• crazing
(2) How will a concrete building located in the following environmental
conditions react?
•• High temperature during the day
•• Sub-zero temperature during the night
•• It does not rain often and when it rains, the rain contains a high
degree of sulphur (acid rain).
Explain in detail the effects of the conditions above on concrete’s
durability. How can you prevent these negative effects?
(3) How could you apply the facts you have learnt in this unit in your own
work environment? Give a specific example to illustrate this. Share this
example with your friends or in your study group.

Post your answers to question 1 above in the Discussions space on the module
site on myUnisa. Also read the postings by other students to see if you can
improve your answers.

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 L E AR N I N G U N I T   3:  Fr e sh co n c r e te, h a r d e n e d co n c r e te a n d du r a b i li t y

3.6 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we looked at the properties of fresh concrete and factors affecting
concrete strength. We also identified the different forms of deformation of
concrete and how the mechanisms and processes of deformation affect
durability. In addition, a brief description of the durability index tests was given.

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17 CN T4701/1


LEARNING UNIT
4  4

Concrete manufacture, handling and

4

quality control

L E A R N I N G O U TCO M E S
After studying this unit, you should be able to

•• explain how concrete and special concretes are mixed, manufactured

and handled
•• explain how concrete quality is controlled

4.1 INTRODUCTION

READING
Study the chapter on the Manufacture and handling of concrete, as well as the
chapter on Quality control and statistics for concrete in your prescribed textbook.

You have learnt from the previous learning unit that concrete can deform or
have durability issues if its properties in its fresh and hardened states are not
properly monitored. Another possible reason for concrete failure is the way
we handle the concrete. If the concrete is not manufactured and handled
carefully, the quality of the concrete will be affected. In this leaning unit, we
will look at some important procedures for the effective manufacturing and
handling of concrete, as well as quality control.

4.2 PRODUCTION OF CONCRETE

Concrete can be produced by batching and mixing it on site, or it can be
purchased as ready-mixed concrete. Batching refers to the measurement of the
concrete constituents after the mix design has been done. There are different
advantages to batching and mixing concrete on site, and to using ready-mixed
concrete.

15 Ac tivit y 4.1
Discuss the advantages of batching and mixing concrete on site and of
using ready-mixed concrete.

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 L E AR N I N G U N I T   4:  Co n c r e te m a nu f a c t u r e, h a n d li n g a n d q u a li t y co nt r o l

You can check your answer against the information provided in the
textbook and other relevant resources.

4.2.1 Receiving and storing materials on site

All the constituents materials (aggregates, cement and extenders) and delivery
note/s should be checked properly on arrival at the site. Aggregates must
be stored in such a way that segregation is minimised and contamination is
avoided. Cement and extenders must be stored in a dry place. It is important
to check for issues like the correct quantity and colour before off-loading the
materials. (Consult the prescribed book for more information.)

16 Ac tivit y 4. 2
(1) For each of the concrete’s constituent materials, create a complete list
of what should be checked before off-loading.
(2) Explain how bagged material, material in bulk and admixtures should
be stored.
Consult your textbook or other relevant resources to check your answers.

4.2.2 Batching materials for concrete

As stated earlier, batching refers to the measurement of the concrete’s constituents
after the mix has been designed. This can be done either by mass or by volume.
Mass batching is preferable, especially for concrete strength grades higher than
20MPa. (Consult the prescribed book for more information about batching.)

4.2.3 Mixing concrete

The proper mixing of concrete is important, because mixing can influence the
properties of the concrete in both the fresh and hardened states. Concrete can
be mixed by hand, or by machine. It should be mixed properly to ensure that

•• each material is thoroughly dispersed throughout the batch of concrete

•• the concrete is uniformly coloured and textured
•• the consistency is correct
•• all the batches are the same

(Consult the prescribed book for more information about mixing concrete.)

17 Ac tivit y 4. 3
(1) Give the reasons why machine mixing is preferred to hand mixing.
(2) Describe mixer operation and maintenance.

If you have online access, you can watch the following video clip, which gives
an overview of the process followed at a concrete batching plant:

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19 CN T4701/1


“How to make concrete” by German Plant Experience at https://www.

youtube.com/watch?v=VWPRwEz-7T0

How does the process shown in the clip compare with your own knowledge
or experience of the procedure? Discuss your answer with your friends/fellow
students.

4.2.4 Ready-mixed concrete

There are procedures to follow in supplying, ordering and receiving ready-
mixed concrete. Consult the prescribed book to familiarise yourself with all
of these procedures.

18 Ac tivit y 4.4
Watch the following short online video clip which does not have
any commentary:
“Concrete plant animation’ by Alex Kudrya at https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=pMbSbbnqhLI
At each step in the process, explain in your own words what is happening.
Also post your written commentary in the discussion forum.

4.3 TRANSPORTING CONCRETE

Different types of equipment are employed to transport fresh concrete from
the site mixer, or from the point of discharge of a ready-mix truck, to where it
is to be placed. The following points should be considered while transporting
concrete:

•• The mix should not dry out.

•• The mix should not be contaminated.
•• The mix should not segregate.

(Consult the prescribed book for more information about transporting concrete.)

4.4 THE PLACING OF CONCRETE

Concrete should be placed as near to the final position as possible, to avoid
segregation. When placing new concrete against hardened, old concrete,
bonding is required. The old concrete should be dust-free, roughened to expose
the aggregate, and no extra water should be on the surface before placing the
new concrete. A tremie is used to place concrete under water.

19 Ac tivit y 4. 5
Describe the process that must be followed when placing concrete under
water using a tremie.

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 L E AR N I N G U N I T   4:  Co n c r e te m a nu f a c t u r e, h a n d li n g a n d q u a li t y co nt r o l

If you have online access, you can compare your answer to the description
given in the following video clip:
“Underwater concreting” by Anime_Edu at https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=qsfQJLpPG4w
You could also consult the textbook or other relevant resources.

4.5 COMPACTING CONCRETE

Concrete compaction is essential because it aids in the removal of entrapped air
from the concrete. Concrete can be compacted either by hand or by mechanical
vibrator. Hand compaction can be done using a metal tamper, rod or strip
of timber. Concrete with high slump is necessary for hand compaction. For
congested concrete, as in the case of reinforced concrete, mechanical vibrators
should be used. Mechanical vibrators can either be internal (poker vibrators)
or external (beam and form vibrators). Revibration is recommended while the
concrete is still workable, to improve the quality of the concrete. (Consult the
prescribed book for more information about compacting concrete.)

4.6 FINISHING CONCRETE FLOORS

The finishing of concrete floors is done in two ways: floating and trowelling.
This ensures that the wearing surfaces are durable, abrasion-resistant, strong,
hard, flat and smooth. (Consult the prescribed book for more information
about finishing.)

20 Ac tivit y 4.6
Describe the procedures of floating and trowelling and state the advantages
of these processes.
You can view the following online video clips and compare the information
in them with your answer:
•• “Finishing of concrete” by UltraTech Cement at https://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=jSajwBjM74A
•• “Power floating concrete floor slab” by Aberbear at https://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=uYZVYUOmGj8

4.7 PROTECTION AND CURING

Concrete has to be protected against rapid drying out after it has been placed
and compacted. It is essential to maintain a satisfactory moisture content
and temperature in the concrete in its early stages, to develop the required
properties. Curing is the process of maintaining an adequate moisture content
in concrete for the completion of the hydration reaction. Concrete can be
cured in numerous ways. Different ways of curing concrete are explained in
your prescribed book.

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21 CN T4701/1


21 Ac tivit y 4.7
Compile a table under the following column headings:

Curing method Circumstances in which Procedure to follow

the method is used

4.8 CONCRETING IN COLD WEATHER

Concreting when the ambient temperature is 5 °C or less needs to be done
with care, because freezing might occur. Cold weather will also inhibit the
strength gain of concrete. The following are the measures that can be taken
while concreting in cold weather.

•• The concrete can be covered by insulating materials such as straw,

polystyrene, etc.
•• Formwork should be insulated to prevent it from going below 5 °C.
•• Concrete should not be placed during the late afternoon when temperatures
are falling.
•• Protective insulated coverings should remain in place for at least two days
to prevent frost damage.
•• Rapid hardening cement can be used instead of ordinary Portland cement.
•• Cement blends should not be used.

(More information on concreting in cold weather can be found in your

prescribed book.)

4.9 CONCRETING IN HOT WEATHER

Just as care should be taken when concreting in cold weather, special attention
should be paid when concreting in hot weather. When the ambient temperature
is 32 °C and above, it is considered to be hot weather. However, it is prudent
to consider placing concrete at temperatures in excess of 25 °C as hot-weather
concreting. A high temperature during the placing of concrete accelerates the
chemical reactions of hydration. It leads to earlier setting times and a greater
rate of strength gain, which will result in lower long-term concrete strength.
In addition, it causes more rapid drying of the concrete, which may cause
shrinkage cracking on the concrete surface. Also note that the temperature
difference between the surface and core of the concrete should not exceed
20 degrees Celsius, as this will cause internal cracking. The following are the
measures that can be taken while concreting in hot weather:

•• Aggregate stockpiles should be shaded.

•• Aggregates can be cooled down by spraying them with water.
•• The mixing water can be cooled.

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 L E AR N I N G U N I T   4:  Co n c r e te m a nu f a c t u r e, h a n d li n g a n d q u a li t y co nt r o l

•• Ice can be use as part of the mixing water.

(More information on concreting in hot weather is given in your prescribed

book.)

22 Ac tivit y 4. 8
(1) What are considered to be the main problems associated with hot-
weather concreting and cold-weather concreting respectively?
(2) Explain how each of these problems might be prevented or mitigated.
Post your answer in the discussion forum on the module website.

4.10 QUALITY CONTROL

The quality of concrete needs to be controlled to be sure that it is within the
acceptable range and as economical as possible. The following important
quality control parameters are discussed in the prescribed book:

•• Sampling, testing and acceptance criteria

•• Process control
•• Basic statistical principles

(Consult the prescribed book for more information about quality control and
statistics for concrete.)

23 Ac tivit y 4.9
(1) Describe how you would apply the various quality control parameters
in practice in your work situation.
(2) How do the processes described in this study unit compare with those
you are familiar with in practice? If you were the decision-maker about
operations at your workplace (or, if you are not working, in a workplace
with which you are familiar), would you change or add to any of the
procedures based on what you have learnt in this unit?

4.11 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we discussed the mixing, manufacturing and handling of concrete.
All of these processes contribute to the overall quality of concrete.

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23 CN T4701/1


LEARNING UNIT
5  5

5 Concrete mix proportioning

L E A R N I N G O U TCO M E S
After studying this unit, you should be able to
•• design concrete mixtures according to given parameters

5.1 INTRODUCTION

READING
Study the chapter on Concrete mix proportioning in your prescribed textbook.
Concrete mix proportioning entails the calculation of the correct quantities
of concrete constituents to produce concrete of the desired requirements in
both the fresh and hardened state. Imagine baking a cake, not using the right
quantities of the ingredients. What do you think will happen? The cake will
not taste good, nobody would want to eat it, and it may even end up in the
dustbin. The same is true of concrete that is mixed using the wrong quantities
of materials. It will go to waste.

5.2 METHODS OF MIX DESIGN

Concrete can be proportioned either by volume or by mass, as explained in
learning unit 4. In this module we will discuss methods of mix design. The
prescribed book includes nominal proportions and trial mixes, but we will only
discuss the Eye-ball mix design and the C & CI mix design methods. See the
prescribed book to familiarise yourself with nominal proportions and trial mixes.

5.2.1 Eye-ball mix design

This method requires an experienced operator to produce a desired mix
because it requires estimation, rather than structured calculation. (Consult
the prescribed book for the procedure to follow in Eye-ball mix design.) The
method is especially suited to the design of mixes for
•• exposed aggregate concrete
•• high stone content and heavy vibration
•• special placing conditions such as pumping and placing by tremie
•• high-strength concrete

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 L E AR N I N G U N I T   5:  Co n c r e te m i x p r o p o r t i o ni n g

24 Ac tivit y 5.1
Suppose that you are a supervisor overseeing a small building project and
you are planning to use the eye-ball concrete mix design. Describe the
procedure of this design method to your subordinates.

5.2.2 The Cement and Concrete Institute (C&CI) design method

This method is derived from ACI Standard 211.1-91. It is based on the following
facts:

•• The strength of fully compacted concrete cured under standard conditions

depends on the water-cement (W/C) ratio.
•• The optimum amount of stone in the mix depends on the stone size, stone
packing capacity and fineness modulus of the sand.
•• The quantity of water required for a given consistency is substantially
constant, regardless of the W/C.
•• The volume of compacted concrete is the sum of the absolute volume of
the constituent materials and can be calculated from the following equation:

where RD is the relative density.

The following steps summarise the procedure to follow when designing a mix
using the C & CI method:

•• Specify the concrete strength and stone size.

•• Specify the slump.
•• Specify the cement type, maximum W/C ratio, and minimum binder content.
•• Select the cement type and source.
•• Select the stone and sand.
•• Select a chemical admixture, if required.
•• Characterise the stone (derived from aggregates tests).
•• Characterise the sand (derived from aggregates tests).
•• Select the W/C ratio.
•• Estimate the water requirement, W.
•• Calculate the cement content C, using C = W ÷ W/C.
•• Calculate the stone content St, using St = CBDSt (K – 0.1FM)
where:
St = mass of stone in 1 m3 of concrete, kg
CBDSt = dry compacted bulk density of stone
FM = fineness modulus of the sand
K = a factor that depends on the nominal size of the stone and the workability
of the concrete (see the table below).

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25 CN T4701/1


Values of K for determining stone content (from the prescribed book)

Approx. Compaction K
slump
Nominal maximum size of stone, mm
range, mm
9.5 13.2 19.0 26.5
75–150 Hand compaction 0.75 0.84 0.94 1.00
25–100 Moderate compaction 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.06
0–25 Heavy vibration 1.00 1.05 1.08 1.10

Note: For workable concrete that needs to be pumped, the stone content
should be reduced by 200 kg/m3.
•• Calculate the sand content using

•• Make the trial mix.

•• Measure slump.
•• Assess the stone content and cohesiveness of the concrete.
•• Approve the mix/reject the mix.
•• Modify the design.
•• Specify the mix proportions for the manufacture of concrete.
Example
Calculate the batch weight required for 20 L of trial mix based on the mix
design tables provided in the annexure and below.

Cement Type CEM1 cement

Relative density (RD) 3.14
Sand Relative density (RD) 2.70
Fineness modulus (FM) 2.3
Quality Average
Given
Stone Relative density (RD) 2.7
Size 19.0 mm
Compacted bulk density (CBD) 1550 kg/m3
Plant standard deviation 5.0 MPa
Proportion defective 5%
Specified 28-day compressive strength 30 MPa
Consistency 75 mm slump for
Required moderate vibration
Estimated water requirement 210 l/m3
W/C ratio 0.6

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 L E AR N I N G U N I T   5:  Co n c r e te m i x p r o p o r t i o ni n g

Note: Calculating the batch mix is the same as designing the mix.

Solution

Determine the cement content

Cement content = water content/water:cement ratio

= 210/0.6 = 350kg/m3

Determine the stone content St = CBD(K – 0.1 FM)

K from the table is 1.0

St = 1550(1.0 – 0.1 × 2.3) = 1193.5 kg/m3 (say, 1194 kg/m3)

Determine the sand content

Materials For 1m3 For 20 L

Cement (kg) 350 7

Water (L) 210 4.2

Sand (kg) 638 12.76

Stone (kg) 1194 23.88

Additional information

If you have online access, you can watch the following video clip by Tyler Ley,
which gives an introduction to concrete mix design: https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=rv-JwoRfV0E

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27 CN T4701/1


25 Ac tivit y 5. 2
(1) You are a laboratory manager supervising some trainees. You are
required to design a 10 L concrete trial mix for the trainee staff. They
have already done some laboratory tests on the aggregates to be
used and the following are the results.
•• Stone size = 13.2 mm
•• Stone CBD = 1550 kg/m3
•• Stone RD = 2.70
•• Sand RD = 2.70
•• Sand FM = 2.7
•• The sand quality is average.
Additional information:
•• Specified 28-day compressive strength is 50 MPa.
•• Required slump is 100 mm to be hand-compacted.
•• Cement type is CEM 1 52.5N.
•• Estimated water requirement is 225 ℓ/m3.
Design the concrete trial mix required for 10 L of concrete.
Note: Check your design with the solution that will be placed on
myUnisa in the Announcements section during the course of the year.
(2) After working through this unit, are you confident that you will be
able to specify a mix for a particular purpose? If there are any aspects
you are unsure about, you should follow these up with your lecturer
to ensure that you have achieved this outcome.

5.3 CONCLUSION
In this unit, the procedure for designing a concrete mix was outlined. This
procedure is of particular importance to ensure that a good quality concrete
is used for the required applications.

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28
LEARNING UNIT
6  6

The use of formwork, reinforcement, sand-

6

cement mixes and finishes in construction

L E A R N I N G O U TCO M E S
After studying this unit, you should be able to

•• describe different types and properties of formwork, and identify their

applications
•• describe different types and properties of reinforcement, and identify
their applications
•• explain the properties and functions of sand-cement mixtures
•• explain how concrete can be finished in terms of colour and texture

6.1 INTRODUCTION

READING
Study the chapters on Formwork, Reinforcement, Sand-cement mixes and
Concrete appearance in your prescribed textbook.

Concreting work entails different processes and procedures. We have looked

at some general processes in the previous learning units – processes like
batching, mixing, mix design, and so on. Now we will be looking at some
other important phenomena in concreting. If concrete in the fresh state is
workable, then how is it possible to form concrete in different shapes? Your
thinking is right, and that is why we will be looking at formwork. Formwork
helps to keep fresh concrete in a specified shape.

You may also be wondering how a concrete element can withstand tensile
forces. Apart from the strength provided by the constituent materials, concrete
can withstand tensile forces when reinforced with round steel bars.

Also, after placing concrete, proper and adequate finishes are required to
obtain the best aesthetic look concrete can provide.

Based on the above, we will be looking at formwork, reinforcement, sand-

cement mixtures and finishes in this learning unit.

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29 CN T4701/1


6.2 FORMWORK
Formwork is a temporary casing that is used to hold and shape fresh concrete
until it hardens. It provides the desired shape to the concrete and determines
the surface finish. Formwork can be permanent when it remains in place and
becomes part of the structure. Formwork is made from steel, timber, plastic
or wood-based materials.

Care must be taken when constructing formwork, because faulty formwork can
result in faulty concrete. The following are requirements for good formwork:

•• It should be strong and rigid enough to support the load.

•• The face material of the formwork provides the required surface finish of
the concrete.
•• The joints between the panels must be sufficiently water tight.
•• Formwork should be accurate in line, level and dimensions and should be
adequately braced.
•• It should be designed in such a way that easy and quick erection and
striking are possible.
•• Formwork should be clean.
•• Formwork must be durable.
•• It should absorb water uniformly across its surface.

(Consult the prescribed book for an explanation of these requirements.)

The inside of the formwork requires a releasing agent before the placing of the
concrete. This will ensure that the formwork is easily and properly stripped
off the concrete, without any damage to the surface of the concrete. A good
release agent should

•• facilitate easy removal or striking of the formwork

•• not cause blemishes or softening of the concrete surface
•• not interfere with the adhesion of plaster or paint applied to the concrete
surface

(Consult the prescribed book to learn more about the types and application
of release agents.)

Formwork can also be supported by a temporary structure, which is referred

to as falsework. Falsework needs to be

•• strong enough to support the applied loads

•• properly braced
•• supported on a firm surface
•• easy and safe to erect and dismantle

(Consult the prescribed book for more information about falsework.)

Another temporary structure on site is scaffolding. Scaffolding consists of

temporary structures which provide access for workmen during construction.
One of the great causes of casualties on site is the failure of formwork, falsework
or scaffolding. It is therefore important to identify the possible causes of unsafe

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LE ARNING UNIT  6:  T he use of formwork , reinforcement, sand - cement mixes and f inishes in construc tion

formwork, falsework and scaffolding and carefully guard against them during
construction. Some of these causes are summarised below:

•• Faulty design
•• Use of substandard materials
•• Loss of support
•• Inadequate or incorrect types of fastenings
•• Eccentric or shock loads
•• Failure of support

(Consult the prescribed book for explanations of these factors.)

26 Ac tivit y 6.1
(1) Without checking your prescribed book, what do you think will happen
to the concrete if formwork release agent is under-applied or over-
applied? (Check if your answer is similar to the explanation given in the
prescribed book.)
(2) Suppose you are the engineer in charge of your brother’s building
construction, which is at the stage of striking the formwork. To save
cost, you intend to use the same formwork for your own building
project that will start in two months’ time. How do you intend to
handle the formwork to ensure that it can be re-used for your project?
Post your answer to question 2 in the relevant space in the discussion
forum on the module website.

6.3 REINFORCEMENT
I am sure that you have heard that “concrete is strong in compression and weak
in tension”. This is the reason for using reinforcement in concrete. Reinforcement
consists of the steel rods or bars embedded in concrete, providing concrete
with the ability to resist tensile forces, thereby increasing concrete’s tensile
strength. In columns, reinforcement also assists in increasing the compressive
strength of concrete. Concrete with embedded reinforcement is referred to as
reinforced concrete. Steel and concrete work well together, as shown below:

•• Steel and concrete have similar thermal movements.

•• The high pH of cement paste helps to protect the reinforcement against
rusting.
•• Reinforced concrete is reasonably economical.
•• Concrete is resistant to fire and protects the steel.

(Consult the prescribed book for further explanation of the compatibility of

steel and concrete.)

We have conventional/standard types of reinforcement, which include mild-

steel plain bars, hot-rolled high-yield deformed bars with ribs, and welded
steel fabrics. (Detailed information on standard reinforcement is given in your
prescribed book.)

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Recent research has identified alternative reinforcements, which include fusion-

bonded epoxy-coated steel reinforcement, galvanised steel reinforcement,
stainless steel reinforcement and fibres. We will not discuss these alternative
reinforcements, but for interest’s sake, you can consult Fulton’s concrete
technology textbook for more on these alternative reinforcements.

When placing reinforced concrete, it is important to ensure that the concrete

covers the reinforcement properly to protect it against corrosion. The distance
between the surface of the concrete and the nearest reinforcement is referred
to as cover. The amount of cover is determined by the exposure conditions.
The preferred minimum cover for normal-density concrete is given in the
prescribed book.

The strength of the bond between the concrete and the reinforcement is
affected by the following factors:

•• the shape of the deformed pattern

•• the bar diameter
•• the compressive strength of the concrete
•• rust and scale
•• compaction, bleeding and settlement of the concrete
•• the provision of anchors
•• cleanliness

(Consult the prescribed book for detailed explanations of how these factors
affect the bond strength.)

For the proper placing of reinforcement in concrete, the position of all

reinforcement must be clearly shown in the working drawings as designed
and detailed by the design engineer. The working drawings must show the
following:

•• the dimensions of the members

•• complete details of the reinforcement
•• particulars of the concrete cover required
•• notes on the concrete requirements

Based on the working drawings, bar bending schedules must be drawn up,
giving the quantity, mark, shape, dimensions and mass of the reinforcement.
The following information must be provided in the bar bending schedule:

•• member description
•• reference mark
•• type of steel (r = mild steel, y = high yield, z = other)
•• number of bars
•• length of bars
•• shape of bars
•• mass
•• comments where necessary

After the bar bending schedule has been completed, the schedule will guide
the cutting, bending and labelling of the reinforcement. (More details are given

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LE ARNING UNIT  6:  T he use of formwork , reinforcement, sand - cement mixes and f inishes in construc tion

in your prescribed book. Also, consult the prescribed book on the storage,
fixing, reinforcement support, splicing and final checking of reinforcement,
before placing concrete.)

27 Ac tivit y 6. 2
(1) Explain in detail the effect of different factors affecting the bond
strength of reinforced concrete.
(2) Discuss the following with your fellow students in the discussion forum
on the module website:
•• How can reinforcement be stored on site?
•• The importance of spacer blocks, steel stools and high chairs as
support to reinforcement
•• What is splicing?

6.4 SAND-CEMENT MIXES

Sand-cement mixes refer to mortar, plaster and floor screeds. These mixes
contain only sand, cement and water, without any stone. Just like concrete,
sand-cement mixes require proper mix proportions and all the processes of
batching, mixing and placing must be monitored properly.

6.4.1 Important properties

Workability is one of the important properties of sand-cement mixes. The mixes
must have good workability to allow successful application. Unlike concrete,
the slump test cannot be used to assess the workability of sand-cement mixes.
The methods to assess the workability of mortar and plaster are outlined in
the prescribed book. (Consult the prescribed book for ways to assess the
workability of mortar and plaster.)

Another important aspect is the water requirement for sand-cement mixes.

The amount of water added in the mix will affect the consistency of the
mix and will have a direct effect on the water/cement ratio (W/C) at a given
sand:cement ratio. It will also affect the drying shrinkage of the hardened mix.
(More information is given in the prescribed book.) The following properties
of the sand will affect the water requirement:

•• fineness modulus
•• particle shape
•• particle surface texture
•• proportion passing the 75-micron sieve
•• clay content

(Read more on water requirements and the yield of sand-cement mixes in the
prescribed book.)

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6.4.2 Mortar, plaster and floor screed

Mortar is used to hold masonry units together. The mix must be workable at
the point of use.

Plaster is applied to walls and ceilings to produce a smooth and neat surface,
which can be painted.

Floor screeds are used to level and smooth out existing concrete floors. Two
types are used: bonded screeds (applied to hardened concrete floors) and
monolithic screeds (applied when the concrete floor is still workable).

Read up on mortar (bedding for walling), plaster and floor screed in your
prescribed book.

28 Ac tivit y 6. 3
(1) Explain the different functions of sand-cement mixtures.
(2) As a supervisor on site, how will you determine if the plastering has
been done correctly?
(3) Explain the common defects in plastering.
(4) What explanation in terms of causes and remedies will you give to
a client who complains about the following floor screed problems?
•• Breaking up of a surface
•• Disintegration of the screed
•• Dusting of the surface
•• De-bonding

6.4.3 The appearance of concrete

The colour of concrete can be changed, using the following methods:

•• Use white cement and add colour pigment to the concrete.

•• Apply a coating to the form face, for example black oxide, so that it can
become an integral part of the surface finish.
•• Apply a surface stain or coating after the concrete has been cured.

In terms of texture, concrete can be either smooth or textured.

(Study “Appearance of concrete” in your prescribed book.)

29 Ac tivit y 6.4
(1) Discuss why the following can change the colour of concrete:
•• wetting
•• staining
•• lime boom
•• lime weeping

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LE ARNING UNIT  6:  T he use of formwork , reinforcement, sand - cement mixes and f inishes in construc tion

(2) What, would you say, are the three most important insights you have
gained from studying this module?
(3) What would you now do differently in the workplace? Post your answer
in the relevant discussion forum on the module website.

6.5 CONCLUSION
In this unit, information was provided about formwork, reinforcement, concrete
appearance and sand-cement mixes (mortar, plastering and floor screeds).
Note that these are just summaries. Detailed information is given in your
prescribed book.

This module provided you with an overview of the ways in which concrete is
constituted, manufactured and used. This knowledge should be useful to you
throughout your career in the civil engineering industry.

REFERENCES
The information in this study guide is based on the prescribed book:

Fundamental of concrete, 3rd edition, 2013, edited by Gills Owens, published

by the Concrete Institute, Midrand. ISBN: 9780992217600.
A recommended book for further reading is:

Fulton’s concrete technology, 9th edition, 2009, edited by Gills Owens,

published by the Concrete Institute, Midrand. ISBN: 9780958477918.

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