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Exp No: 7

Date:………….

CALIBRATION OF SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER BY DIRECT


LOADING AND PHANTOM LOADING AT VARIOUS POWER
FACTORS
Aim:

1. To calibrate the given single phase energy meter using standard wattmeter by direct
loading.
Apparatus required:

Quantity Specifications

1 Ammeter (0-5) A, MI 1
2 Voltmeter (0-250) V, MI 1
3 Single phase variable resistance load 15 Ω/ 5 A 1
4 Wattmeter 250 V/ 5 A, UPF 1
5 Single phase Auto transformer 270 V / 15 A 1
6 Three phase Auto transformer 1
7 Stop watch 1

Principle

In order to check the calibration of a single phase energy meter, the reading of the energy
meter is compared with that of a standard instrument. For determining the true energy
consumption, a standard wattmeter and an accurate stopwatch is used. From the calculated
true power, the error and the percentage error in the energy meter reading is determined. In
direct loading, the current coils of the energy meter and wattmeter are connected to a single
phase supply in series with the loading device (say rheostat) whereas the pressure coils are
connected directly to the supply. The loading device is adjusted to get the required current.
Then the energy consumption is determined by observing the time for a fixed number (say N)
of revolutions. The true energy is calculated from the wattmeter reading and the time
indicated by the stopwatch.
Fig. Direct loading

Procedure

The connections are done as shown in the circuit diagram. Adjust the auto transformer to
minimum position. Supply is switched on and rated voltage (specified on energy meter) is
applied by varying autotransformer. Remove the loads completely. The current is varied
using loading rheostat till the rated current (specified on energy meter) step by step. The
ammeter reading, voltmeter reading, wattmeter reading and time for 5 revolutions of energy
meter disc are noted in each step. Remove all the loads step by step. Adjust the auto
transformer to minimum position and switch off supply. Plot the graph with indicated power
on X-axis and (a) true power (b) % correction on Y-axis.

DIRECT LOADING

Power Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter Time for 5 Indicated % Error % Correction


factor Reading Reading Reading revolutions Power *100 = - % Error
(V) (A) W1 (W) t (Sec) W2 (W)

Unity

*W1-Actual power (Wattmeter), W2-Indicated power (Energy meter)

Note:
Meter Constant of energy meter (MC) =

kWh =

Power in watts (W) = = =

2. To calibrate the given single phase energy meter using standard wattmeter by
phantom loading without using phase shifting transformer

Fig. 1 Circuit diagram for UPF

Fig. 2 Circuit diagram for 0.5 lag/lead


Principle

When a energy meter is designed for high current loads, it is uneconomical to arrange such
loads for testing purposes as it involves a considerable waste of time and power. To avoid
this problem "phantom” loading is done. In phantom loading, pressure coil is excited from
normal supply voltage and current coil is excited from a separate low voltage supply. The low
impedance of current coil circuit makes it possible to circulate the required current even with
low supply voltage.

Procedure

(i) Unity Power Factor:

For testing energy meter at UPF condition connections are done as shown in fig 1. Keep the
autotransformer position in minimum and loading rheostat position in maximum. Supply is
given and apply rated voltage (mentioned on energy meter) across pressure coil of energy
meter and wattmeter. Current in the current coil of the circuit is adjusted by varying auto
transformer. First adjust auto transformer to low value of current (say 1A) and increase the
current to rated current (mentioned on energy meter) (say up to 5A). The voltmeter, ammeter,
wattmeter and time for 5 revolutions of energy meter are noted for various load currents.

(i) 0.5 lagging / 0.5 leading Power Factor:

Note: For this connection, you should not use same three phase autotransformer for both
current coil and pressure coil.

For a power factor of 0.5, connections are made as shown in figure 2. Keep the
autotransformer position in minimum. The current coil of wattmeter and energy meter is
connected in series to R-phase and pressure coil to Y-phase for lag and B-phase for lead.
Switch on the supply and apply rated voltage (mentioned on energy meter) across pressure
coil of energy meter and wattmeter. If the wattmeter reads negative the pressure coil
connections are interchanged. Current in the current coil of the circuit is adjusted by varying
auto transformer. First adjust auto transformer to low value of current (say 1A) and increase
the current to rated current (mentioned on energy meter) (say up to 5A). The voltmeter,
ammeter, wattmeter and time for 5 revolutions of energy meter are noted for various loads
current. Plot indicated power vs actual power. Also plot the indicated power vs % correction.

PHANTOM LOADING

Power Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter Time for 5 Indicated % Error % Correction


factor Reading Reading Reading- revolutions Power- *100 = - % Error
(V) (A) W1 (W) (Sec) W2 (W)
Unity

0.5
lag

0.5
lead

*W1-Actual power (Wattmeter), W2-Indicated power (Energy meter)

PRE-EXPERIMENT QUIZ

a. Aluminium is preferred to copper in making the rotating disc in energy meter. Why?
b. What is the purpose of providing copper shading bands on the central limb of the core
on which the pressure coil is wound in induction type energy meters?
c. What do you mean by inductive load adjustment? What are the methods to do this?
Briefly explain.
d. What is meant by „creeping‟ in energy meters? How is it avoided?
e. What do you mean by „phantom‟ loading and why is it resorted to?
f. Draw a neat phasor diagram to suit this loading situation in your experiment?
Answer the following Questions:

1. Is it possible to reverse the direction of rotation of the disc in energy meter? If yes, how
?
2. If the induction type energy meter runs fast, what is to be done to slow it down?
3. After conducting this experiment, will you be able to check whether the energy meter in
your house is reading correctly, you can use only a stop watch and no additional meters
can be connected (at least approximately).
4. Is it possible to calibrate the energy meter at 0.5 lead and lag? If yes, how?
5. Even in phantom loading, a resistance is connected in series with the current coil. Is it
necessary for the conduct of the experiment?

Result:
Exp No: 8
Date:………….

CALIBRATION OF THREE PHASE ENERGY METER USING


STANDARD WATTMETER
Aim: To calibrate the given three phase energy meter using standard wattmeter.

Apparatus required:

Quantity Specifications

1. Ammeter (0-5) A, MI 1
2. Voltmeter (0-500) V, MI 1
3. Three phase variable resistance load 15 Ω/ 10 A 1
4. Dynamometer type Wattmeter UPF 2
5. Stop watch Digital 1
6. Three phase energy meter Induction 1

Procedure:

1. Choose a three phase energy meter, note down its rating and choose apparatus
accordingly.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
3. Initially keep the three phase autotransformer at the minimum potential position and
turn off all the loads in three phase variable resistance load.
4. Switch on the supply and gradually increase the supply by varying three phase
autotransformer till voltmeter reads rated voltage (specified on the three phase energy
meter).
5. Now see the disc, if it is rotating without turning on any load then it is having
creeping error. Note down the time taken for 1 revolution.
6. Gradually increase the load in steps up to the rated current (indicated on the three
phase energy meter) and note down the readings of voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeters,
and time taken for 5 revolutions in each step.
7. Switch off all the loads in three phase variable resistance load, bring back the three
phase autotransformer to its minimum potential position, and switch off the supply.
8. Convert the energy meter reading into indicated power in watts and plot indicated
power vs true power. Also plot the indicated reading in watts Vs % error.

Observation Table

P Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter Wattmeter True power Time for 5 Indicated % Error
F Reading Reading Reading Reading WT =W1 + W2 revolutions Power *100
(V) (A) W1 (W) W2 (W) (W) t (Sec) WI (W)

U
N
I
T
Y

Note:

Meter Constant of energy meter (MC) =

kWh =

Power in watts (W) = = =

PRE EXPERIMENTAL QUIZ

1. How is compensation for static friction provided in induction type energy meters?

2. What do you mean by 'phantom' loading and why is it resorted to?

3. Explain the necessity and principle of creep test at higher voltage?


4. Explain clearly the adjustments to be made on a multi element meter used on three phase
energy circuit?

4. Draw a neat phasor diagram to suit this loading situation.

POST EXPERIMENTAL QUIZ

1. Is it necessary that the meter disc should rotate in normal direction for energy to be
recorded correctly?

2. In many houses, three phase supply is provided even though there are no three phase loads
in use. Why?

3. When three phase supply is used in a domestic circuit, is it better to use three single phase
energy meter instead of a three phase energy meter?

4. Is it possible to calibrate the energy meter at 0.866 lag and 0.866 lead. If yes, how?

5. Study the various types of error adjustments provided in the given three phase energy
meter.

Results
Exp No: 9
Date:………….

DETERMINATION OF HYSTERESIS LOOP OF AN IRON RING


SPECIMEN USING SIX POINT METHOD
Aim:
To obtain the hysteresis loop of a given iron ring specimen by six point method.

Apparatus required:
1. Iron ring specimen
2. Ammeter
3. Rheostat
4. DPST Switch
5. Fluxmeter
6. DC source
7. Fuse

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
 Make connections as shown in the figure.
 Demagnetise the iron specimen.
 The flux meter is reset and a current is passed through a coil . The fluxmeter reading
is noted and current is changed to i2 in the same direction.
 After fluxmeter is reset after a series of demagnetising method of opening and
reversing DPST switch,the current is taken through following series without any
fluxmeter resetting in between fluxmeter reading is noted down
0-1A,1-2A,2-1A,1-0A,0 to -1A, ,-1 to -2A, ,-2 to -1A, ,-1 to 0A, 0-1A,1-2A.
 The change in the fluxmeter reading is noted down ,plotted and hysteresis curve is
then obtained by suitable adjustments.

Pre-experimental report:
1. List different types of a flux meter, which type of flux meter are you using in the
laboratory?
2. How will you extend the range of a flux meter?
3. What is linkage factor?
4. What is a magnetic potentiometer?
5. What is permeameter, what is its importance?
6. Discuss how a flux meter is differ from a moving coil ammeter or galvanometer?
7. What is the importance of the area under hysteresis loop?

Post -experimental report:


1. What measures are used to reduce hysteresis losses in rotating electrical machines and
transformers?
2. One of the use of reactors is in devices like magnetic amplifiers which use the
property of abrupt saturation at a flux density above a threshold .These are called
saturable reactors or transducers. What type of hysteresis loops is useful for such
devices?
3. What are the desirable properties of materials used in permanent magnets and
temporary magnets ?

Tabular column
Sl no. Current Flux meter reading H Φ B
(A) (AT/m) (Wb) (Wb/m2)
Initial Final Difference

Result:
The hysteresis loop of given iron specimen was determined by six point method and
hysteresis loop was plotted .The total energy loss due to hysteresis is ………J
Exp No:10
Date:………….

PHOTOMETRY
Aim:

i. To determine the candle power of a given test lamp to various operating voltage up to
230V, using photometric bench.
ii. To determine the polar curves of the candle power distribution in a horizontal plane
passing through the lamp source operating at a voltage of 230V and hence the
determination of MHCP of lamp.
iii. To determine the MSCP of the given test lamp of 230V using Rousseau‟s
construction and hence calibrate the given integrating sphere.

Apparatus Required:

Apparatus Specifications Quantity


Test lamp 250V,40W 1
Standard lamp 250V,40W 1
wattmeter (0-250)V 1
Auto transformer (0-230)V,5A,1phase 1
AC power supply 230V,50Hz,1 phase 1
DPST switch 1
Fuse 5A 1

Procedure:

To determine the candle power of the test lamp

1. Two lamps (standard and test) are placed at some distance apart with photometric
head in between them.
2. “S” is standard lamp whose intensity is known and T is the test lamp whose intensity
is to be measured.
3. Photometric head is moved between the lamps till the illumination on the both the
sides is equal.
4. Distances are noted from the photometric bench.
5. For different values of applied voltage null power is measured.

To determine MHCP and polar curve:

1. This may be determined for a given source by turning it about a vertical axis and
measuring intensity in the direction of the line joining the source under test and
standard source.
2. The readings are taken after 10 to 15 rotations
3. MHCP may be obtained by plotting intensity against roatation on rectangular axis
4. Mean ordinate of the curve given the value of MHCP gives the value to MSCP.

Post Experimental Work:

Q1.what are the compact fluorescent lamps and their advantages?

Q2.What are the laws of illumination required on

a) Factory floors
b) Rooms
c) Street lighting

Q3.How do you select light fittings and lamp shaders in domestic lighting? What are the
criteria used?

Q4.On what all factors does illumination from a given lamp depends?

Q5.Define luminous intensity, luminous and candle power?

Q6.What is MHCP, MSCP?

Q7. State and explain laws of illumination?

Q8.Explain lumen Brodhum Photometer head?

Q9.Define point source, line source, extended source, and solid angle point?

Q10.What is integrating sphere?

Circuit Diagram:
[1] To determine candle power of test lamp

Sl.no Applied Distance of photometer head Candle


voltage Test lamp(cm)r2 Standard lamp(cm)r1 power I2

[2] To determine MHCP and MSCP

Sl.no Angle of Distance of photometer head Candle


rotation Test lamp(cm)r2 Standard lamp(cm)r1 power I2

Result
Exp No: 11 A
Date:………….

MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE USING SCHERING BRIDGE


AIM

To measure the value of unknown capacitance using Schering bridge and dissipation
factor

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Sl. Name Specification Quantity


No

1 Decade condenser box 2

2 Rheostat 200 Ω, 1.7 A 2

3 Function Generator 1

4 Galvanometer 1

5 Multimeter 1

THEORY

Schering bridge are most popular used these days in industries for measurement of
capacitance, dissipation factor and loss angles.

Under balanced condition

) =( )( )

j/ =( )( )
j/ )( j/ )= )( j/ )

(- / )-( )= / )-

By equating real and imaginary parts on both sides we get

=
PROCEDURE

1. Set up the circuit as shown in figure


2. and are unknown resistance and capacitance
= standard capacitance which is loss free

=non inductance resistance

3. Find the value of , and to get the values of


4. Adjust the unknown capacitance to get the minimum deflection in CRO and
accordingly vary
5. Note down and values and calculate and
6. These errors are due to error in unknown capacitance and resistance

INFERENCE

Error in the resistor and capacitor values may be because of the resistance of standard
capacitor used.

POST EXPERIMENTAL QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by the quality factor of the capacitor


2. Discuss the use of wagners earthing arrangement in connection with AC bridge

RESULT

The value of unknown capacitance has been measured using Schering Bridge
Exp No: 11 B
Date:………….

MEASUREMENT OF INDUCTANCE USING MAXWELL’S BRIDGE

AIM

To measure the value of unknown inductance using Maxwell‟s capacitance bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Sl. Name Specification Quantity


No

1 Decade condenser box 1

2 Rheostat 3

3 Function Generator 1

4 Galvanometer 1

5 Multimeter 1

THEORY

In this bridge, an inductance is measured by comparison with a standard variable capacitance


Under balanced condition

[ ]

Separating the real and imaginary parts,

And
The expression for Q factor of the coil is,

L1 – Unknown inductance
R1 – Effective resistance of inductor,
C4 – Variable standard capacitor
R2, R3, R4 – Known non-inductive resistance

Phasor Diagram

PROCEDURE

1. Set up the connection as per the diagram shown above.


2. Connect the unknown inductance at the Lx (unknown) point.
3. Obtain the balance condition by adjusting the capacitance in the bridge
4. Note down all the values in the bridge and calculate L1 and R1.
INFERENCE

Error in the inductor and resistor values may be because of the resistance of variable
capacitor used.

POST EXPERIMENTAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Maxwell‟s capacitance bridge.

RESULT

The value of unknown inductance has been measured using Maxwell‟s capacitance
bridge.
Exp No: 12
Date:………….

CALIBRATION OF PMMC TYPE AMMETER AND DYNAMOMETER


TYPE WATTMETER USING DC VERNIER POTENTIOMETER

Aim: To calibrate the given PMMC type ammeter and dynamometer type wattmeter using
vernier potentiometer.

Vernier Potentiometer:
This is a precision instrument for the measurement of voltages in the range of 0 to 1.901 volts
with a least count of 1 microvolt or 0.1 microvolt according to two different models.

Standardization:
1. Connect a freshly charged 2 volts lead accumulator to terminals marked “2 volts”

2. Connect a sensitive spot reflecting type of galvanometer or equivalent to pair of terminals


marked “GALVO‟.

3. Connect a cadmium standard cell of E.M.F. 1.0186 Volts to pair of terminals marked “STD
CELL” An auxiliary scale is provided to take into consideration temperature variation of
standard cell voltage. Set this scale equal to standard cell E.M.F. at the working temperature.
Please note that standard cells have a negative temperature coefficient of 40 microvolts per
degree centigrade.

4. Set the function switch in the “STD” position.

5. Standardization is independent of setting of 3 voltage dials and range multiplier used. Set
the range switch at X1, or X0.1, or X0.01. Standardization is same at all the 3 ranges.

6. Get the null point of galvanometer by pressing two galvanometer keys and by adjusting the
3 rheostats namely coarse, medium and fine. First press the coarse galvo key to get the null
point. When the null point approaches, press the fine key only to get the exact null point.
Now standardization is complete. And rheostats should not be disturbed now. But during
measurements, standardization should be checked off and rheostats should be slightly
adjusted if found necessary.
Measurements of Voltages:
1. The unknown voltage is connected to either of the test circuits marked 1, 2, 3.
2. The selector switch should be set according to the test circuit used.

3. Set the function switch in the “Test” position.

4. Check standardization as explained before and do not disturb the rheostat after
standardization.

5. Get the null point by pressing the two galvanometer keys one after another. To get the null
point, adjust three voltage dials only. The choice of voltage range depends on the magnitude
of the unknown voltage.

6. The sum of three voltage dials multiplied by the range multiplier chosen gives the value of
the unknown voltage in volts.

Schematic Diagram:

a. Calibration of a D.C (0-5 A) ammeter using precision type vernier


potentiometer

Apparatus required:
Rheostat 50 Ω, 5 A
Ammeter (PMMC) (0-5) A
Standard Resistor 0.1 Ω, 10 A

Procedure:
Ammeter is of PMMC type. Standardize the potentiometer by setting the vernier dials to
marked position corresponding to the emf of the standard cell and adjust the potentiometer
current, until galvanometer shows the null deflection. Keep the current constant through the
entire range of the instrument.
Calculate,
i. % Error

ii. % Correction

Draw the curves with ammeter reading along x-axis and % error along y-axis and actual
reading vs true value plot. All points are to be joined with straight line.

Circuit Diagram:
Tabular column

Ammeter Voltage Current, % Error = %


Reading (A) Measured I=V/0.1 (A) ((Measured Correction =
(V) value – True -% Error
value)/True
value)*100

b. Calibration of a dynamometer type wattmeter using precision type


vernier potentiometer.

Apparatus required:
Rheostat 3000 W, 5 A
Ammeter (PMMC) (0-5) A
Voltmeter (PMMC) (0-250)V
Wattmeter (dynamometer type) 250 V, 5A
Standard Resistor 0.1 Ω, 10 A
Voltage ratio box Ouptut of 1.5 V

Procedure:

Wattmeter, W of dynamometer type and all other instruments are of PMMC type.
Standardize the potentiometer by setting the vernier dials to marked position corresponding to
the emf of the standard cell and adjust the potentiometer current, until galvanometer shows
the null deflection. Keep the current constant through the entire range of the instrument.

Calculate,
i. % Error
ii. % Correction
Draw the curves with ammeter reading along x-axis and % error along y-axis and actual
reading vs true value plot. All points are to be joined with straight line.

Voltmet Ammet Wattme Voltage Current True % Error %


er er ter measure measure power= = Correcti
Reading Reading Reading d from d from V1*I1 ((Measu on = -%
(V) (A) (W) potentio potentio (W) red Error
meter meter value –
(V1) in (I1) in A True
volts value)/T
rue
value)*
100
Circuit Diagram:

Result:

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