86 Geothermal Power Plants: Principles, Applications, Case Studies and Environmental Impact

G Slug flow
G Annular flow.
For each flow pattern, the mechanism for the pressure loss is different and requires the
use of empirical correlations. Many of these have been developed and the subject is still
being researched.
In general, the pressure loss in a two-phase pipeline consists of three terms: (1) the
frictional pressure drop (viscous effects), (2) the gravitational pressure drop (body force
effects), and (3) the accelerational pressure drop (inertial effects). The viscous term
may be found, for example, from a correlation by Lockhart and Martinelli [4] that
gives the ratio of the two-phase pressure drop to the single-phase, steam-only pressure
drop. The gravity term enters when the pipeline changes its elevation and requires
knowledge of the average density of the two-phase fluid over a length of pipe, and the
variation of the density along the pipeline. This is usually expressed in terms of the
void fraction, i.e., the fraction occupied by the vapor of the cross-section of a short
length of the pipe. Lockhart and Martinelli also provided correlations for void fraction
[4]. The acceleration term results from the application of the momentum equation and
plays a significant role at and just beyond the point where the liquid initially flashes
from a liquid to a vapor when the pressure falls to the saturation pressure correspond-
ing to the local fluid temperature. This is important in a production well, for example,
if the flash point is encountered between the fluid entry point and the wellhead, as we
saw in Sect. 4.2. This term is often small for horizontal or gentle-sloped two-phase
pipelines and may be neglected for these cases.
James [5] has offered a very simple formulation for the two-phase pressure drop as
simply the steam-phase pressure drop divided by the square root of the local dryness
fraction. His formula reduces to the steam pressure drop if the dryness fraction is equal
to 1, but it fails to give the correct result at the other extreme for all liquid flow,
i.e., when the dryness fraction becomes zero. Thus, the simple James rule should be
viewed as a rough approximation that should only be used when the dryness fraction
exceeds 0.5. In any case, its use for a long two-phase pipeline requires a step-by-step,
iterative calculation with adjustments being made to the dryness fraction as the pres-
sure falls and the dryness fraction increases.
The important conclusion from these considerations is that two-phase pipelines can
be designed as elements of a geothermal gathering system but proper account must be
taken of the pressure drop since it can be larger than that in single-phase steam lines.
The presence of unsteady flow patterns such as slug flow can cause excessive vibra-
tions and should be avoided by proper selection of pipe diameters. So-called flow pat-
tern “maps” [4] can guide the designer to safe regimes.
Another important aspect concerns the flow of liquid that is removed from the
cyclone separators. That fluid is in a saturated state and any loss in pressure can
cause it to flash into vapor. For example, if the liquid is conveyed upward immediately
after leaving the separator, the reduction in the gravity head will lower the pressure
and one can expect flashing and vibrations that could damage equipment.
Furthermore, if the fluid is conveyed horizontally over a significant distance, the fric-
tional pressure drop may lead to flashing in the pipeline before the fluid reaches the
injection well. This will create a vapor barrier and inhibit the flow of the fluid down
the well. In such a case it may be necessary to bleed the vapor from the wellhead or