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STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC
THE ORIGINS OF HAMAS: AN OFFSHOOT OF MUSLIM BROTHERHOOD, OR A RESULT OF THE
PLO’S MORAL CORRUPTION?
Ecaterina CEPOI
PhD Candidate
The Joint Operations, Strategic Studies, and Security Department
“Carol I” National Defense University, Bucharest, Romania
Abstract: Since its creation in 1987, Hamas has been at the forefront of armed resistance in the occupied
Palestinian territories and is considered a terrorist group by U.S. and Israel, and seen as a militant
fundamentalist Islamic organization which is operating in the West Bank and Gaza, by others. Despite of
that, Hamas has an annual budget of $70 million, according to its Council on Foreign Relations, funds
that are coming from expatriate Palestinians, or private donors, from Middle East, and states, such as
Iran. Its name is an acronym for "Harakat Al-Muquwama Al-Islamyya," or Islamic Resistance Movement
in English. The word "Hamas" means Zeal, or Enthusiasm, in Arabic. As an organization, it has sections
dedicated to religious, military, political as well as for security activities. In addition, it runs a social
welfare program, and operates a number of schools, hospitals and religious institutions, following the
Muslim Brotherhood’s model. But not the data provided above is the concern of this paper, but the
origins and reasons which led to the emergence of Hamas on a territory, where, were already acting PLO
and its favourite group Al-Fatah, or Muslim Brotherhood for charity activities, and because the origins
and purpose of this organization are questioned by different scholars. For example, Israel accuses
Hamas, of using civilians in Gaza, as a "human shield," and the territory's schools and hospitals as a
cover for military hardware, while, on the other hand, there are voices, which are accusing Mossad of
funding Hamas in order to use it as a Casus Belli at a certain point, while it enjoys widespread backing
from the general population in Gaza, due to its charity program.
Keywords: Intifada, PLO, Hamas, Palestinian national identity’s crisis, Muslim Brotherhood;
Historical Background the army of Caliph Omar. From now on, it will
be a part of the territory of Islam, which was
The creation of the State of Israel in 1948 governed by different political entities within
was one of the events that marked the decisive the expanding Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid
system of post‐war regional relations in the Caliphates, or those, which have followed them:
Middle East. Sustained by political and the Mongol Empire, the Egyptian Mamluk State,
diplomatic actions of Zionism, for more than a and starting with 1516, it, become a part of the
half of a century, finally, it was managed to Ottoman Empire. Throughout this long period,
establish after nearly two thousand years, a the Jewish population from Palestine was
new State for the Jewish people. The problem insignificant, rather contained groups of
was, however, that the territory of Eretz Israel scholars in the holy centres of Judaism. Only at
had meanwhile a different history than the the end of the 19th century, with the emergence
destiny of the Jewish Diaspora spread around in Europe of the Zionist movement of Theodor
the world. Once, part of the Roman and Herzl, was initiated, in particular, the problem
Byzantine Empire, Palestine was conquered in of the "Jewish question" by the formation of a
636, following the famous battle of Yarmouk, by State to gather the Jewish nation. WWI
accelerated this problem. On the one hand, the territory remained under double
well‐known „Statement," of British Foreign administration: Gaza Strip by Egypt and the
Minister Balfour, in 1917 gave the Zionists West Bank and East Jerusalem by Transjordan,
leaders the idea, that after the war, England which became now the Hashemite Kingdom of
would accept the formation of a Jewish Jordan. In addition, appears the problem of the
"national home" in Palestine, though, such a Palestinian refugees: almost half of the Arab
term didn’t exist before in the international population is forced to leave their native places;
law. On the other hand, however, as early as grouped in the following decades in
1916, Britain and France had decided, through overcrowded and unsanitary refugee camps in
the secret Sykes‐Picot agreement, the division neighbouring Arab countries, they will be the
of the territory in the Middle East, after the main melting pot from which will be recruited
defeat of the Ottoman Empire. Work the future militants, nationalists and Islamists
accomplished otherwise by the Conference of [11, pp. 161‐258].
San Remo (1920), when there were plotted,
rather artificial, boundaries of new states, Until the 1967’s defeat, the Arab
subject to a system of government by mandate, countries will continue to consider themselves
meaning by the effective exercise of power by as responsible for the Palestinian problem, by
the victorious powers. coordinating insurgency warfare against Israeli
domination. The leader is now, Gamal Abdel‐
The implementation of the Balfour Nasser, who became the hero of the Arab world
Declaration in the first years after the war, after the failure of the British‐French‐Israeli
allowed a strong Jewish population exodus Alliance. Is the golden age of the Arab socialist
from Palestine, first from Russia and after 1933, ideologies. Thus, the Nasserites, the Ba’athists,
from Germany and Central Europe. They meet, and the nationalists conquered power in Egypt,
however, more and more opposition and revolt Syria, Iraq, Algeria, and Tunisia, but the
of the Arab population, thus, in 1939, the struggles for hegemony between the various
British authorities restricted the Jewish leaders make it impossible the fulfilment of the
immigration drastically just at the peak of anti‐ Declaration of a major Pan‐Arab State. In 1964,
Jewish Nazi policies. The conclusion of the war, the Arab League – in particular, Nasser, put the
the revelations about the Holocaust, is Palestine Liberation Organization bases, but
enhancing the Jewish activism in Palestine and Syria will support the Al‐Fatah organization,
fight against the British power. Eventually, while King Hussein of Jordan wants him to be
England waives its mandate, transferring the recognized as the ruler of all the Palestinians.
problem to the United Nations, which, by its Iraq, in turn, under Qassem and then Aref
resolution 181 in 1947 proposed dividing brothers, has its own scenarios on Palestine.
Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab State, with
Jerusalem under an international regime. In In the following decades, the Palestinian
1948, in the very moment of the British groups’ actions, will mostly fulfil and represent
withdrawal and without waiting for the U.N. the policies of the States behind them; hence,
authorities, David ben Gurion proclaims in Tel the endless kaleidoscope and almost impossible
Aviv, the new State of Israel, which was quickly, to understand the different and often
recognized by the United States and the Soviet antithetical positions of Palestinian options
Union. Instead, the major Arab States, does not But, the Six‐Day War will eliminate the egos and
support the U.N. Partition Plan, and declares the Arab excessive rhetoric: Israel doesn’t
war on Israel. This first Arab‐Israeli War ended occupy just Gaza, the West Bank and East
in 1949 with a clear victory of the Jews. Jerusalem, but especially important Arab
Moreover, the territory of Israel will increase territories, such as Sinai and the Golan Heights.
from 55% to 78% of Palestine. Instead, the It is a key moment of the entire history of the
Palestinian State does not exist: the Palestinian Middle East: from now on, the completely
authorities, together with the Arab States Palestinian territory enters into a system of
continue to not support the Partition Plan, military occupied area with all rigors arising
therefore, by default do not recognize neither from this type of regime; in addition, Egypt and
the legality of Israel. Until the destruction of the Syria are directly involved from the geopolitical
"Zionist entity", however, the Palestinian point of view. The major change is that the
Palestinian people will transfer the confidence
“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC
from the Arab States to the Palestinian movements in the occupied territories in
resistance groups, that decided in July 1967 to December 1987, called the "Revolt" (The
continue alone hostilities against Israel by Intifada). It is a reaction of the population,
guerrilla warfare backed by „a people's war for particularly young people, born after 1967,
long term”. In the same year, the head of Fatah, which saw every year blocked future prospects
Yasser Arafat, becomes President of the and hopes of a State of their own, while
Executive Committee of the PLO. The following Palestinian militant groups from outside was
years, are marked by struggles at the borders powerless and mostly engaged in endless
with Israel, and in particular, of the numerous fratricidal struggle. The actions try to be as less
terrorist attacks made by Palestinian groups violent: general strikes, street protests daily,
[13, pp. 24‐42]. etc. The violent reaction of the Israeli
authorities, however, is: arrests of armed
The end of the 1960s and especially, repression, destruction of buildings. The
next decade are marked by a growing influence movement just ask the withdrawal of Israel
of the Gulf monarchies, especially that of Saudi from the occupied territories and the formation
Arabia. The oil boom and the rising price of a of a Palestinian State. Syria is trying to hijack
barrel will bring important funds in the region, the movement in their own interest but the PLO
of which a large part begin to be used as a will take the leadership [11, pp. 561‐610].
geopolitical activism. The policy agenda of King
Faisal extends also, over the Palestinian issue; In addition to accelerating a diplomatic
in addition to financing groups, Saudi Arabia solution, Intifada also marked the emergence of
will be the one who proposes the oil embargo in Islam in the Palestinian issue. It appears,
1973, following the Yom Kippur war, even precisely at the time of a spreading jihad in
though it had more a psychological impact, Afghanistan, which, otherwise, seized a few
marks the ascension of Saudi Arabia hegemonic years’ attention and resources of the Islamist
stage in international relations. However, the movements, by leaving in a shadow, the
oil tool is increasingly, conditioned by leaving Palestinian cause. However, the youth
the leftist model, and by assuming the size of movement in the occupied territories began to
Islamic Liberation struggle: hence, the find the messages of a revived Islam as a
fluctuations of Saudi attitude towards PLO or substitution to the national identity. The Afghan
other grouping of Marxist orientation. mujahedeen, throughout the Muslim world
Nevertheless, after 1973, the PLO is recognised already had acquired the status of heroes and
by the Arab countries as the "sole models: a connection between their struggle for
representative of the Palestinian people", and the cause of Islam when attacked by
even though, Arafat seeks gradually, to entry unbelievers and the Palestinian territory’s case
into legality and bring about a solution, even was made especially by classical writings of
partial, at the Palestinian diplomatic problem. Abdullah Azzam. Actually, the Intifada was just
The Camp David Treaty in 1978 between Egypt the opportunity expected for the emergence of
and Israel, except the fact that marks a victory a Palestinian Islamist movement, which require
for Israel, which is the first serious flaw in the that new leader for a new battle – and this
otherwise nonexistent, "Arab unity,” and put movement will be Hamas.
Egypt in the international Arab and Islamic
organizations, does not resolve the Palestinian
problem.
The end of the eight decade brings two
great events. The first is the outbreak of protest
The origins of Harakat Al took by surprise the Brotherhood, which kept a
Muqāwama AlIslāmiyya reserved attitude at first, leaving Yassine’s
faction to take the lead: on December 14, 1987
The Islamic Resistance Movement (Harakat the first statement is released, announcing the
the Mouqawama of Islamiyya) actually birth of Hamas and calling for resistance
represents a militant extension of the against the occupation. Only in February 1988
Palestinian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood. did the Palestinian Muslim Brotherhood
The Palestinian brothers’ history is connected effectively assume authorship of Hamas: it now
to the very beginning of the movement: since had an opportunity to reconcile Islam with
1929 Hassan al‐Banna, the founder of the patriotism and even provide their own
Brotherhood in Egypt, had come to Jerusalem response to the Unified National Command of
and gained the support of a significant group of the Intifada, the old Palestinian movements
followers: one of the movement’s leaders, who group gathered around Yasser Arafat. Its role
had died in the battle against the Jews in 1936, was from the very beginning to participate in
will give his name to the military wing of the resistance against the Israeli occupation on
Hamas: Azzeddine elQassem. However, the the one hand, and to ensure the "re‐
branch itself will only be founded in 1945; at Islamization" of the Palestinian society on the
first related to Egypt, during Nasser’s other hand. The competition between Arafat‐
crackdown it will become closer to the Hamas stems from the very beginning of the
Jordanian brothers. In the 50s ‐ 60s, the movement and Hamas will continually take
Palestinian Brotherhood will be surpassed by advantage of PLO’s compromises, failures or
the nationalist movement, whose members will corruption in order to propose its own program
come mainly from its own ranks. During this as the true solution to the Palestinian cause: to
entire period, and particularly after the defeat them, "Israeli occupation has only been possible
in 1967, the main activity of the movement was by forcing Palestinians away from their faith,
focused on the primacy of the re‐Islamization of only the re‐Islamization of the social capital and
the society, of moral reform, of creating social, the establishment of an Islamic state are likely
educational, health infrastructure in the to lead to the restoration of full sovereignty” [8,
occupied territories which could make up for p. 2]
the lack of authority [3]. Israel had thus tacitly
accepted the Brothers’ action, as an outlet that The emergence of an Islamist option in
could fulfill some of the population’s needs, and Palestine is therefore a reaction to an external
which could have led to trouble, but also alignment, as well as to local realities. First, it is
because the Brothers rejected the idea of a a result of increased re‐Islamization of the
Palestinian state which was restricted only to Muslim political discourse of the '80s and
Gaza and the West Bank. In 1973, they created especially of the Afghan jihad. Withdrawal of
the Islamic Society, an organization that the Soviet troops created the euphoria that it
coordinated social solidarity actions, hospitals, was due to the Islamic fight’s effectiveness; in
mosques, Koranic schools, sports clubs etc., addition, a few of the Arab mujahidin will
very active in the Islamic University of Gaza, led return to their homeland, including the
since its inception by Sheikh Ahmad Yassin, a Palestinian territories, convinced of the Islamic
charismatic figure and a very successful Revolution solution. Internally, the movement
preacher among young people [2] takes advantage of the positive impact of the
infrastructure built by the Brothers and of the
But, starting with the 80s, this prudent fact that, unlike the leaders of traditional
policy will be subject to an increasingly strong groups, who were outside the Palestinian
challenge coming from a new generation, territory, those of Hamas are present amongst
among whom were many graduates of Middle the population. Even if P.L.O. will soon come to
East universities, especially in Egypt, where take the lead and organize Intifada’s actions,
they had been enthused with a militant Hamas will have its own partisans who will
Islamism, or who had been imprisoned in take parallel action. Then, differentiation will
Israeli jails. Grouped around Ahmed Yassine, occur in terms of social and professional
they wanted a more active involvement, even components. Members of the Islamist groups
violent, against the Israeli presence in Gaza and are recruited rather among urban youth, often
the West Bank. The outbreak of the Intifada
“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC
with high rate of education but with poor state can afford to also say that „The Palestine
prospects for a fulfilled future to measure up to Liberation Organization is closest of the close to
their education, or poor youth raised in refugee the Islamic Resistance Movement” (art. 27) [1].
camps, but also new traders and what is called
"the pious bourgeoisie". Raised in an However, at the beginning, Hamas acted in
environment of political, social and economic the social and political field, deriving its
alienation, constantly subject to the Israeli strength from the important educational,
occupant’s whims, they will resonate positively charitable and religious network which had
to the message of an integral Islam, which been set up by the Muslim Brotherhood along
would offer the means to retrieve their the years. In addition, the first year of the
nationality, but even more importantly, their movement is characterized, despite its
identity and spirituality. program, by far more radical, by a peaceful
relationship with Israel, which even saw in the
On August 18, 1988, Hamas broadcasts its Islamist option a way to weaken the nationalist
Charter, which defines the statute of the block within the PLO [6]. Only in 1989, after
movement and its ideological and action Yithak Shamir’s rightist government came to
principles. Here are some of its key points: „The power in Israel, amid refusal to negotiate with
Islamic Resistance Movement: Islam is its the PLO and the continuing repression of
system” (art. 1), „The Islamic Resistance Intifada, the Palestinian action in the territories
Movement is a branch of the Muslim becomes more radical and the authority of
Brotherhood chapter in Palestine... It professes Hamas increases: it is the moment when the
a comprehensive understanding and precise first violent actions of its military wing start:
conceptualization of the Islamic precepts in all the Azzeddine el‐Qassem Brigades ‐ a result of
aspects of life: concept and belief, politics and the merger between the intelligence machine
economics, education and social service, and the militarized branch of the movement. As
jurisdiction and law, exhortation and a consequence, Sheikh Yassine and most of the
training…” (art. 2), the Hamas slogan: „Allah is activists were arrested, but repression only
its Goal. The Messenger is its Leader. The Quran serves to increase the legitimacy of the
is its Constitution. Jihad is its methodology, and movement, in addition, the arrested leaders are
Death for the sake of Allah is its most coveted replaced by a new generation, without much
desire” (art. 8), „The Islamic Resistance political experience but more and more violent,
Movement [firmly] believes that the land of according to the slogan attributed to Azzeddine:
Palestine is an Islamic Waqf [Trust] upon all „The Book of God in one hand, the rifle in the
Muslim generations till the day of other”. Since 1990, Hamas increasingly shares
Resurrection…” (art. 11), „Nationalism, from its authority within territories with CNU, in
the point of view of the Islamic Resistance addition, the subsidies received from the Gulf
Movement, is part and parcel of religious countries get to be even higher than those of
ideology...” (art. 12), „The problem of liberating P.L.O. The actual influence exerted by the
Palestine is related to three spheres: the movement over the population movement is
Palestinian sphere, the Arab sphere, and the visible through the results of the elections in
Islamic sphere. Every one of them has a role to professional organizations (lawyers, engineers,
play in the struggle against Zionism” (art. 14), doctors, chambers of commerce, etc.), starting
„When an enemy occupies some of the Muslim with 1990, when its representatives appear to
lands, Jihad becomes obligatory for every have won 30% of the seats However, in April
Muslim. In the struggle against the Jewish 1990 Arafat proposes them to enter the Unified
occupation of Palestine, the banner of Jihad Direction of Intifada, hoping to bring under
must be raised” (art. 15). At this stage, still, the control a movement that was an increasingly
strong competitor of P.L.O. and was refractory compromises of taking part in the political
to its directives. But Sheikh Yassine asked for game – so, implicitly to the tacit recognition of
40% of the seats in the Palestinian National the Oslo results, or to continue fighting against
Council and also the acceptance of the Israel. This dilemma actually reflects the
movement’s principles: eliminating Israel and strategies of the two main command centers of
proclaiming jihad as the only way to solve the the group: the leaders in Amman were
Palestinian problem [6, p. 5]. Obviously, these followers of the maximalist principle of
conditions which undermined Arafat’s long liberating the entire Palestine, while the rulers
fought for authority and which, moreover, of the territories, even Yassine, wanted to
cancelled the decisions made in Algiers in 1988 create a legal Islamist party to take part in the
were not accepted. Although relations between elections. And this even more so as, according
the Palestinian central and Hamas were not to the Cairo agreements in 1994, Arafat had to
completely broken, they have cooled coerce the Islamist opposition to give up armed
significantly and were manifested in an opposition to Israel, ‐ an obligation not at all
increase of clashes between the two militant convenient, which will also contribute to
camps in the territories, especially between undermining the leader of the Palestinian
1990‐1992, when Arafat's authority declined. Authority. At this point, however, the 1995
elections showed clearly the domination of PLO.
The Gulf War, although it had weakened Continuation of anti‐Israeli operations by
PLO, has eventually made possible the dialogue Hamas leads to arrests of Islamist leaders, to
between the Organization and Israel, following mutual accusations of being Israel allies, so that
pressure from the USA. But Hamas rejects any eventually the political headquarters of the
agreement that would limit the territory of a movement and even the armed wing decide to
Palestinian state and, criticizing PLO for being recognize Arafat’s authority and cease any anti‐
„subjected to imperialism‐Zionism”, aligns Israeli attacks, which offers Israel a pretext to
itself, at the start of the Madrid Conference, to delay even further the full withdrawal from
the „Front of refusal”, which became afterwards territories.
„The Alliance of Palestinian Forces” made of Indeed, The Interim Agreement on the West
nine other Palestinian groups which opposed Bank and the Gaza Strip (Oslo II), signed at
to the peace process. Likewise, the Oslo Washington on September 28, 1995, provided,
agreements are rejected, being seen as a in addition to the expansion of Palestinian
betrayal of the Palestinian struggle and autonomy to the West Bank and organizing
sacrifices, especially because the discussions on presidential and legislative elections, a series of
sensitive issues such as the refugees’ right to directives regarding security measures to
return, the status of Jerusalem and the implants prevent terrorism and violence: Palestinian
of Jewish colonies in the territories were police is the only Palestinian authority in terms
reported at the end of the first three years’ of security, it must intervene systematically
autonomy. However, the peace agreement against any expression of violence or terror, it
brought excitement to the Palestinians for the is allowed to arrest and detain any individual
moment, so that a very severe opposition from suspected of preparing acts of terrorism, the
Hamas towards a PLO which had become Israeli and Palestinian parties will exchange
legitimate not only nationally but also information and will coordinate policies and
internationally was now inoperative. Therefore, actions in order to fight violence and terrorism.
it was decided to increase political involvement Ever since his arrival in Gaza, in July 1994,
and participation in elections, decision which Arafat had instated an administrative as well as
was stated by Yassine himself, from prison, in police system; his popular support was based
November 1993, so that Hamas could „oppose here on traditional Arab clans, on those
(PLO) from within the legislative institution" returned from exile, PLO member or not, as
and confront the Israeli‐Palestinian agreement well as on some famous families and
„by any civilized means”. personalities. From the very beginning, he tried
This has led, however, just as in the case of to prevent any internal opposition, either by
Hezbollah or the PLO, to a real rethinking of making use of the new repressive system, or by
Hamas strategy and it especially caused enrolling opponents in the administrative and
internal disputes on the necessity to accept the security system ‐ often assimilating former
“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC
district leaders or anti‐Israeli opposition and his partisans win two‐thirds of the 88‐seat
leaders. This led to the decrease of violent Palestinian Council of Autonomy, which now
actions from Hamas in Gaza, for they were becomes the new Legislative Council. Arafat's
followed by arrests, blocking interventions in obvious victory strengthened for the time being
the social and political field [8]. the political marginalization of Hamas and at
In exchange, the situation in the West Bank the same time the internal disputes regarding
was somewhat different. According to the Oslo the fate of the movement and its adopted
II agreement, withdrawal of the Israeli army strategy [10, pp. 113‐146]. At this point, the
and deployment of the new Palestinian diplomatic solution of agreements with Israel
Authority was supposed to take place gradually, proved to be effective, despite all the conditions
and in terms of internal security, the territory which favored the Israeli side and all
was divided into three zones: Zone A included ambiguities related to the Palestinian
six major cities: Djenine, Naplouse, Toulkarem, requirements, gradually phased over five years.
Qalqilya, Ramallah, Bethlehem ‐ they came fully As such, Hamas stops its series of attacks, in
under the control of the Palestinian Authority, order to prevent repression from Palestinian
regarding administration, security and public security or from the Israeli army in the West
order; Zone B contained small towns and Bank, as well as to avoid losing part of its
villages which concentrated 68% of the sympathy capital among the population, at this
Palestinian population ‐ here the Palestinian time full of optimism to the prospect of a
Authority would be responsible for Palestinian state. „Hamas has made mistakes.
administration and maintaining order but But we must not forget that Hamas is a religious
Israeli forces are solely responsible for the fight group. Religious groups are not flexible. They
against terrorism and for Israeli citizens’ follow their slogans (...) Hamas has failed to
security, in addition, Palestinian police could understand the situation (...) It failed to clarify
only move in coordination with the Israel its vision and objectives. Hamas should have
defense forces; Zone C comprised Hebrew changed its strategy and to distinguish between
colonies and uninhabited territories which the two sides, ie between Israelis and
lacked strategic interest ‐ Israeli forces are Palestinians” said one of the political leaders of
solely responsible for security and public order the movement in late 1996 [8]. In December
while the Palestinian Council has only 1995, in Cairo, a series of negotiations between
economic, health and education prerogatives Arafat and Hamas take place, and a decision is
[11, p. 628]. It was so therefore an overly made to waiver any mutual pressures.
complicated system, which favored the Israeli Meanwhile, Fatah attempts to increase religious
side: firstly, effective Palestinian autonomy was legitimacy by promoting members connected to
restricted to big cities, leaving in suspension Islamist groups in important positions; among
such issues as Jerusalem, dismantlement of other things, this strategy pursued an increase
colonies and the refugees’ right to return ‐ all of financial support from the Gulf monarchies.
these depended on how the new Palestinian The strengthening of ties with the Muslim
Authority fulfilled its conditions, especially Brotherhood leads to "nationalization" of the
those related to maintaining security. As soon Islamist discourse, „even though they still
as the Oslo II agreement was signed, Israel consider that <<the Zionist entity is a defiance
began to retreat from the six cities in Zone A. of the Muslim world >>, Hamas now want to see
In early 1996, legislative and presidential the emergence of a Palestinian state in part of
elections take place; even though Hamas calls Palestine as a first step to the liberation of all
for boycott, the movement refrained from the territories occupied by Israel” [9, p. 115]
violent actions. Thus, on January 20, Arafat was This period of relative calm lasted from
elected president of the Palestinian Authority summer of 1995 until January 1996, when the
Shin Beth kills in Cyprus the „engineer” of and increasingly caused in both camps, the
Hamas, Yahya 'Ayyāsh, the main artificer decrease enthusiasm for normalization.
responsible for the most terrorist attacks. It is Israeli elections of May 29, 1996 mark the
the moment where a dissident group of the defeat of the parties who made the peace
military wing, Shahid martyr Yahya Ayyāsh agreements and the coming to power of a right‐
Cells', breaks the „truce” with the Palestinian wing government led by Likoud, with Benjamin
Authority and a series of spectacular suicide Netanyahu as prime minister, said opponent of
bombings begin: it seems actually an external the formula „land for peace”. It was a sign of
action of the foreign branch of Hamas (Amman, voter attitudes in the Hebrew sense of
Damascus, Beirut), politically hostile to the insecurity caused by the wave of attacks in
rapprochement between Hamas and PLO ‐ early and increased aversion to what is
which made the anti‐Israeli ripostes illegitimate considered unable or, worse, Arafat's duplicity
[10, p. 75]. However, the attacks appeared to be in ensuring stability in the territories. On June
the work of a faction of the military wing which 18, the exposal of government’s program traces
does not obey the central leadership of the essential lines of the new policy towards the
territories; although political leaders have Palestinian problem: the recognition of an
assured Arafat on the compliance with the autonomous regime in the territories, but not
„truce” concluded in Cairo, the media impact of an actual Palestinian state, too, sharing
bloody attacks against Israeli civilians gave the Jerusalem was out of the question. In addition,
Tel Aviv government a pretext to once again Netanyahu said the decision to increase the
criticize the anti‐terrorist effectiveness of the Hebrew settlements in the West Bank,
Palestinian Authority. Killing 'Ayyāsh just when resuming talks with Syria to establish a peace
the two Palestinian camps had fallen to an agreement but in no case by removing the
agreement, is itself a challenge, known being Golan. It was then, in principle, a policy that
the Palestinian side and its predictable made futile the previous agreements, it shocked
consequences. Forced by the international the Arab states and the U.S., which although
community to take action against „terrorism”, reacted quickly for providing the flexibility to
Arafat was thus caught between the „hammer the new government's attitude has not softened
and anvil” [7, p. 317]: the killing of the Hamas its rigidity [11, pp. 640‐645].
artificer caused a huge wave of indignation Netanyahu's arrival hardened too the
among the Palestinian population, which made situation of Arafat, a part of the population
it difficult to attempt to block the violent anti‐ begins to lose confidence in his ability to
Palestinians. On the other hand, U.S. reproached achieve the aspirations of the Palestinian
to Palestinian leader the lack of response people. Sharing between the supporters of the
against the authors of the wave of suicide resumption of armed struggle by Hamas and
attacks in the spring of 1996. the followers of continuous restoring of the
Finally, in March, at the indications of the internal order and awaiting deployment to the
political leadership, the Azzeddine elQassem peace process becomes greater. Fatah
Brigades gave up their weapons to the supporters will criticize the Islamist movement
Palestinian authorities and declare the cease of policy, considering that it leads to the
operations against Israel. However, the impact weakening of national cohesion and especially
of the February‐March attacks on Israeli to the radicalization of the Israeli electorate and
population (25 February in Jerusalem and thus Likoud reaching power. However, by
Askhelon ‐ 27 dead and 80 wounded, 3 March March 1997 the armed wing of Hamas will not
in Jerusalem ‐ 19 dead, 4 March in Tel Aviv ‐ an claim any new attack. Only in March 1997, the
explosion with 13 dead and 125 injured) was Israeli government's decision to build a colony
huge and had serious consequences for the on the Arab side of Jerusalem, at Har Homa,
further development of the peace process. reactivated the military wing of Hamas actions,
Although Hamas denied bombings and Arafat especially in the context of support and
arrested over five hundred members of the collusion of the population, provoked by the
movement, public opinion in Israel is breach of the peace and especially U.S.
increasingly distancing peace process. Israeli opposition to vote on the resolutions in the
repressive strategy was also another factor Security Council to compel Israel to stop
undermining the authority of the Palestinian building the colony. On 21 March 1997 an
“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK”
AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY
ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC
attack takes place in Tel Aviv, but already the the installing of Sharon regime has radicalized
attitude of the Palestinian Authority has no relations between Palestinian and Israeli forces.
vehemence of yore, it is seen as a reaction to The Arafat's inability to establish itself as a
the „challenges” of Netanyahu government legitimate and desirable partner for further
In addition, through an amazing return, negotiated solutions, the non‐availability of
Israel agrees to release Sheikh Yassine for few Likoud to accept the words "territories for
Mossad agents imprisoned in Jordan; on peace" led to the blocking perspective to accept
September 6, 1997 the spiritual leader of the formation of a Palestinian state on the
Hamas is received triumphantly in Gaza. Many borders in 1967. The political failure of Hamas
saw in this action a „Machiavellian” strategy of opportunity to lend the validity of its option
Netanyahu to enhance the Palestinian Islamist and the second Intifada militant revival
movement, whose new shares would be offered coincides with violence and anti‐Israeli attacks,
as many excuses to block the implementation of in competition with Islamic Jihad. Israel's
Oslo II agreements. Indeed, the coming of response is predictable, and every action of the
Sheikh raised the popularity of Hamas share, Islamist movement is succeeded by a
especially because of his tour in Gulf countries systematic policy of repression against both
and Iran in the spring of 1998, the organization leaders and civilians, further increasing the
brought hundreds of millions of dollars, which climate of aggression and the rift between the
are used for social purposes and relief, two parties. As a result, the Israeli services
increasing population and more responsiveness initiate a plan to eliminate the leaders of Hamas
to the Islamist message [10, pp. 111‐112]. in the Palestinian territories: on March 22,
As Netanyahu government is showing less 2004, was killed Ahmed Yassine, and not long
and less willing to follow the program of Oslo II after that, his successor as the head of the
agreements, the Palestinian Authority was set movement, Aziz al‐Rantissi to have the same
in a delicate situation. Its authoritarianism fate [4].
against Islamists, socio‐economic degradation
of lands, blocking negotiations led to its The disappearance of historical leaders lead
unpopularity and increased the support to to a new strategy of rethinking Hamas: Israel's
Hamas. The group continued to be caught continued attacks on the movement will
between the two options (moderate ‐ in the determine the organization to participate in
Palestinian territories, radical ‐ the leaders of new elections in January 2006. The electoral
Amman and Damascus), but it will put less success of Hamas (56%) in front of the Fatah
emphasis on the desire of state Islamisation and rivals, produced a huge surprise, especially at
especially on the issue of Palestinian territory. the international level [16]. In fact, it quite
Violence is repudiated even by some leaders, clearly illustrate the adherence that the
aware that it gives justification to block the popular movement was enjoying, especially in
peace agreements Israel and to make more Gaza, and decreased confidence in historic
difficult the Arab population’s fate. Palestinian parties such as Fatah, which was
torn by internal rivalries, corruption, lack of a
credible and charismatic leadership, as Arafat,
Hamas: A product of Muslim was [12]. At the same time, the option to
Brotherhood, or a result of the PLO’s integrate the Palestinian political field show
moral corruption? and availability of Hamas to become flexible
and adaptable to new local and regional
The beginning of the second Intifada in realities [17].
September 2000, simultaneous with the failure
of implementation of peace plans and then with
In reality, the political success of Hamas in the Palestinian issue. What is remarkable,
blocked more chances of resolving the however, clearly, is that Hamas has a real mass
Palestinian issue. Marked by its negative past, support, especially in Gaza, where it has
the movement (which the Palestinian Authority become almost the only effective agent to
President, Mahmoud Abbas, will delegate the structure social order, safeguards, political and
task of the new government, with Ismail especially offering an ideal identity and
Haniyeh as prime minister) fails to be mobilizing new Palestinian generations. This
recognized as a legitimate interlocutor at the success resulted from the existence of very
international level; Israel refuses any dialogue foundations made previously by the Muslim
with the new Palestinian government authority, Brotherhood movement and constant support
much less the idea of a geopolitical by the other branches of the Brotherhood,
compromise. Blocking the foreign aid, further especially in Jordan. At the same time, Hamas
riots and anti‐Israeli Jew state lines, and was able to shape their own paths, breaking
especially the increasing disputes and rivalries part of traditionalism and pietism Brotherhood
between Hamas and Fatah have increased and assuming specific new movements rather
political and economic crises in the occupied radical Islamist militancy after the model of the
territories. Following the violent clashes in June Egyptian or Lebanese Hezbollah. It remains to
2007, Hamas banishes Fatah forces in Gaza, be seen what will be his destiny in a changing
which is a stronghold of the Islamist movement regional context after the Arab revolutions,
only. In response, Abbas dismiss the Prime where political Islam is rising. What is found is
Minister Haniyah, but now President of the a visible reallocation of a Sunni identity matrix,
Palestinian Authority and Fatah is restricted to cooling relations with Iran, close in recent
the West Bank [14]. This inter‐Palestinian years, a sign of connection to the new Hamas‐
fragmentation deep freezes, then the chances of controlled regional front Gulf monarchies [15].
real options to solve the Palestinian problem Nevertheless, as always, the Palestinian
and from that, the main beneficiary was Israel, movement strategies are in close dependence
for lack of a Palestinian partner for dialogue is (as opposed or contrary, already traditional in
taken univocally as a pretext for Israel to strange collusion) with those of Israel.
initiate low availability negotiated resumption Resolving the Palestinian issue remains
of talks. In addition, successive violent crisis uncertain designed in a horizon or even
marked relations between Gaza and Israel, and unlikely, however, Hamas will remain, certainly,
Israeli military offensives in December 2008 ‐ one of the actors of the inextricable problems.
January 2009, or the November 2012 ‐ initiated
in response to Hamas rocket attacks.
Again, as, indeed, throughout the period Bibliography
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