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Solar e-bicycle
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
An electric bicycle, also known as an e-bike or booster bike, is a bicycle with an

integrated electric motor which can be used for propulsion. There are a great variety of e-
bikes available worldwide, from e-bikes that only have a small motor to assist the rider's
pedal-power (i.e., pedelecs) to somewhat more powerful e-bikes which tend closer to
moped-style functionality: all, however, retain the ability to be pedaled by the rider and are
therefore not electric motorcycles.
E-bikes use rechargeable batteries and the lighter varieties can travel up to 25 to 32
km/h (16 to 20 mph), depending on the laws of the country in which they are sold, while
the more high-powered varieties can often do in excess of 45 km/h (28 mph). In some
markets, such as Germany, they are gaining in popularity and taking some market share
away from conventional bicycles, while in others, such as China, they are replacing fossil
fuel-powered mopeds and small motorcycles.
Depending on local laws, many e-bikes (e.g., pedelecs) are legally classified as
bicycles rather than mopeds or motorcycles, so they are not subject to the more stringent
laws regarding their certification and operation, unlike the more powerful two-wheelers
which are often classed as electric motorcycles. E-bikes can also be defined separately and
treated as a specific vehicle type in many areas of legal jurisdiction.
E-bikes are the electric motor-powered versions of motorized bicycles, which have
been around since the late 19th century.
1.2 HISTORY
In the 1890s, electric bicycles were documented within various U.S. patents. For
example, on 31 December 1895, Ogden Bolton Jr. was granted U.S. Patent 552,271
(https://www.google.com/patents/US552271) for a battery-powered bicycle with “6-pole
Dept of EEE GITS Page 1

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brush-and-commutator direct current (DC) hub motor mounted in the rear wheel.” There
were no gears and the motor could draw up to 100 amperes (A) from a 10-volt battery.
Two years later, in 1897, Hosea W. Libbey of Boston invented an electric bicycle
(U.S. Patent 596,272 (https://www.google.com/patents /US596272)) that was propelled by
a “double electric motor”. The motor was designed within the hub of the crank set axle
This model was later re-invented and imitated in the late 1990s by Giant Lafree e-bikes.
By 1898 a rear-wheel drive electric bicycle, which used a driving belt along the
outside edge of the wheel, was patented by Mathew J. Steffens. Also, the 1899 U.S. Patent
627,066 (https://www.google.com/patents/US627066) by John Schnepf depicted a rear-
wheel friction “roller-wheel” style drive electric bicycle. Schnepf's invention was later re-
examined and expanded in 1969 by G.A. Wood Jr. with his U.S. Patent 3,431,994
(https://www.google.com/patents/US3431994). Wood’s device used 4 fractional
horsepower motors; connected through a series of gears.
Torque sensors and power controls were developed in the late 1990s. For example,
Takada Yutky of Japan filed a patent in 1997 for such a device. In 1992 Vector Services
Limited offered and sold an e-bike dubbed Zike. The bicycle included NiCd batteries that
were built into a frame member and included an 850 g permanent-magnet motor. Despite
the Zike, in 1992 hardly any commercial e-bikes were available. Production grew from
1993 to 2004 by an estimated 35%. By contrast, according to Gardner, in 1995 regular
bicycle production decreased from its peak 107 million units.
Some of the less expensive e-bikes used bulky lead acid batteries, whereas newer
models generally used NiMH, NiCd, and/or Li-ion batteries, which offered lighter, denser
capacity batteries. Performance varies; however, in general there is an increase in range
and speed with the latter battery types.
By 2001 the terms e-bike, power bike, "pedelecs", pedal-assisted, and power-assisted
bicycle were commonly used to refer to e-bikes. The terms "electric motorbike" or "e-
motorbike" refer to more powerful models that attain up to 80 km/h (50 mph).

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In a parallel hybrid motorized bicycle, such as the aforementioned 1897 invention

by Hosea W. Libbey, human and motor inputs are mechanically coupled either in the
bottom bracket, the rear wheel, or the front wheel, whereas in a (mechanical) series hybrid
cycle, the human and motor inputs are coupled through differential gearing. In an
(electronic) series hybrid cycle, human power is converted into electricity and is fed
directly into the motor and mostly additional electricity is supplied from a battery.
By 2007 e-bikes were thought to make up 10 to 20 percent of all two-wheeled

vehicles on the streets of many major Chinese cities. A typical unit requires 8 hours to
charge the battery, which provides the range of 25 to 30 miles (40 to 48 km), at the speed
of around 20 km/h. As of 2017, electric bicycles sales in the United States have slowed.
This is due primarily to lower gas prices.
1.3 PROBLEM FORMULATION
There are several problems that occur during upgrades a conventional electric
powered bicycle to Solar-Powered Electrical Bicycle. The specifications of photovoltaic
panels must be sufficient to generate the electric motor same as a conventional electric
powered bicycle. The suitable connection of solar cells, rechargeable battery and DC
electric motor with bicycle needed to make sure this project accomplish with more
optimum energy use. The electric motor must to support the weight and size of the bicycle,
size of solar panel and condition of the road surface.
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THIS PROJECT
The objectives of this project are:
1. To upgrade a conventional electric powered bicycle to Solar-Powered Electrical Bicycle

that can be used for leisurely rides.
2. To design and develop Solar-Powered Electrical Bicycle which gets its supply by using
solar energy from photovoltaic panels.
3. To study the connection between solar cells, rechargeable battery and DC electric motor.
4. To compare the characteristics and performance between Solar-Powered Electrical
Bicycle and electric powered bicycle.

Solar e-bicycle
CHAPTER-2
TYPES OF E-BICYCLES
2.1 E-BICYCLE CLASSES
E-bicycle are classed according to the power that their electric motor can deliver and
the control system, i.e., when and how the power from the motor is applied. Also the
classification of e-bikes is complicated as much of the definition is due to legal reasons of
what constitutes a bicycle and what constitutes a moped or motorcycle. As such, the
classification of these e-bikes varies greatly across countries and local jurisdictions.
Despite these legal complications, the classification of e-bikes is mainly decided by

whether the e-bike's motor assists the rider using a pedal-assist system or by a power-on-
demand one. Definitions of these are as follows:
 With pedal-assist the electric motor is regulated by pedalling. The pedal-assist

augments the efforts of the rider when they are pedalling. These e-bikes – called
pedelecs – have a sensor to detect the pedalling speed, the pedalling force, or both.
Brake activation is sensed to disable the motor as well.
 With power-on-demand the motor is activated by a throttle, usually handlebar-
mounted just like on most motorcycles or scooters.
Therefore, very broadly, e-bikes can be classed as:
E-bicycle with pedal-assist only: either pedelecs (legally classed as bicycles) or S-

Pedelecs (often legally classed as mopeds).
 Pedelecs: have pedal-assist only, motor assists only up to a decent but not excessive
speed (usually 25 km/h), motor power up to 250 watts, often legally classed as
bicycles.
 S-Pedelecs: have pedal-assist only, motor power can be greater than 250 watts, can
attain a higher speed (e.g., 45 km/h) before motor stops assisting, legally classed as
a moped or motorcycle (not a bicycle).
 E-bicycle with power-on-demand and pedal-assist

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 E-bicycle with power-on-demand only: often have more powerful motors than
pedelecs but not always, the more powerful of these are legally classed as mopeds
or motorcycles.
2.2 TYPES OF MOTORS:

In e-bicycles we can arrange two types of motor. They are:
1. Hub Motor
2. PMDC Brushed Motor
2.2.1 HUB MOTOR
Fig 2.1 Hub Motor in a Bicycle

Hub motor is also called as wheel hub motor, wheel hub drive, hub motor or in
wheel motor is an electric motor i.e. incorporated into the hub of a wheel and drives
it directly.
Mechanism:
Hub motor electromagnetic fields are supplied to the stationary windings of the
motor. The outer part of the motor follows, or tries to follow, those fields, turning the
attached wheel. In a brushed motor, energy is transferred by brushes contacting the
rotating shaft of the motor. Energy is transferred in a brushless motor electronically,
eliminating physical contact between stationary and moving parts. Although brushless

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motor technology is more expensive, most are more efficient and longer-lasting than
brushed motor systems.
A hub motor typically is designed in one of three configurations. Considered least

practical is an axial-flux motor, where the stator windings are typically sandwiched
between sets of magnets. The other two configurations are both radial designs with the
motor magnets bonded to the rotor; in one, the inner rotation motor, the rotor sits inside the
stator, as in a conventional motor. In the other, the outer-rotation motor, the rotor sits
outside the stator and rotates around it. The application of hub motors in vehicular uses is
still evolving, and neither configuration has become standard.
Electric motors have their greatest torque at start up, making them ideal for vehicles
as they need the most torque at startup too. The idea of "revving up" so common with
internal combustion engines is unnecessary with electric motors. Their greatest torque
occurs as the rotor first begins to turn, which is why electric motors do not require a
transmission. A gear-down arrangement may be needed, but unlike in a transmission
normally paired with a combustion engine, no shifting is needed for electric motors.
Wheel hub motors are increasingly common on electric bikes and electric scooters
in some parts of the world.
Unsprung weight concerns:

The major disadvantage of wheel hub motors are that the weight of the electric
motors would increase the unsprung weight. which adversely affects handling and ride (the
wheels are more sluggish in responding to road conditions, especially fast motions over
bumps, and transmit the bumps to the chassis instead of absorbing them). Most
conventional electric motors include ferrous material composed of laminated electrical
steel. This ferrous material contributes most of the weight of electric motors. To minimize
this weight several recent wheel motor designs have minimized the electrical steel content
of the motor by utilizing a coreless design with Litz wire coil windings to reduce eddy
current losses. This significantly reduces wheel motor weight and therefore unsprung
weight.

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Another method used is to replace the cast iron friction brake assembly with a wheel motor
assembly of similar weight. This results in no net gain in unsprung weight and a car capable
of braking up to 1G. A good example of this is the Michelin Active Wheel motor as fitted
to the Heuliez Will that results in an unsprung weight of 35 kg on the front axle which
compares favorably to a small car such as a Renault Clio that has 38 kg of unsprung weight
on its front axle.
Disadvantages of Hub motor:
1. Hub motors are unsprung weight in the wheel.

2. Directly drive hub motors have drag when unpowered, making the bike feel
sluggish to pedal.
3. Hub motors are not as efficient as a non hub.
4. Hub motors are can be heavy.
5. Hub motors disrupt the balance of a bicycle towards the front or a back.
6. Hub motors have are expensive.
Due to these disadvantages we are preferring a PMDC Brushed Motor.
2.2.2 PMDC BRUSHED MOTOR
Fig 2.2 PMDC Motor in a Bicycle
This electric motor of an referred to as the mid-drive. In the system the

electric motor is not built into the wheel but it is usually mounted near bottom bracket shell.

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Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor Working Principle and

Construction:
Working Principle:
Fig 2.3 Construction and working principle of PMDC Motor

In a DC motor, an armature rotates inside a magnetic field. Basic working principle
of DC motor is based on the fact that whenever a current carrying conductor is placed
inside a magnetic field, there will be mechanical force experienced by that conductor. All
kinds of DC motors work in this principle only. Hence for constructing a DC motor it is
essential to establish a magnetic field. The magnetic field is obviously established by
means of magnet. The magnet can by any types i.e. it may be electromagnet or it can be
permanent magnet.
When permanent magnet is used to create magnetic field in a DC motor, the motor
is referred as permanent magnet DC motor or PMDC motor. Have you ever uncovered
any battery operated toy, if you did, you had obviously found a battery operated motor
inside it. This battery operated motor is nothing but a permanent magnet dc
motor or PMDC motor. These types of motor are essentially simple in construction.

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These motors are commonly used as starter motor in automobiles, windshield

wipers, washer, for blowers used in heaters and air conditioners, to raise and lower
windows, it also extensively used in toys. As the magnetic field strength of a permanent
magnet is fixed it cannot be controlled externally, field control of this type of dc motor
cannot be possible. Thus permanent magnet DC motor is used where there is no need of
speed control of motor by means of controlling its field. Small fractional and sub fractional
kW motors now constructed with permanent magnet.
Construction:
Fig 2.4 Construction of PMDC Motor
As it is indicated in name of permanent magnet DC motor, the field poles of this

motor are essentially made of permanent magnet. A PMDC motor mainly consists of two
parts. A stator and an armature. Here the stator which is a steel cylinder. The magnets are
mounted in the inner periphery of this cylinder. The permanent magnets are mounted in
such a way that the N – pole and S – pole of each magnet are alternatively faced towards
armature as shown in the figure below. That means, if N – pole of one magnet is faced
towards armature then S – pole of very next magnet is faced towards armature. In addition
to holding the magnet on its inner periphery, the steel cylindrical stator also serves as low
reluctance return path for the magnetic flux. Although field coil is not required in
permanent magnet DC motor but still it is sometimes found that they are used along with
permanent magnet. This is because if permanent magnets lose their strength, these lost

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magnetic strengths can be compensated by field excitation through these field coils.
Generally, rare earth hard magnetic materials are used for these permanent magnet.
Rotor:
The rotor of pmdc motor is similar to other DC motor. The rotor or armature of
permanent magnet DC motor also consists of core, windings and commutator. Armature
core is made of number of varnish insulated, slotted circular lamination of steel sheets. By
fixing these circular steel sheets one by one, a cylindrical shaped slotted armature core is
formed. The varnish insulated laminated steel sheets are used to reduce eddy current loss
in armature of permanent magnet dc motor. These slots on the outer periphery of the
armature core are used for housing armature conductors in them. The armature conductors
are connected in a suitable manner which gives rise to armature winding. The end terminals
of the winding are connected to the commutator segments placed on the motor shaft. Like
other DC motor, carbon or graphite brushes are placed with spring pressure on the
commutator segments to supply current to the armature.
Working Principle of Permanent Magnet DC Motor:

As we said earlier the working principle of PMDC motor is just similar to the
general working principle of DC motor. That is when a carrying conductor comes inside a
magnetic field, a mechanical force will be experienced by the conductor and the direction
of this force is governed by Fleming’s left hand rule. As in a permanent magnet DC motor,
the armature is placed inside the magnetic field of permanent magnet; the armature rotates
in the direction of the generated force. Here each conductor of the armature experiences
the mechanical force F = B.I.L Newton where, B is the magnetic field strength in Tesla
(weber / m2), I is the current in Ampere flowing through that conductor and L is length of
the conductor in metre comes under the magnetic field. Each conductor of the armature
experiences a force and the compilation of those forces produces a torque, which tends to
rotate the armature.

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Equivalent Circuit of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor:
Fig 2.4.1 Equivalent circuit of PMDC Motor

As in PMDC motor the field is produced by permanent magnet, there is no need of
drawing field coils in the equivalent circuit of permanent magnet DC motor.
The supply voltage to the armature will have armature resistance drop and rest of
the supply voltage is countered by back emf of the motor. Hence voltage equation of the
motor is given by, Where, I is armature current and R is armature
resistance of the motor. Eb is the back emf and V is the supply voltage.
Advantages:
1. Low intial cost

2. It has a high reliability
3. PMDC Motor has a simple control of motor speed
4. The brush dc motor has simple construction, therefore may not required a controller
5. Understandable design technology facilitates in the quick application of the dc brush
motor
6. PMDC Brushed motor is a quite simple
Applications of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor:
PMDC motor is extensively used where small DC motors are required and also
very effective control is not required, such as in automobiles starter, toys, wipers, washers,
hot blowers, air conditioners, computer disc drives and in many more.

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2.3 E-BICYCLE WITH PEDAL-ASSIST
E-bikes with pedal-assist only are usually called pedelecs but can be broadly
classified into pedelecs proper and the more powerful S-Pedelecs.
2.3.1 PEDELECS
The term "pedelec" (from pedal electric cycle) refers to an e-bike where the pedal-
assist electric drive system is limited to a decent but not excessive top speed, and where its
motor is relatively low-powered. Pedelecs are legally classed as bicycles rather than low-
powered motorcycles or mopeds.
The most influential definition which distinguishes which e-bikes are pedelecs and
which are not, comes from the EU. From the EU directive (EN15194 standard) for motor
vehicles, a bicycle is considered a pedelec if.
1. The pedal-assist, i.e. the motorised assistance that only engages when the rider is
pedalling, cuts out once 25 km/h is reached, and
2. When the motor produces maximum continuous rated power of not more than 250
watts (n.b. the motor can produce more power for short periods, such as when the
rider is struggling to get up a steep hill).
An e-bike conforming to these conditions is considered to be a pedelec in the EU and

is legally classed as a bicycle. The EN15194 standard is valid across the whole of the EU
and has also been adopted by some non-EU European nations and also some jurisdictions
outside of Europe (such as the state of Victoria in Australia).
Pedelecs are much like conventional bicycles in use and function — the electric motor
only provides assistance, most notably when the rider would otherwise struggle against a
headwind or be going uphill. Pedelecs are therefore especially useful for people living in
hilly areas where riding a bike would prove too strenuous for many to consider taking up
cycling as a daily means of transport. They are also useful when it would be helpful for the
riders who more generally need some assistance, e.g. for elderly people.

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2.3.2 S-PEDELECS
More powerful pedelecs which are not legally classed as bicycles are dubbed S-
Pedelecs (short for Schnell-Pedelecs, i.e. Speedy-Pedelecs) in Germany. These have a
motor more powerful than 250 watts and less limited, or unlimited, pedal-assist, i.e. the
motor does not stop assisting the rider once 25 km/h has been reached. S-Pedelec class e-
bikes are therefore usually classified as mopeds or motorcycles rather than as bicycles and
therefore may (depending on the jurisdiction) need to be registered and insured, the rider
may need some sort of driver's license (either car or motorcycle) and motorcycle helmets
may have to be worn.
2.4 E-BICYCLE WITH POWER ON DEMAND AND PEDAL-ASSIST

Some e-bikes combine both pedal-assist sensors as well as a throttle. An example
of these is the eZee Torq and Adventure 24+ by BMEBIKES.
2.5 E-BICYCLE WITH POWER ON DEMAND
Some e-bikes have an electric motor that operates on a power-on-demand basis

only. In this case, the electric motor is engaged and operated manually using a throttle,
which is usually on the handgrip just like the ones on a motorbike or scooter. These sorts
of e-bikes often, but not always, have more powerful motors than pedelecs do.
With power-on-demand only e-bikes the rider can:
1. Ride by pedal power alone, i.e. fully human-powered.

2. Ride by electric motor alone by operating the throttle manually.
3. Ride using both together at the same time.
Please note that some power-on-demand only e-bikes can hardly be confused with, let
alone categorised as, bicycles. For example, the Noped is a term used by the Ministry
of Transportation of Ontario for e-bikes which do not have pedals or in which the pedals
have been removed from their motorised bicycle. These are better categorised as
electric mopeds or electric motorcycles.

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CHAPTER 3
COMPONENTS
3.1 BICYCLE
FIG:3.1 BICYCLE
A bicycle, also called a cycle or bike, is a human-powered or motor-powered,

pedal-driven, single-track vehicle, having two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the
other. A bicycle rider is called a cyclist, or bicyclist.
Bicycles were introduced in the late 19th century in Europe, and by the early 21st
century, more than 1 billion were in existence at a given time.
These numbers far exceed the number of cars, both in total and ranked by the number of
individual models produced. They are the principal means of transportation in many
regions. They also provide a popular form of recreation, and have been adapted for use as
children's toys, general fitness, military and police applications, courier services, bicycle
racing and bicycle stunts.
The basic shape and configuration of a typical upright or "safety bicycle", has
changed little since the first chain-driven model was developed around 1885. However,
many details have been improved, especially since the advent of modern materials and
computer-aided design. These have allowed for a proliferation of specialized designs for
many types of cycling.

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The bicycle's invention has had an enormous effect on society, both in terms of
culture and of advancing modern industrial methods. Several components that eventually
played a key role in the development of the automobile were initially invented for use in
the bicycle, including ball bearings, pneumatic tires, chain-driven sprockets and tension-
spoked wheels.
3.1.1 FREE WHEEL
FIG:3.2 FREE WHEEL

In mechanical or automotive engineering, a freewheel or overrunning clutch is a
device in a transmission that disengages the driveshaft from the driven shaft when the
driven shaft rotates faster than the driveshaft. An overdrive is sometimes mistakenly called
a freewheel, but is otherwise unrelated.
The condition of a driven shaft spinning faster than its driveshaft exists in most
bicycles when the rider stops pedaling. In a fixed-gear bicycle, without a freewheel, the
rear wheel drives the pedals around.
An analogous condition exists in an automobile with a manual transmission going

downhill, or any situation where the driver takes their foot off the gas pedal, closing the

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throttle: the wheels drive the engine, possibly at a higher RPM. In a two-stroke engine, this
can be catastrophic—as many two stroke engines depend on a fuel/oil mixture for
lubrication, a shortage of fuel to the engine starves oil from the cylinders, and the pistons
can soon seize, causing extensive damage. Saab used a freewheel system in their two-stroke
models for this reason and maintained it in the Saab 96 V4 and early Saab 99 for better fuel
efficiency.
3.2 PMDC BRUSHED MOTOR

Basic configuration of a permanent magnet DC motor is very similar to that of a
normal DC motor. The working principle of any DC motor is same, i.e. when a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force. A permanent
magnet DC motor also works on the same principle.
PERMANENT MAGNET DC MOTOR
Construction
In a PMDC motor, permanent magnets (located in stator) provide magnetic field,

instead of stator winding. The stator is usually made from steel in cylindrical form.
Permanent magnets are usually made from rare earth materials or neodymium.
The rotor is slotted armature which carries armature winding. Rotor is made from
layers of laminated silicon steel to reduce eddy current losses. Ends of armature winding
are connected to commutator segments on which the brushes rest. Commutator is made
from copper and brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. DC supply is applied
across these brushes. The commutator is in segmented form to achieve unidirectional
torque. The reversal of direction can be easily achieved by reversing polarity of the applied
voltage.
The image below shows the construction of Permanent Magnet DC Motor

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FIG:3.3 PMDC MOTOR
Characteristics
Characteristics of PMDC motors are similar to the characteristics of dc shunt motor

in terms of torque, speed and armature current. However, speed-torque characteristics are
more linear and predictable in PMDC motors.
FIG:3.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF PMDC MOTOR
Applications Of Permanent Magnet DC Motors
Permanent magnet dc motors are extensively used where smaller power ratings are
required, e.g. in toys, small robots, computer disc drives etc.

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3.2.1 GEAR REDUCTION MOTOR
FIG:3.5 GEAR REDUCTION MOTOR
On the surface, it may seem that gears are being “reduced” in quantity or size, which
is partially true. When a rotary machine such as an engine or electric motor needs the
output speed reduced and/or torque increased, gears are commonly used to accomplish the
desired result. Gear “reduction” specifically refers to the speed of the rotary machine; the
rotational speed of the rotary machine is “reduced” by dividing it by a gear ratio greater
than 1:1. A gear ratio greater than 1:1 is achieved when a smaller gear (reduced size) with
fewer number of teeth meshes and drives a larger gear with greater number of teeth.
Gear reduction has the opposite effect on torque. The rotary machine’s output
torque is increased by multiplying the torque by the gear ratio, less some efficiency losses.
While in many applications gear reduction reduces speed and increases torque, in
other applications gear reduction is used to increase speed and reduce torque. Generators
in wind turbines use gear reduction in this manner to convert a relatively slow turbine blade
speed to a high speed capable of generating electricity. These applications use gearboxes
that are assembled opposite of those in applications that reduce speed and increase torque.

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How is gear reduction achieved? Many reducer types are capable of attaining gear
reduction including, but not limited to, parallel shaft, planetary and right-angle worm
gearboxes. In parallel shaft gearboxes (or reducers), a pinion gear with a certain number
of teeth meshes and drives a larger gear with a greater number of teeth. The “reduction”
or gear ratio is calculated by dividing the number of teeth on the large gear by the number
of teeth on the small gear. For example, if an electric motor drives a 13-tooth pinion gear
that meshes with a 65-tooth gear, a reduction of 5:1 is achieved (65 / 13 = 5). If the electric
motor speed is 3,450 rpm, the gearbox reduces this speed by five times to 690 rpm. If the
motor torque is 10 lb-in, the gearbox increases this torque by a factor of five to 50 lb-in
(before subtracting out gearbox efficiency losses).
3.3 SOLAR PANELS
FIG:3.6 SOLAR CELL TO PV SYSTEM
Photovoltaic solar panels absorb sunlight as a source of energy to generate electricity.

A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged, connected assembly of typically 6x10
photovoltaic solar cells. Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array of a

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photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and
residential applications.
modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate electricity through the
photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or
thin-film cells. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top
layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture.
Most modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones based on thin-film cells are also available.
The cells must be connected electrically in series, one to another.
A PV junction box is attached to the back of the solar panel and it is its output
interface. Externally, most of photovoltaic modules use MC4 connectors type to facilitate
easy weather proof connections to the rest of the system. Also, USB power interface can
be used Module electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output
voltage or in parallel to provide a desired current capability (amperes). The conducting
wires that take the current off the modules may contain silver, copper or other non-
magnetic conductive transition metals. Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used
externally, in case of partial module shading, to maximize the output of module sections
still illuminated.
3.4 SPEED CONTROLLER
DC electric motors have three main components:

• A set of coils (field) that creates the magnetic forces which provide torque
• A rotor or armature mounted on bearings that turns inside the field• Commutating device
that reverses the magnetic forces and makes the armature turn, thereby providing

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horsepower.
FIG:3.7 PMDC MOTOR CONTROLLER
As in the DC motor, an AC motor also has a set of coils (field) and a rotor or
armature, however, since there is a continuous current reversal, a commutating device is
not needed.
Both types of electric motors are used in electric vehicles and have advantages and
disadvantages, as shown here.
While the AC motor is less expensive and lighter weight, the DC motor has a simpler
controller, making the DC motor/controller combination less expensive.
The main disadvantage of the AC motor is the cost of the electronics package
needed to convert (invert) the battery‘s direct current to alternating current for the motor.
Past generations of electric vehicles used the DC motor/controller system because

they operate off the battery current without complex electronics. The DC motor/controller
system is still used today on some electric vehicles to keep the cost down.
However, with the advent of better and less expensive electronics, a large number
of today’s electric vehicles are using AC motor/controller systems because of their
improved motor efficiency and lighter weight.

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3.5 THROTTLE
FIG:3.8 THROTTLE
A throttle is the mechanism by which fluid flow is managed by the constriction

or obstruction.An engine's power can be increased or decreased by the restriction of inlet
gases (by the use of a throttle), but usually decreased. The term throttle has come to refer,
informally, to any mechanism by which the power or speed of an engine is regulated, such
as a car's accelerator pedal. What is often termed a throttle (in an aviation context) is also
called a thrust lever, particularly for jet engine powered aircraft.
For a steam engine, the steam valve that sets the engine speed/power is often
known as a regulator.
3.6 SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER
charge controller, charge regulator or battery regulator limits the rate at which
electric current is added to or drawn from electric batteries. It prevents overcharging and
may protect against overvoltage, which can reduce battery performance or lifespan, and
may pose a safety risk.

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FIG:3.9 SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER
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It may also prevent completely draining ("deep discharging") a battery, or perform

controlled discharges, depending on the battery technology, to protect battery life. The
terms "charge controller" or "charge regulator" may refer to either a stand-alone device, or
to control circuitry integrated within a battery pack, battery-powered device, or battery
The primary function of a charge controller in a stand-alone photovoltaic

(PV) system is to protect the battery from overcharge and over discharge. Any system that
has unpredictable loads, user intervention, optimized or undersized battery storage (to
minimize initial cost), or any characteristics that would allow excessive battery
overcharging or over discharging requires a charge controller and/or low-voltage load
disconnect. Lack of a controller may result in shortened battery lifetime and decreased load
availability. Systems with small, predictable, and continuous loads may be designed to

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operate without a battery charge controller. If system designs incorporate oversized battery
storage and battery charging currents are limited to safe finishing charge rates (C/SO
flooded or C/100 sealed) at an appropriate voltage for the battery technology, a charge
controller may not be required in the PV system. Proper operation of a charge controller
should prevent overcharge or over discharge of a battery regardless of the system
sizing/design and seasonal changes in the load profile and operating temperatures. The
algorithm or control strategy of a battery charge controller determines the effectiveness of
battery charging and PV array utilization, and ultimately the ability of the system to meet
the load demands. Additional features such as temperature compensation, alarms, and
special algorithms can enhance the ability of a charge controller to maintain the health,
maximize capacity, and extend the lifetime of a battery.
3.6 BATTERIES
A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external
connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and
electric cars.
When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and
its negative terminal is the anode.
The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that will flow through an
external electric circuit to the positive terminal. When a battery is connected to an external
electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy products,
and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy.
Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of

multiple cells, however the usage has evolved to include devices composed of a single cell.

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FIG:3.10 BATTERY

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CHAPTER-4
TECHNICAL
4.1 MOTOR AND DRIVETRAINS
The two most common types of hub motors used in electric bicycles are brushed
and brushless. There are many possible types of electric motorized bicycles with several
technologies available, varying in cost and complexity; direct-drive and geared motor units
are both used. An electric power-assist system may be added to almost any pedal cycle
using chain drive, belt drive, hub motors or friction drive.
BLDC hub motors are a common modern design with the motor built into the
wheel hub itself and the stator fixed solidly to the axle and the magnets attached to and
rotating with the wheel. The bicycle wheel hub is the motor. The power levels of motors
used are influenced by available legal categories and are often, but not always limited to
under 750 watts.
Another type of electric assist motor, often referred to as the mid-drive system, is
increasing in popularity. With this system, the electric motor is not built into the wheel but
is usually mounted near (often under) the bottom bracket shell. In more typical
configurations, a cog or wheel on the motor drives a belt or chain that engages with a pulley
or sprocket fixed to one of the arms of the bicycle's crankset. Thus the propulsion is
provided at the pedals rather than at the wheel, being eventually applied to the wheel via
the bicycle's standard drive train.
4.1.1 DC MOTOR
A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical machines that converts direct

current electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most common types rely on the
forces produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal
mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change the direction of
current flow in part of the motor.

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DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered from
existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed can be
controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by changing the
strength of current in its field windings. Small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and
appliances. The universal motor can operate on direct current but is a lightweight motor
used for portable power tools and appliances. Larger DC motors are used in propulsion of
electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, or in drives for steel rolling mills. The advent of
power electronics has made replacement of DC motors with Ac motor possible in many.
4.1.2 Working Principle of Motor:
Before explaining working of brushless DC motor, it is better to understand

function of brushed motor. In brushes motors, there are permanent magnets on the outside
and a spinning armature which contains electromagnet is inside. These electromagnets
create a magnetic field in the armature when power is switched on and help to rotates
armature. The brushes change the polarity of the pole to keep the rotation on of the
armature. The basic principles for the brushed DC motor and for brushless DC motor are
same i.e., internal shaft position feedback. Brushless DC motor has only two basic parts:
rotor and the stator. The rotor is the rotating part and has rotor magnets whereas stator is
the stationary part and contains stator windings. In BLDC permanent magnets are attached
in the rotor and move the electromagnets to the stator. The high power transistors are used
to activate electromagnets for the shaft turns. The controller performs power distribution
by using a solid-state circuit.
4.1.3 BRUSHED MOTOR
A brushed DC electric motor generating torque from DC power supply by using
an internal mechanical commutation. Stationary permanent magnets form the stator field.
Torque is produced by the principle that any current-carrying conductor placed within an
external magnetic field experiences a force, known as Lorentz force. In a motor, the

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magnitude of this Lorentz force (a vector represented by the green arrow), and thus the
output torque, is a function for rotor angle, leading to a phenomenon known as torque ripple
Fig:4.1 Brushed motor construction
Since this is a single phase two-pole motor, the commutator consists of a split ring,
so that the current reverses each half turn (180 degrees).
Fig. 4.2 Brush and Commutator

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The brushed dc electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied
to the motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets
(permanent or electromagnets), and rotating electrical magnets.
Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability, and simple
control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low life-span for high
intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the carbon brushes and springs
which carry the electric current, as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator. These
components are necessary for transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the
spinning wire windings of the rotor inside the motor. Brushes consist of conductors.
4.1.4 BRUSHLESS MOTOR
Typical brushless DC motors use one or more permanent magnets in the rotor
and electromagnets on the motor housing for the stator. A motor controller converts DC
to AC
Fig 4.3 Brushless Dc motor Construction

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This design is mechanically simpler than that of brushed motors because it

eliminates the complication of transferring power from outside the motor to the spinning
rotor. The motor controller can sense the rotor's position via Hall effect sensors or similar
devices and can precisely control the timing, phase, etc., of the current in the rotor coils to
optimize torque, conserve power, regulate speed, and even apply some braking.
Advantages of brushless motors include long life span, little or no maintenance, and high
efficiency. Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complicated motor speed
controllers. Some such brushless motors are sometimes referred to as "synchronous
motors" although they have no external power supply to be synchronized with, as would
be the case with normal AC synchronous motors.
4.1.5 BRUSHED AND BRUSHLESS MOTOR
4.4 Differences b/w Brushed and Brushless Motors

Brushless motors used in RC helicopters offer more power and longer run times
than conventional brushed motors of the same size. The superior power and efficiency of
the brushless motor make them the ideal choice for high performance helicopters.
What is the difference between a brushless motor and brushed motor?
A Brushed Motor has a rotating set of wound wire coils(armature) which acts as an
electromagnet with two poles.

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A mechanical rotary switch (commutator) reverses the direction of the electric

current twice every cycle, to flow through the armature so that the poles of the
electromagnet push and pull against the permanent magnets on the outside of the motor.
As the poles of the armature electromagnet pass the poles of the permanent magnets, the
commutator reverses the polarity of the armature electromagnet.
A Brushless Motor uses a permanent magnet external rotor, three phases of driving
coils, one or more devices to sense the position of the rotor, and the associated drive
electronics. The coils are activated, one phase after the other, by the electronic speed
controller.
4.1.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BRUSHED MOTOR
Advantages:
 Two wire control

 Some are rebuildable for extended life
 Low cost of construction
 Simple and inexpensive control
 No controller is required for fixed speeds
 Operates in extreme environments due to lack of electronics
Disadvantages:
 Periodic maintenance is required

 Speed/torque is moderately flat. At higher speeds, brush friction increases, thus
reducing useful torque
 Poor heat dissipation due to internal rotor contsruction
 Higher rotor inertia limits the dynamic characteristics
 Lower speed range due to mechanical limitations on the brushes
 Brush arcing will generate noise causing electrical magnetic interference (EMI)

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4.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BRUSHLESS MOTOR
Advantages:
 Electronic commutation based on position sensors vs mechanical switch for

brushed
 Less maintenance due to absence of brushes
 Speed/Torque- flat, enables operation at all speeds with rated load
 High efficiency, no voltage drop across brushes
 High output power to size ratio.
 Reduced size due to superior thermal characteristics. Because the windings are
connected to the case the heat disipation is better
 Higher speed range - no mechanical limitation imposed by brushes/commutator
 Low electric noise generation (EMI)
Disadvantages:
 Higher cost of construction

 Control is complex and expensive
 Electric controller (ESC) is required to keep the motor running which is sometimes
more expensive than the motor.
4.3 BATTERIES
E-bikes use rechargeable batteries, electric motors and some form of control.
Battery systems in use include sealed lead-acid (SLA), nickel-cadmium (NiCad), nickel-
metal hydride (NiMH) or lithium-ion polymer (Li-ion). Batteries vary according to the
voltage, total charge capacity (amp hours), weight, the number of charging cycles before
performance degrades, and ability to handle over-voltage charging conditions. The energy
costs of operating e-bikes are small, but there can be considerable battery replacement
costs. The lifespan of a battery pack varies depends on the type of usage. Shallow
discharge/recharge cycles will help extend the overall battery life.

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Rechargeable Battery:
A rechargeable battery is an energy storage device that can be charged again after
being discharged by applying DC current to its terminals. ... However, after discharge
the batteries are placed in a charger or, in the case of built-in batteries, an AC/DC adapter
is connected.
A rechargeable battery, storage battery, secondary cell, or accumulator is a

type of electrical battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many
times, while a non-rechargeable or primary battery is supplied fully charged, and discarded
once discharged. It is composed of one or more electrochemical cells.
The term "accumulator" is used as it accumulates and stores energy through a

reversible electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable batteries are produced in many different
shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected
to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of electrode
materials and electrolytes areused, including lead–acid, nickel cadmium (NiCad), nickel
metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).
Rechargeable batteries typically initially cost more than disposable batteries, but
have a much lower total cost of ownership and environmental impact, as they can be
recharged inexpensively many times before they need replacing. Some rechargeable
battery types are available in the same sizes and voltages as disposable types, and can be
used interchangeably with them.
Usage and Application:

Devices which use rechargeable batteries include automobile starters, portable
consumer devices, light vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric
bicycles, and electric forklifts), tools, uninterruptible power supplies, and battery storage
power stations. Emerging applications in hybrid internal combustion-battery and electric
vehicles drive the technology to reduce cost, weight, and size, and increase lifetime.

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Older rechargeable batteries self-discharge relatively rapidly, and require charging

before first use; some newer low self-discharge NiMH batteries hold their charge for many
months, and are typically sold factory-charged to about 70% of their rated capacity.
Battery storage power stations use rechargeable batteries for load-leveling (storing
electric energy at times of low demand for use during peak periods) and for renewable
energy uses (such as storing power generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day to
be used at night). Load-leveling reduces the maximum power which a plant must be able
to generate, reducing capital cost and the need for peaking power plants.
The US National Electrical Manufacturers Association estimated in 2006 that US

demand for rechargeable batteries was growing twice as fast as demand for disposables.
Small rechargeable batteries can power portable electronic devices, power tools,
appliances, and so on. Heavy-duty batteries power electric vehicles, ranging
from scooters to locomotives and ships. They are used in distributed electricity
generation and in stand-alone power systems.
Charging and discharging:
During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and
the negative material is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute
the current flow in the external circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for
internal ion flow between the electrodes, as in lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it
may be an active participant in the electrochemical reaction, as in lead–acid cells.
The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery
charger using AC mains electricity, although some are equipped to use a vehicle's 12-volt
DC power outlet. Regardless, to store energy in a secondary cell, it has to be connected to
a DC voltage source. The negative terminal of the cell has to be connected to the negative
terminal of the voltage source and the positive terminal of the voltage source with the
positive terminal of the battery. Further, the voltage output of the source must be higher
than that of the battery, but not much higher: the greater the difference between the power
source and the battery's voltage capacity, the faster the charging process, but also the
greater the risk of overcharging and damaging the battery.

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Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow "dumb"
chargers without voltage or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate,
typically taking 14 hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge
cells in two to five hours, depending on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen
minutes. Fast chargers must have multiple ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge
(change in terminal voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging before harmful
overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to
keep the cells from overheating.
Fig 4.5 Charging and Discharging of a secondary cell or battery

Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a "C" rate
of current. The C rate is that which would theoretically fully charge or discharge the battery
in one hour. For example, trickle charging might be performed at C/20 (or a "20 hour"
rate), while typical charging and discharging may occur at C/2 (two hours for full capacity).
The available capacity of electrochemical cells varies depending on the discharge rate.
Some energy is lost in the internal resistance of cell components (plates, electrolyte,
interconnections), and the rate of discharge is limited by the speed at which chemicals in
the cell can move about. For lead-acid cells, the relationship between time and discharge
rate is described by Peukert's law; a lead-acid cell that can no longer sustain a usable
terminal voltage at a high current may still have usable capacity, if discharged at a much
lower rate. Data sheets for rechargeable cells often list the discharge capacity on 8-hour or
20-hour or other stated time; cells for uninterruptible power supply systems may be rated
at 15 minute discharge.

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Battery manufacturers' technical notes often refer to voltage per cell (VPC) for the
individual cells that make up the battery. For example, to charge a 12 V lead-acid battery
(containing 6 cells of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC requires a voltage of 13.8 V across the battery's
terminals.
Non-rechargeable alkaline and zinc–carbon cells output 1.5V when new, but this
voltage drops with use. Most NiMH AA and AAA cells are rated at 1.2 V, but have a
flatter discharge curve than alkalines and can usually be used in equipment designed to
use alkaline batteries.
Damage from cell reversal:

Subjecting a discharged cell to a current in the direction which tends to discharge
it further to the point the positive and negative terminals switch polarity causes a condition
called cell reversal. Generally, pushing current through a discharged cell in this way causes
undesirable and irreversible chemical reactions to occur, resulting in permanent damage to
the cell. Cell reversal can occur under a number of circumstances, the two most common
being.
 When a battery or cell is connected to a charging circuit the wrong way around.
 When a battery made of several cells connected in series is deeply discharged.
In the latter case, the problem occurs due to the different cells in a battery having
slightly different capacities. When one cell reaches discharge level ahead of the rest, the
remaining cells will force the current through the discharged cell.
Many battery-operated devices have a low-voltage cutoff that prevents deep

discharges from occurring that might cause cell reversal.
Cell reversal can occur to a weakly charged cell even before it is fully discharged.
If the battery drain current is high enough, the cell's internal resistance can create a resistive
voltage drop that is greater than the cell's forward emf. This results in the reversal of the
cell's polarity while the current is flowing. The higher the required discharge rate of a
battery, the better matched the cells should be, both in the type of cell and state of charge,
in order to reduce the chances of cell reversal.

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In some situations, such as when correcting Ni-Cad batteries that have been
previously overcharged, it may be desirable to fully discharge a battery. To avoid damage
from the cell reversal effect, it is necessary to access each cell separately: each cell is
individually discharged by connecting a load clip across the terminals of each cell, thereby
avoiding cell reversal.
Damage during storage in fully discharged state:
If a multi-cell battery is fully discharged, it will often be damaged due to the cell
reversal effect mentioned above. It is possible however to fully discharge a battery without
causing cell reversal—either by discharging each cell separately, or by allowing each cell's
internal leakage to dissipate its charge over time.
Even if a cell is brought to a fully discharged state without reversal, however,

damage may occur over time simply due to remaining in the discharged state. An example
of this is the salvation that are left sitting on a shelf for long periods. For this reason it is
often recommended to charge a battery that is intended to remain in storage, and to maintain
its charge level by periodically recharging it. Since damage may also occur if the battery is
overcharged, the optimal level of charge during storage is typically around 30% to 70%.
Depth of discharge:
Depth of discharge (DOD) is normally stated as a percentage of the nominal
ampere-hour capacity; 0% DOD means no discharge. As the usable capacity of a battery
system depends on the rate of discharge and the allowable voltage at the end of discharge,
the depth of discharge must be qualified to show the way it is to be measured. Due to
variations during manufacture and aging, the DOD for complete discharge can change over
time or number of charge cycles. Generally a rechargeable battery system will tolerate
more charge/discharge cycles if the DOD is lower on each cycle.
Lifespan and cycle stability:
If batteries are used repeatedly even without mistreatment, they lose capacity as the
number of charge cycles increases, until they are eventually considered to have reached the
end of their useful life.

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Lithium iron phosphate batteries reach according to the manufacturer more than
5000 cycles at respective depth of discharge of 70%.[7] After 7500 cycles with discharge
of 85% this still have a spare capacity of at least 80% at a rate of 1 C; which corresponds
with a full cycle per day to a lifetime of min. 20.5 years.
The lithium iron phosphate battery Sony Fortelion has after 10,000 cycles at 100%
discharge level still a residual capacity of 71%. This battery has been on the market since
2009.
Used in solar batteries Lithium-ion batteries have partly a very high cycle
resistance of more than 10,000 charge and discharge cycles and a long service life of up to
20 years. Plug in America has among drivers of the Tesla Roadster, a survey carried out
with respect to the service life of the installed battery. It was found that after 100,000 miles
= 160,000 km, the battery still had a remaining capacity of 80 to 85 percent. This was
regardless of in which climate zone the car is moved.[11][12] The Tesla Roadster was built
and sold between 2008 and 2012. For its 85-kWh batteries in the Tesla Model S Tesla are
8-year warranty with unlimited mileage. Varta Storage guarantees its engion battery
systems for 14,000 full cycles and a service life of 10 years.
As of 2017, the best-selling electric car is the Nissan Leaf, which is produced since
of 2010. Nissan stated in 2015 that until then only 0.01 percent of batteries had to be
replaced because of failures or problems and then only because of externally inflicted
damage. There are few vehicles that have already covered more than 200,000 km away.
These have no problems with the battery.
Recharging time:
Recharging in 15 Minutes to 80 percent. Electric cars like Tesla Model S, Renault

Zoe, BMW i3, etc. can recharge their batteries at quick charging stations within 30 minutes
to 80 percent. In laboratories the company Store Dot from Israel reportedly demonstrated
the first lab samples of unspecified batteries that can, as of April 2014, be charged in 30
seconds in mobile phones.

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Researchers from Singapore in 2014 developed a battery that can be recharged in 2

minutes to 70 percent. The batteries rely on lithium-ion technology. However, the anode
and the negative pole in the battery is no longer made of graphite, but a titanium dioxide
gel. The gel accelerates the chemical reaction significantly, thus ensuring a faster charging.
In particular, these batteries are to be used in electric cars. Already in 2012 researchers at
the Ludwig-Maximilian-University in Munich have discovered the basic principle.
Scientists at Stanford University in California have developed a battery that can be

charged within one minute. The anode is made of aluminum and the cathode made of
graphite (see Aluminium-ion battery).
The electric car Volar-e of the company Applus + IDIADA, based on the Rimac
Concept One, contains lithium iron phosphate batteries that can be recharged in 15
minutes.
According to the manufacturer BYD the lithium iron phosphate battery of the
electric car e6 is charged at a fast charging station within 15 minutes to 80%, after 40
minutes at 100%.
In 2005, handheld device battery designs by Toshiba were claimed to be able to

accept an 80% charge in as little as 60 seconds.
Scientists of university of Oslo from Norway have developed a battery which can
be recharged less than one second. According to the scientists this battery would be
interesting for example for city buses, which could be loaded at each bus stop, and thus
would require only a relatively small battery. A disadvantage is, according to the
researchers that the bigger the battery, the greater must be the charging current. Thus, the
battery can not be very big. According to the researchers of the new battery could also be
used as a buffer in sports car to provide power in the short term. For now, however, the
researchers think of applications in small and micro devices.
According to the manufacturer battery of the smartphone OnePlus 3 can be charged

from 0 to 60 percent within 30 minutes

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Active Components:
The active components in a secondary cell are the chemicals that make up the
positive and negative active materials, and the electrolyte. The positive and negative are
made up of different materials, with the positive exhibiting a reduction potential and the
negative having an oxidation potential. The sum of these potentials is the standard cell
potential or voltage.
In primary cells the positive and negative electrodes are known as

the cathode and anode, respectively. Although this convention is sometimes carried
through to rechargeable systems—especially with lithium-ion cells, because of their
origins in primary lithium cells—this practice can lead to confusion. In rechargeable cells
the positive electrode is the cathode on discharge and the anode on charge, and vice versa
for the negative electrode.
4.3.1 TYPES OF BATTERIES
Lead–acid battery:
These battery Invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, is the oldest type
of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low
energy-to-volume ratio, its ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells have
a relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These features, along with the low cost, makes it
attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile
starter motors.
Nickel–cadmium battery (NiCad):
It was invented by Waldemar Jungner of Sweden in 1899. It uses nickel oxide

hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. Cadmium is a toxic element, and was
banned for most uses by the European Union in 2004. Nickel–cadmium batteries have been
almost completely superseded by nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) batteries.
Nickel–metal hydride battery (NiMH):

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It became available in 1989. These are now a common consumer and industrial
type. The battery has a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the negative electrode instead
of cadmium.
Lithium-ion battery:
It was introduced in the market in 1991, and it is the choice in most consumer
electronics and has the best energy density and a very slow loss of charge when not in use.
It does have drawbacks too, particularly the risk of unexpected ignition from the heat
generated by the battery. Such incidents are rare and according to experts, they can be
minimized "via appropriate design, installation, procedures and layers of safeguards" so
the risk is acceptable.
Lithium-ion polymer batteries (LiPo):
These are light in weight, offer slightly higher energy density than Li-ion at slightly
higher cost, and can be made in any shape. They are availablebut have not displaced Li-
ion in the market. A primary use is for LiPo batteries is in powering remote-controlled cars,
boats and airplanes. LiPo packs are readily available on the consumer market, in various
configurations, up to 44.4v, for powering certain certain R/C vehicles and helicopters or
drones. Some test reports warn of the risk of fire when the batteries are not used in
accordance with the instructions. Independent reviews of the technology discuss the risk
of fire and explosion from Lithium-ion batteries under certain conditions because they use
liquid electrolytes.
Solid state:
On 28 February 2017, The University of Texas at Austin issued a press release

about a new type of solid-state battery, developed by a team of engineers led by Lithium-
ion (Li-Ion) inventor John Goodenough, "that could lead to safer, faster-charging, longer-
lasting rechargeable batteries for handheld mobile devices, electric cars and stationary
energy storage". More specifics about the new technology were published by Good enough
and his team of engineers on 9 December 2016 in the peer-reviewed scientific
journal Energy & Environmental Science.

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Independent reviews of the technology discuss the risk of fire and explosion from
Lithium-ion batteries under certain conditions because they use liquid electrolytes. The
newly developed battery should be safer since it uses glass electrolytes, that should
eliminate short circuits. (More specifically, the battery uses glass electrolytes that enable
the use of an alkali-metal anode without the formation of dendrites.
The solid-state battery is also said to have "three times the energy density"
increasing its useful life in electric vehicles, for example. It should also be more
ecologically sound since the technology uses less expensive, earth-friendly materials such
as sodium extracted from seawater. Another claimed benefit is longer useable life; ("the
cells have demonstrated more than 1,200 cycles with low cell resistance"). The research
and prototypes are not expected to lead to a commercially viable product in the near future,
if ever, according to Chris Robinson of LUX Research. "This will have no tangible effect
on electric vehicle adoption in the next 15 years, if it does at all. A key hurdle that many
solid-state electrolytes face is lack of a scalable and cost-effective manufacturing process,"
he told The American Energy News in an e-mail.
Other experimental types:
Char
Volt Powe Self- ge Cycl
Energy density E/$e Life
age r disch. Effici es
ency
Type
(M (W (W (W (%/
(V (W/ (% (# (ye
J/k h/k h/ h/$ mon
) kg) ) ) ars)
g) g) L) ) th)
Lithium 0.94- ~14

2.0 400 350
sulfur 1.4 00

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Char
ency
Type
(M (W (W (W (%/
(V (W/ (% (# (ye
J/k h/k h/ h/$ mon
) kg) ) ) ars)
g) g) L) ) th)
Sodium 500 Testin

3.6 30 3.3
-ion 0+ g
Thin
400
film ? 300 959 6000 ?
00
lithium
Zinc-
0.27-
bromid 75-85
0.31
e
Under
Zinc-
2.5 testin
cerium
g
Vanadi 1.15 10
0.09- 14,0
um - 25-35 20% (statio
0.13 00
redox 1.55 nary)
250
Sodium 89– 0—
0.54 150
-sulfur 92% 450
0

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Char
ency
Type
(M (W (W (W (%/
(V (W/ (% (# (ye
J/k h/k h/ h/$ mon
) kg) ) ) ars)
g) g) L) ) th)
Molten 0.25- 70- 150- 300

2.58 160 4.54 <=20
salt 1.04 290 220 0+
Silver-
1.86 0.47 130 240
zinc
Quantu
m
Battery 1.5- 8000( 100,
500
(oxide 3 W/L) 000
semicon
ductor)
Table 4.1 batteries specifications

Notes:
 Nominal cell voltage in V.

 Energy density = energy/weight or energy/size, given in three different units
 Specific power = power/weight in W/kg
 Energy/consumer price in W·h/US$ (approximately)
 Self-discharge rate in %/month
 Cycle durability in number of cycles
 Time durability in years
 VRLA or recombinant includes gel batteries and absorbed glass mats
 Pilot production

Solar e-bicycle
The lithium–sulfur battery was developed by Sion Power in 1994. The company
claims superior energy density to other lithium technologies.
The Thin film battery (TFB) is a refinement of lithium ion technology by

Excellatron. The developers claim a large increase in recharge cycles to around 40,000 and
higher charge and discharge rates, at least 5 C charge rate. Sustained 60 C discharge and
1000C peak discharge rate and a significant increase in specific energy, and energy density.
A smart battery has voltage monitoring circuit built inside. Carbon foam-based lead
acid battery: Firefly Energy developed a carbon foam-based lead acid battery with a
reported energy density of 30-40% more than their original 38 Wh/kg, with long life and
very high power density.
Ultra Battery, a hybrid lead-acid battery and ultra capacitor invented by Australia’s
national science organisation CSIRO, exhibits tens of thousands of partial state of charge
cycles and has outperformed traditional lead-acid, lithium and NiMH-based cells when
compared in testing in this mode against variability management power
profiles. UltraBattery has kW and MW-scale installations in place in Australia, Japan and
the U.S.A. It has also been subjected to extensive testing in hybrid electric vehicles and has
been shown to last more than 100,000 vehicle miles in on-road commercial testing in a
courier vehicle. The technology is claimed to have a lifetime of 7 to 10 times that of
conventional lead-acid batteries in high rate partial state-of-charge use, with safety and
environmental benefits claimed over competitors like lithium-ion. Its manufacturer
suggests an almost 100% recycling rate is already in place for the product.
The potassium-ion battery delivers around a million cycles, due to the

extraordinary electrochemical stability of potassium insertion/extraction materials such
as Prussian blue.
The sodium-ion battery is meant for stationary storage and competes with lead–acid
batteries. It aims at a low total cost of ownership per kWh of storage. This is achieved by
a long and stable lifetime. The effective number of cycles is above 5000 and the battery is
not damaged by deep discharge. The energy density is rather low, somewhat lower than
lead–acid.

Solar e-bicycle
The quantum battery (oxide semiconductor) was developed by MJC. It is a small,

lightweight cell with a multi-layer film structure and high energy and high power density.
It is incombustible, has no electrolyte and generates a low amount of heat during charge.
Its unique feature is its ability to capture electrons physically rather than chemically.
In 2007, Yi Cui and colleagues at Stanford University's Department of Materials

Science and Engineering discovered that using silicon nanowires as the anode of a lithium-
ion battery increases the anode's volumetric charge density by up to a factor of 10, leading
to the development of the nanowire battery.
Another development is the paper-thin flexible self-rechargeable battery

combining a thin-film organic solar cell with an extremely thin and highly flexible lithium-
polymer battery, which recharges itself when exposed to light.
Ceramatec, a research and development unit of CoorsTek, as of 2009 was testing a

battery comprising a chunk of solid sodium metal mated to a sulfur compound by a paper-
thin ceramic membrane which conducts ions back and forth to generate a current. The
company claimed that it could fit about 40 kilowatt hours of energy into a package about
the size of a refrigerator, and operate below 90 °C; and that their battery would allow about
3,650 discharge/recharge cycles (or roughly 1 per day for one decade).
Battery electrodes can be microscopically viewed while bathed in wet electrolytes,

resembling conditions inside operating batteries. In 2014, an Israeli company, Store Dot,
claimed to be able to charge batteries in 30 seconds. Secondary magnesium battery types
are an active (2015) topic of research, as a replacement for lithium ion cells. Aluminium-
ion battery types had big success in 2015 in research.
Alternatives:
A rechargeable battery is only one of several types of rechargeable energy storage

systems. Several alternatives to rechargeable batteries exist or are under development. For
uses such as portable radios, rechargeable batteries may be replaced by clockwork
mechanisms which are wound up by hand, driving dynamos, although this system may be
used to charge a battery rather than to operate the radio directly. Flashlights may be driven
by a dynamo directly. For transportation, uninterruptible power supply systems and

Solar e-bicycle
laboratories, flywheel energy storage systems store energy in a spinning rotor for
conversion to electric power when needed; such systems may be used to provide large
pulses of power that would otherwise be objectionable on a common electrical grid.
Ultra capacitors of extremely high value are also used; an electric screwdriver which
charges in 90 seconds and will drive about half as many screws as a device using a
rechargeable battery was introduced in 2007, and similar flashlights have been produced.
In keeping with the concept of ultra capacitors, beta voltaic batteries may be utilized as a
method of providing a trickle-charge to a secondary battery, greatly extending the life and
energy capacity of the battery system being employed; this type of arrangement is often
referred to as a "hybrid beta voltaic power source" by those in the industry.
Ultra capacitors are being developed for transportation, using a large capacitor to
store energy instead of the rechargeable battery banks used in hybrid vehicles. One
drawback of capacitors compared to batteries is that the terminal voltage drops rapidly; a
capacitor that has 25% of its initial energy left in it will have one-half of its initial voltage.
By contrast, battery systems tend to have a terminal voltage that does not decline rapidly
until nearly exhausted. The undesirable characteristic complicates the design of power
electronics for use with ultracapacitors. However, there are potential benefits in cycle
efficiency, lifetime, and weight compared with rechargeable systems. China started using
ultra capacitors on two commercial bus routes in 2006; one of them is route 11 in Shanghai.
Flow batteries, used for specialized applications, are recharged by replacing the
electrolyte liquid. A flow battery can be considered to be a type of rechargeable fuel cell.
4.4 CONTROLLERS
There are two distinct types of controllers designed to match either a brushed
motor or brushless motor. Brushless motors are becoming more common as the cost of
controllers continues to decrease. (See the page on DC motors which covers the differences
between these two types.)
Controllers for brushless motors: E-bikes require high initial torque and therefore
models that use brushless motors typically have Hall sensor commutation for speed and

Solar e-bicycle
angle measurement. An electronic controller provides assistance as a function of the sensor

inputs, the vehicle speed and the required force.
The controllers generally allow input by means of potentiometer or Hall Effect twist
grip (or thumb-operated lever throttle), closed-loop speed control for precise speed
regulation, protection logic for over-voltage, over-current and thermal protection. Bikes
with a pedal assist function typically have a disc on the crank shaft featuring a ring of
magnets coupled with a Hall sensor giving rise to a series of pulses, the frequency of which
is proportional to pedaling speed. The controller uses pulse width modulation to regulate
the power to the motor. Sometimes support is provided for regenerative braking but
infrequent braking and the low mass of bicycles limits recovered energy. An
implementation is described in an application.
Controllers for brushed motors: Brushed motors are also used in e-bikes but are
becoming less common due to their intrinsic lower efficiency. Controllers for brushed
motors however are much simpler and cheaper due to the fact they don't require hall sensor
feedback and are typically designed to be open-loop controllers. Some controllers can
handle multiple voltages.
4.5 GEAR REDUCTION BOX
What is a Reduction Gear?
Reduction Gear:
A reduction gear is an arrangement by which an input speed can be lowered for
a requirement of slower output speed, with same or more output torque. Reduction gear
assembly consists of a set of rotating gears connected to a wheel work. The high speed
incoming motion from the wheel work is transmitted to the set of rotating gears, wherein
the motion or torque is changed. The number of gears used in the reduction gear assembly
depends on the output speed requirement of the application. The reduction gear assembly
is usually known as reduction gear box.

Solar e-bicycle
 Why is a Reduction Gear Used?

To understand why a reduction gear is used in particular machinery we will take
an example of a ship using high speed turbines. It is a basic requirement of a ship that in
order to have high efficiency the steam turbine should operate at a relatively high range of
rpm. However, the effective functioning of a propeller requires a relatively low rpm range.
For this reason, a reduction gear is used, which reduces the high speed motion of the steam
turbine into low rpm range required by the propeller.
 Types of Reduction Gears:

There are mainly three types of reduction gears:
 Single reduction gear

 Double reduction gear
 Multi reduction gear
 Single Reduction gear:

This arrangement consists of only one one pair of gears. The reduction gear box
consists of ports through which the propeller shaft and engine shaft enters the assembly. A
small gear known as a pinion is driven by the incoming engine shaft. The pinion directly
drives a large gear mounted on the propeller shaft. The speed is adjusted by making the
ratio of the speed reduction to the diameter of pinion and gear proportional. Generally, a
single gear assembly has a gear double the size of a pinion.
 Double Reduction gear:

Double reduction gears are generally used in applications involving very high
speeds. In this arrangement the pinion is connected to the input shaft using a flexible
coupling. The pinion is connected to an intermediate gear known as the first reduction gear.
The first reduction gear is then connected to a low speed pinion with the help of one more
shaft. This pinion is connected to the second reduction gear mounted directly on the
propeller shaft. Such arrangement facilitates the reduction of speed to a ratio as high.

Solar e-bicycle
 Multi Reduction Gear Box:

A multi reduction gear box is an arrangement by which an input speed
lowered for a requirement of slower output speed with same or more output torque. This
arrangement consists of some pair of gears.
Fig 4.6 Reduction Gear Box
The working of our project basically explain by using some components as

follows. They are:
 Battery
 Electric motor
 Reduction gear box
 Chain and Sprocket
 Bicycle speed Rotation
Explanation:
Battery:
Two lead acid rechargeable batteries of 12v, 9 amp are used which are connected
in parallel position. It basically stores the electrical energy generated and utilise it to run
the motor. A battery has a positive terminal called anode. The terminal marked positive is

Solar e-bicycle
at higher electric potential energy and the terminal marked negative is source of electrons
when connected to external circuit will flow and deliver energy to external device.
Rechargeable batteries are recharged multiple times.
Electric Motor:
Electric motor is a dc motor which converts electrical energy into mechanical

energy. Use the specific motor having suitable power and torque according to design.
Reduction gear is a part of a mechanical system of gears. They reduce high
rotational speed into and convert them to a usable, slower speed. The reduction gear is used
because motor spins with speed of 1000 rpm maximum and needs to 30 to 40 rpm. So, the
motor can drive the pedals at a similar rate of cyclist.
chain and sprocket:
Take the suitable material & no. of teeth according to center distance.
Bicycle Wheel Rotation:
Bicycle Wheel Rotation provide the torque and speed to the Wheel through the
sprocket.
Advantages of e-Bicycle:
 Safety
 Less Running Cost
 Personal Fitness
 No Sweat
 Clean Green
 Genuinely sustainable
 Faster Travel
 High Resale Valve

Solar e-bicycle
4.6 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SOLAR E-BICYCLE
Fig:4.7 Block diagram of solar e-bicycle
1. Introduction
The current trend in the power sector is to change societies dependent on fossil
fuels, to a world opting for alternate renewable resources, for their energy requirements, so
as to conserve the natural energy. Soon the world is going to be depleted of all -
nonrenewable resources, like oil and gas reserves, if the world's demand for energy from
fossil fuels continues at the present rate.
This idea is an example of replacing conventional vehicles used for transportation,

which are dependent on fuel, with a more cost effective and environment friendly system,

Solar e-bicycle
dependent on electricity, since it is the most efficient non-polluting source of energy

known to man-kind today.
2. Materials and Methods
Cycle: A normal gearless cycle is required to generate the power; it is being used
as a prime mover, and also as the means of transportation.
DC machine: A 200W DC machine is used to convert electrical energy to

mechanical energy and vice-versa. The power from the rotation of the pedal is fed to the
battery through this DC machine. And it rotates the wheel during motoring.
Solar Panel: This 20W 24V Panel converts solar energy to electrical energy and
supplies it to the battery. It is equipped with a charge controller which prevents battery
from overcharging.
Battery: The 24V battery stores the energy in electrical form, it is supplied charge
from the solar panel and DC machine working as generator. Since it is detachable, we can
use the charge in it for non-transportation purposes also. Sprocket-chain gear assembly:
This mechanism allows us to run the shaft of the generator at rated speed of 320 rpm from
the normal riding speed of the bicycle; and vice-versa.
Mechanical Switching: There is a DPDT switch, which enables the rider to go to

motoring mode when there is charge in the battery and also allows the system to trip the
battery while the charge is below specified limits. Acceleration control is optional.
The AC step-down Rectifier circuit at power frequency is used to charge the battery
to full capacity (24V) while parked near AC mains plug point. The step-down transformer
brings down the value of voltage from 230V to 24V, while the rectifier circuit converts it
into regulated and filtered DC 24V. It is then fed into the battery through the power
electronic protection circuit. The circuit prevents the battery from overcharging by tripping
the supply once it is fully charged, and also gives an indication. Now the bicycle is ready
to be motored. On travelling, the motor can be switched on, by the user, whenever its
assistance for riding is required and the power electronic circuit supplies the charge of the
battery to the motor. There is a decrease in charge when motoring takes place.

Solar e-bicycle
Now in case the rider is going down-hill or speeding up in a level road, he can
switch over to generation by pedaling action by using the circuit buttons provided. Now
the DC machine can act as a generator, supplying the lost charge back to the battery during
commute. This action also happens only until battery reaches full charge. In case the battery
is fully discharged on commuting, using the motoring action for a long time, the circuit
prevents it from motoring further until sufficient charge is built-up in the battery again.
The solar panels also charge the battery through the charge controller whenever
sufficient light intensity falls on it. This action can happen when the cycle is parked under
direct sunlight. The charge controller is used to regulate the output of the panel which keeps
varying, so that the battery is charged uniformly by the panel, until full-charge.
This product can also be used as a generator, by supplying the charge to an empty
battery during commute and through solar panels, and then removing the detachable battery
with its circuit we can supply the charge to household equipment like bulbs and fans. Figure
1 and block diagram of the proposed method and model of solar and pedal powered electric
bicycle respectively.
Once the battery attains full charge, we can see a rated voltage of 24V at its output
terminals. The battery will be able to run for a longer time if its Ah rating is more. For
example, in case a battery of 18Ah is used, it can run for 18 hours when a current of 1A
load is drawn from it. For the 24V, 320 rpm, permanent magnet DC motor, the average
current required for commute in a level road may be around 5-13A, in this case we are
using 32 Ah battery so it is expected to last for 2 hours on continuous operation.
The cycle can be motored at a speed of 30 kmph using the 350W motor alone, and if pedal
power is also supplied, then the load on the motor decreases, and hence the speed or the
discharge time can be increased.
Also the load increases when the cycle travels up the slope, and hence there is
overload protection for the battery. The rider will have to assist the motor or vice-versa,
but the motor alone will not be able to run the cycle. And during this, the battery is
discharged at a faster rate.

Solar e-bicycle
Once the battery discharges below the minimum level with which it can motor, the
mode is changed from motoring to generation, by boosting the output at the machine
terminals using boost convertor circuit using, then power gets fed back to the battery,
otherwise there is no action. The solar panel also supplies the charge when sunlight falls
on it.
The solar panel output voltage is seen to vary and hence its charge controller plays
a vital role in regulating the voltage supplied to the battery. The panel is rated at 20 W,
hence a current of around 1A is supplied from its terminals, which is usually less than that.
It helps in charging the battery in the presence of sun light. The panel can only be utilized
efficiently on a sunny day and is a major reform of utilization of renewable source of energy
in this project.

Solar e-bicycle
CHAPTER-5
METHODOLOGY
5.1 DC GEAR MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS
The relationship between torque (T), speed (N), current (I), efficiency (E), and
output power (P), as below figures shown, represents the characteristics of a Hennkwell
micro DC gear motor. Figure-1 shows how the loaded torque on the gear motor is in
proportion and is directly related to the output speed and current. Figure-5.1. shows how
the no-load speed and starting torque also change proportionally to a different supply
voltage. The output speed at a given voltage is parallel to those at other voltage.
Fig 5.1 dc gear motor characteristics

Solar e-bicycle
Fig 5.2 speed vs torque characteristics
As the load on the gear motor increases, speed will decrease accordingly.
Additionally, the current (I) is an inverse relationship to torque. The peak of output power
(P) and efficiency (E) exist at different torque points, as indicated in figure 5.2. Output
power presents a curve by torque while efficiency (E) decreases straight down beyond the
peak normally. Maximum output (Pmax) is at half the starting torque (Ts) point and
maximum efficiency exists at a much lower point of torque. A gear motor's basic rating
point is lower than its maximum efficiency point. Load torque can be determined by
measuring the current drawn when the gear motor is installed in a machine where actual
load value is known.
Moreover, the actual operating load torque must be selected lower by a few times
than the stall torque. The purpose is to prolong the motor’s life and to bring out the most
optimal performance. Besides the full load torque has to operate within the maximum
allowable torque (motor stall torque x gear ratio x efficiency x 20-25%) limit, although the
gear motor could produce an over torque.

Solar e-bicycle
The maximum efficiency is generally much lower than the maximum stalled torque,
because although the motor can operate at a higher torque than the maximum efficiency
torque, it can also shorten the motor’s life due to high current generated. Thus, selecting a
motor with a torque that is several times higher than the actual operating torque is strongly
recommended.
5.2 output
Fig 5.3 solar E-bicycle

Solar e-bicycle

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Solar e-bicycle

An electric bicycle, also known as an e-bike or booster bike, is a bicycle with an

Dept of EEE GITS Page 1

Dept of EEE GITS Page 2

In a parallel hybrid motorized bicycle, such as the aforementioned 1897 invention

By 2007 e-bikes were thought to make up 10 to 20 percent of all two-wheeled

1.3 PROBLEM FORMULATION

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THIS PROJECT

The objectives of this project are:

1. To upgrade a conventional electric powered bicycle to Solar-Powered Electrical Bicycle

Dept of EEE GITS Page 3

2.1 E-BICYCLE CLASSES

Despite these legal complications, the classification of e-bikes is mainly decided by

 With pedal-assist the electric motor is regulated by pedalling. The pedal-assist

Therefore, very broadly, e-bikes can be classed as:

E-bicycle with pedal-assist only: either pedelecs (legally classed as bicycles) or S-

Dept of EEE GITS Page 4

2.2 TYPES OF MOTORS:

2.2.1 HUB MOTOR

Fig 2.1 Hub Motor in a Bicycle

Dept of EEE GITS Page 5

A hub motor typically is designed in one of three configurations. Considered least

Unsprung weight concerns:

Dept of EEE GITS Page 6

Disadvantages of Hub motor:

1. Hub motors are unsprung weight in the wheel.

Due to these disadvantages we are preferring a PMDC Brushed Motor.

2.2.2 PMDC BRUSHED MOTOR

Fig 2.2 PMDC Motor in a Bicycle

This electric motor of an referred to as the mid-drive. In the system the

Dept of EEE GITS Page 7

Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor Working Principle and

Fig 2.3 Construction and working principle of PMDC Motor

Dept of EEE GITS Page 8

These motors are commonly used as starter motor in automobiles, windshield

Fig 2.4 Construction of PMDC Motor

As it is indicated in name of permanent magnet DC motor, the field poles of this

Dept of EEE GITS Page 9

Working Principle of Permanent Magnet DC Motor:

Dept of EEE GITS Page 10

Equivalent Circuit of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor:

Fig 2.4.1 Equivalent circuit of PMDC Motor

1. Low intial cost

Applications of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor:

Dept of EEE GITS Page 11

2.3 E-BICYCLE WITH PEDAL-ASSIST

An e-bike conforming to these conditions is considered to be a pedelec in the EU and

Dept of EEE GITS Page 12

2.4 E-BICYCLE WITH POWER ON DEMAND AND PEDAL-ASSIST

2.5 E-BICYCLE WITH POWER ON DEMAND

Some e-bikes have an electric motor that operates on a power-on-demand basis

With power-on-demand only e-bikes the rider can:

1. Ride by pedal power alone, i.e. fully human-powered.

Dept of EEE GITS Page 13

A bicycle, also called a cycle or bike, is a human-powered or motor-powered,

Dept of EEE GITS Page 14

3.1.1 FREE WHEEL

FIG:3.2 FREE WHEEL

An analogous condition exists in an automobile with a manual transmission going

Dept of EEE GITS Page 15

3.2 PMDC BRUSHED MOTOR

PERMANENT MAGNET DC MOTOR