CH 5 Formation Pressures PDF

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SKPP 3413 - DRILLING ENGINEERING
Chapter 5 – Formation Pressures

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail
Petroleum Engineering Dept.

Faculty of Petroleum & Renewable Energy Eng.
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

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Contents
● Pressure concepts
● Pressure predicting methods
● Origin of abnormal pressures
● Prediction & detection of abnormal
pressures
● Formation fracture gradients

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Define the following terms:
● Balanced pressure
● Underbalanced pressure
● Overbalanced pressure
● True vertical depth (TVD)
● Measured depth (MD)

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Definition
Balanced, overbalanced & underbalanced pressures
(a) TVD = vertical depth independent of path

(b) MD = length of wellbore along path

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Pressure Concepts
• The different formation pressures encountered in
an area play a vital role both during exploration
and exploitation of potential hydrocarbon resources
reservoir
• The different kinds of reservoir pressure which are
usually encountered during the course of drilling
are broadly divided into three main components:
a. Hydrostatic pressure
b. Overburden pressure
c. Formation pressure
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a. Hydrostatic pressure (Phyd)

• Hydrostatic pressure is defined as the pressure which is
exerted by a column of water extending from a stratum to a
surface
• Hydrostatic P is caused by unit weight & vertical height of a
fluid column
• The size & shape of this fluid column have no effect on the
magnitude of this pressure:
P = ρ gh
where: P = hydrostatic pressure
ρ = average density
g = gravity value
h = height of the column
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• In terms of drilling operations, we can write:

phyd = 0.052 ρ m h
Phyd = 0.052 ρ w ( SG ) h
since ρ w = 8.33 ppg
P =
0.052(8.33) ( SG ) h 0.433( SG ) h
P
∴ hyd. P gradient, =
0.433( SG )
h
● Typical average of hyd. P gradient:

 0.433 psi/ft → fresh water
 0.465 psi/ft → salt water

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Example: Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of 10.5 ppg

mud in a well at 5,000 ft.
Solution:
Phyd = 0.052 ρ h
= 0.052
= (10.5) (5, 000) 2, 730 psi
Example: Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of 40 °API oil

in a well at 5,000 ft.
Solution: 141.5
=SG = 0.825
131.5 + 40
Phyd = 0.433( SG ) h
=
0.433 (0.825) (5, 000) 1, 786 psi
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• The hydrostatic P gradient is affected by the

concentration of dissolved solids (i.e. salts) and gases in
the fluid column at different or varying temperature
gradients
• An increase in the dissolved solids slightly increases the
normal pressure gradient, while increasing amount of
gases in solution and higher temperature would decrease
the normal hydrostatic pressure gradient
i.e. salt concentration ↑, normal P gradient ↑
gases in solution ↑, normal P gradient ↓
temperature ↑, normal P gradient ↓

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b. Overburden pressure (Po)

• Overburden pressure are also sometimes called load, lithostatic
or geostatic pressures
• This P originates from the combined weight of the formation
matrix (rock) & the fluids (water, oil, gas) in the pore space
overlying the formation of Interest
weight ( fluid + rock matrix)

Po =
area
but, weight of fluid = ρV
ρ fl φ ( Ah) + ρ ma (1 − φ ) ( Ah)
Po =
A
Po h φρ fl + (1 − φ ) ρ ma 
=
Generally, it is assumed that Po increases uniformly with depth.
→ Overburden P gradient ≈ 1.0 psi/ft
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• Sediment porosity decrease under

the effect of burial (compaction),
is proportional to the increase in
overburden pressure
• In the case of clays, this
reduction is essentially dependent
on the weight of the sediments
(see figure below)
• If clay porosity and depth are
represented on arithmetical
scales, the relationship between
these two parameters is an Schematic diagram of the porosity/depth relationship
exponential function

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• In sandstones and carbonates, this relationship is a function of many

parameters other than compaction, such as diagenetic effects, sorting,
original composition and so on.
• A decrease in porosity is necessarily accompanied by an increase in
bulk density
• In the upper part of the sedimentary column, the bulk density increase
gradient is much steeper than at depth (see figure below)
Figure shows the average bulk density changes in sediments

(onshore/offshore) where (2.31=average bulk density at depth)
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• The total of overburden pressure is

supported by:
i. pore pressure
ii. rock gain pressure

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i. Pore pressure
• The pore pressure of a formation refers to that portion of the overburden
pressure which is not supported by the rock matrix, but rather by the fluids or
gases which exist in the pore spaces of the formation
• Normal pore pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of a water column
from that depth to the surface
• If for some reason communication between fluids contained at depth and
surface fluids is interrupted, fluids will be unable to flow and normally
equalize the pressures within the system
• Thus fluids become entrapped within the formation and, in the case of over
pressured formation, the grain to grain pressure decreases as the fluids within
the interstices effectively "floats" the overburden
• If the pore pressure is less than normal hydrostatic pressure the formation is
said to be subnormally pressured
• If the pore pressure at that depth exceeds the expected hydrostatic pressure for
that depth the zone is termed abnormally pressured
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ii. Rock grain pressure
 Since individual grains often do not exist within a

rock formation the rock grain pressure refers to a
theoretical fraction of the overburden pressure
which is supported by the rock matrix of the
formation
 Since a rock mass is not homogeneous, pressures
will not be exerted equally in all directions as is
the case with fluid pressures

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c. Formation Pressure (Pf)

● Pf is the pressure acting upon the fluids (water,
oil, gas) in the pore space of the formation
(= pore pressure = formation fluids pressure)
• Expressed either in psi, atmosphere or kg/cm2

• Normal formation P in any geologic setting will equal the hydrostatic
head (i.e. hydrostatic P) of water from the surface to the subsurface
formation
• Normal hydrostatic reservoir pressures normally correspond to
original reservoir pressures, i.e. pressures that existed before the
natural pressure equilibrium of formation was disturbed by
production
• Any deviation from the normal trend is called abnormal P

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Pressure Relations
• If Pf > Phyd ⇒ abnormally high formation P (surpressures/over
pressures)
• If Pf < Phyd ⇒ subnormal (subpressures)
• Surpressures occuring more frequently than subpressures
Pressure
Normal mud P
High density mud (for an

abnormally high P well)
Abnormally low P Abnormally high P

(subpressures) (surpressures)
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• Subsurface P & stress concepts are related:

Po = Pf + δ
δ → grain to grain P (matrix stress, effective stress,
vertical rock-frame stress)
• In normal P environments (Pf = Phyd), the matrix stress
supports the overburden load due to grain-to-grain
contacts
• Any reduction in this direct grain-to-grain stress
(δ → 0) will cause the pore fluid to support part of the
overburden → Pf > Phyd (abnormal P)

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Normal and Abnormal Formation Pressures

0
Normal Pressure Gradients

Malaysia: 0.442 psi/ft
Gulf Coast: 0.465 psi/ft
Depth, ft
Subnormal pressure
gradients
Over pressured gradients
10,000
Formation Pressure, psig

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The influence of formation pressures on the

drilling operation
• In order to maintain hole stability (by

preventing borehole collapse and also to prevent
the influx of formation fluids into the wellbore):
– It is necessary to maintain a borehole P which is
slightly overbalances the formation P
– ∴ to drill the well in safety → necessary to know
or to predict the pressures within the formation to
be drilled

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A technique for predicting formation pressures would be

helpful for the following reasons:
– Assist in selecting adequate mud weight to ensure
well safety
– Prevent the use of excessive mud weights leading to
fracture or losses
– Prevention of hole collapse or sloughing of shales
– Assist in correct design of casing schemes to ensure
optimum completion and maximum productivity

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Normal pore pressure gradients in specific geographic area.
Example: Based on the above Table, determine the normal formation

pressure which is to be expected at a depth of 9,000 ft in (a) Malaysia,
and (b) Gulf of Mexico
Solution: (a) P = (0.442 psi/ft)(9,000 ft) = 3,978 psi
(b) P = (0.465 psi/ft)(9,000 ft) = 4,185 psi
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Normal pressure

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Example: A formation is to be hydraulically fractured at the depth of

10,000 ft. The fracturing fluid has a SG of 0.85. If the formation break
down at 80% of the theoretical overburden pressure, what pump
pressure will be required for the break down?
Solution:
Expected bottom hole break-down pressure = (0.8)(1 psi/ft)(10,000 ft)
= 8,000 psi
Hydrostatic head of fluid = 0.433(SG)h
= (0.433)(0.85)(10,000 ft)
= 3,681 psi
Requires pump pressure = 8,000 psi – 3,681 psi
= 4,319 psi

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Example: During the drilling of a well, a protective string of 10 ¾ in.

casing was set and cemented at a depth of 5,000 ft. A BOP, which
provides for sealing the annular space between the drill pipe and the
protective casing, was mounted on the top of the protective casing. The
drilling mud weighs 10.4 ppg. Assuming that the well is full of mud,
and that the formation will hold 70% of the theoretical overburden
pressure, how much pressure can be held against the well by the BOP?
Solution: Since the casing may be assumed strong enough to contain
internal pressures above the 5,000 ft setting depth, the shallowest depth
subject to analysis is 5,000 ft.
Assumed bottom hole break-down P at 5,000 ft = (0.7)(1 psi/ft)(5,000 ft)
= 3,500 psi
Hydrostatic mud head = 0.052 ρh
= (0.052)(10.4 ppg)(5,000 ft) = 2,704 psi
Pressure held by BOP = 3,500 psi – 2,704 psi = 796 psi

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Example: A formation has a pressure of 4,000 psi at 7,500 ft.

The operator desires to have a safety allowance of 300 psi
opposite the formation. What is the required density of the
mud?
Solution:
P = 0.052 ρ h
P
∴ ρ =
0.052 h
4, 000 psi formation pressure + 300 psi safety allowance
=
(0.052) (7,500 ft )
= 11.0 ppg

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Abnormal Pressure
 Technical difficulties are often encountered in petroleum exploration
when drilling abnormally pressured zones. Such pressures are a
worldwide phenomenon
 Most petroleum provinces exhibit abnormal pressure. In fact,
abnormal pressure occurs to varying degrees in nearly all sedimentary
basins
 In petroleum exploration, the consequences of abnormal pressures
may be both desirable and undesirable
 The quality of a drilling programme depends on how well the
formation pressure is known
 Wherever there is risk of abnormal pressure, the drilling method to be
used must consist in continuously evaluating formation pressure as
precisely as possible and adapting the drilling programme accordingly
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World distribution of abnormal pressure

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• A normal, hydrostatic pressured geologic environment can

be visualized as a hydraulically “open” system (i.e.
permeable). Fluid communicating formations allow
establishment and/or reestablishment of hydrostatic
conditions
• Conversely, abnormally high formation P systems are
essentially “closed”, preventing, or at least greatly resisting,
fluid communication
• Technically, any deviation in naturally occurring formation
P from what is considered the normal hydrostatic P gradient
is abnormal P, whether the deviation is higher or lower
• High P is called “abnormal P” & sometimes as surpressure,
trapped P, geopressure or overpressure
• Low P is also called “abnormal P” & sometimes as
subpressure or subnormal pressure
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Abnormal pressure in Europe Abnormal pressure in USSR

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Density of mud required to control this pore pressure

0
0.433 psi/ft 8.33 lb/gal
0.465 psi/ft 9.00 lb/gal

5,000
Depth, ft
Normal Abormal
10,000
15,000
5 10 15 20
Pore Pressure, lb/gal equivalent
Pore pressure vs. depth
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Drilling problems associated with abnormal pressures

● When drilling through a formation, sufficient hydrostatic
ρm must be maintained to prevent:
– the borehole collapsing
– the influx of formation fluids
● Mud density must be increase
● If the overbalance is too great, this may lead to:
– reduced penetration rates (due to chip hold down
effect)
– lost circulation (flow of mud into formation)
– breakdown of formation (exceeding the fracture
gradient)
– excessive differential pressure causing stuck pipe
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Pressure seals
• Common to both subnormal pressures and overpressures is a sealing
mechanism which prevent equalization of the pressures within the
abnormally pressured zone and the rest of the geological sequence
• The origin of a P seal is physical, chemical or may be a result of the
combination of the two (see table below):
Type of seal Nature of trap Examples
Vertical Massive shales and siltstones Gulf Coast, USA,
Massive salt Zechstein, North Germany,
Anhydrite North Sea, Middle East,
Gypsum USA, USSR
Limestone, marl, chalk
Dolomite
Transverse Faults Worldwide
Salts and shale diapers
Combination of vertical Worldwide
and transverse

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a. Physical seal
This can be a gravity fault during deposition of a finer grained
material or the deposition of a carbonate, salt or other non-porous
material caused by a long period of high T & low rainfall
b. Chemical seal
This refer to the chemical deposition of CaCO3 i.e. in warm waters,
thus restricting average permeability. Another example is chemical
diagenesis during compaction of organic material associated with
normal deposition
c. Physical-chemical seal
This category refers to those in which a physical change triggers off a
chemical reaction or alternatively a chemical change which triggers a
physical change, e.g. the gypsum–evaporite action

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Causes of abnormal pressures

Potential reasons for
Subnormal Pressure Gradients Overpressured Gradients
Thermal expansion Incomplete sediment compaction
Formation foreshortening Faulting
Depletion Phase Changes during compaction
Precipitation Massive rock salt deposition
Potentiometric surface Salt diaperism
Epeirogenic movement Tectonic compression
Repressuring from deeper levels
Generations of hydrocarbons
Note: Abnormal pressure may have many origin, frequently a combination of
geologic, physical, geochemical & mechanical processes
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Origins for generation of abnormal fluid pressure (after Fertl)
1. Piezometric fluid level (artesian water system)

2. Reservoir structure
3. Repressuring of reservoir rock
4. Rate of sedimentation and depositional environment
5. Paleopressures
6. Tectonic activities
a. Faults
b. Shale diapirism (mud volcanoes)
c. Salt diapirism
d. Sandstone dikes
e. Earthquake
7. Osmotic phenomena
8. Diagenesis phenomena
9. Massive areal rock salt deposition
10. Permafrost environment
11. Thermodynamic and biochemical causes
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1. Piezometric fluid level (artesian water system)
Generally, artesian pressures are present under the following conditions:

• Porous & permeable aquifers are sandwiched between impermeable
beds, such as shales
• These aquifers are deformed in such a way as to exhibit a high intake
to produce the necessary hydraulic head

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Abnormal pressure as a result of fluid density contrast

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2. Reservoir structure
• In sealed reservoir rock, such as
lenticular reservoirs, dipping formations
& anticlines, formation pressures is
normal for the deepest part of the zone
but it will be transmitted to the shallower
end, where they will cause abnormal P
conditions (see figure)
• In the presence of the anticlines,
abnormal P are encountered in the
potential pay section, whereas abnormal
hydrostatic P conditions still may exist at
& below the oil/water contact
• In very large structures (e.g. Middle
East), overpressures resulting from P
differences in oil/water system and
particularly gas/water systems are known
to approach the geostatic P of the
overburden (e.g. in Iran → 0.9 psi/ft)

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3. Repressuring of reservoir rock

Normal or low pressured reservoir rocks, particularly at shallow depth, containing formation
water and/or hydrocarbon may sometimes be pressured up and/or repressured due to
hydraulic communication with deeper, higher pressured formations, such as (see Figure):
• Behind casing in old wells or boreholes with faulty cement job
• Along “leaky” fault zones
• As a result of casing leak in old wells
• While drilling a sequence of permeable formations exhibiting drastically different pore
fluid pressures (causing recharge saltwater flows)

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Underground blowout Casing leaks Faulty cement job
Man-made abnormal pressures (three examples of shallow

formations being charged with deeper gas)

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4. Rate of sedimentation and

depositional environment
• “Rapid loading” can cause

abnormal P interstitial water is
likely to be trapped and isolated
from communicating with the
surface
• In this situation the sediment
cannot compact and the contained
water is subjected not only to
hydrostatic forces, but also to the
weight of newly deposited
sediment, therefore it will created
high pressure zone
• The normal sedimentation
process involves the deposition of
layers of various rock particles

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Abnormally pressured sandstone as a result of rapid sedimentation

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5. Paleopressures
Such abnormal
formation pressures can
only exist in older rock
which have been
completely enclosed by
massive, dense &
essentially impermeable
rocks or in completely
sealed formation
uplifted to a shallower
depth
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6. Tectonic activities
Abnormally high pore fluid pressures may result from local
& regional faulting, folding, lateral sliding & slipping,
squeezing caused by down-dropping of fault blocks, diapiric
salt and/or shake movements, earthquakes, sandstones dikes

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8,000’
9,000’
Abnormal pressures due to faulting

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7. Osmotic phenomena
• Osmosis is the spontaneous

flow of water into a solution
or the flow from a more
dilute to more concentrated
solution, when the two are
separated from each other by
a suitable membrane
• Shale can act as semi-

permeable membrane

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8. Diagenesis phenomena
• Diagenesis is a term that refers

to the chemical alteration of
rock minerals by geological
processes
• Diagenesis is the post-
depositional alteration of
sediment & its constituent
minerals
• Processes of diagenesis
include:
– formation of new minerals
– redistribution &
recrystallization of the
substances in sediments
– lithification

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9. Massive areal rock salt deposition
• Salt is totally impermeable to fluids & transforms

under pseudoplastic movement (recrystallization
effect), thereby exerting pressure equal to the
overburden load in all directions
• Underlying formations have no fluid escape
possibilities, thus remaining unconsolidated &
becoming overpressured

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10. Permafrost environment
• In permafrost regions, unfrozen

areas exist in many places, such
as under deep lake
• Drastic changes in climate
and/or surface conditions cause
permafrost encroachment,
thereby trapping an unfrozen
area in a essentially closed
system
• As freezing proceeds, a buildup
of abnormally high formation
pressures occurs in unfrozen
pockets. These structures are
called pingos

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11. Thermodynamic & biochemical causes
• Changes in formation T will also

change the fluid P
• The figure suggest that pressure in
an isolated volume increases with
increasing T more rapidly in the
surrounding fluids
• Breakdown of hydrocarbon
molecules into simple compounds
increases their volume
• Volume changes is due to catalytic
reactions, radioactive decay,
bacterial reaction, and/or T changes
• Decomposition of organic matter
through bacterial actions form
pockets of methane under excessive
pressure
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Prediction & Detection Of Abnormal Pressures
• There are many methods to predict, detect & evaluate formation fluid pressures
(see Table on the next slide)
• Most of the methods can be subdivided into qualitative & quantitative detection
method as shown in the table below (this table contains only those method that are
applicable during the drilling phase of a well)
Pressure detection methods while drilling
Qualitative methods Quantitative methods
Paleontology Log analysis
Offset well correlation porosity detection
Temperature anomalies resistivity (conductivity)
Gas counting sonic
Mud and/or cutting resistivity Bulk density
Delta chlorides Drilling equation
Cuttings character dc exponent
Hole condition computerized drilling models
Cuttings content (shale factor) Kicks
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Source of data Pressure indicators Time of recording
Geophysical methods Seismic (formation velocity) Prior to spudding well
Gravity
Predict Magnetics
Electrical prospecting methods
Drilling parameters Drilling rate While drilling (no delay)

d-exponent and Modified d-exponent
Drilling rate equations
Drilling porosity and formation pressure logs
Logging while drilling
Torque, Drag Techniques
Drilling mud parameters Mud-gas cutting
Flow-line mud weight
While drilling (delayed by
the time required for mud
available to
Detect Pressure kicks return) predict, detect
Flow-line temperature
(will Resistivity, chloride ions & other novel concepts and evaluate
focuss
item)
Pit level and total pit volume
Hole fill-up
overpressures
Mud flow rate (after Fertl)
Shale cuttings Bulk density While drilling (delayed by
parameters Shale factor the time required for mud
Volume, shape and size return)
Novel, miscellaneous methods
Well logging Electrical surveys (resistivity, conductivity, etc) After drilling
Interval transit time
Bulk density
Hydrogen index
Confirm/ Thermal neutron capture cross section
Nuclear magnetic resonance
Evaluate Downhole gravity data
Direct pressure Pressure bombs When well is tested or
measuring device Drill-stem test completed
Wireline formation test
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There are 3 general classifications can be proposed (see the previous

table):
1. Predictive techniques
These can be considered as those geophysical techniques applied to
the initial exploration phase. The methods will predict the existence
of conditions in which abnormal P may be found
2. Detection techniques (will concentrate on this techniques)
Applies to those aspects & parameters which can be monitored
during the drilling process & can alert the drilling crew to the fact
that they have encountered a transition zone/abnormally pressured
zone
3. Confirmation techniques
Relates to those methods which can be applied after the hole has been
successfully drilled to confirm and quantify abnormal formation pore
pressures
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Detection of Abnormal Formation Pressures

There are 3 categories of sources of data which will allow the detection of
abnormal pressures, namely:
A. Drilling parameters
This categories refers to the observation of drilling parameters & the application of
empirical drilling rate calculations which utilize a pore P dependent term
B. Drilling mud
This category refers to the affect that an abnormal P zone may have on the drilling fluid,
e.g. increase in T, influx of hydrocarbon, etc.
C. Drill cuttings
This section comprises methods used to investigate the nature of the detecting the
cuttings from the sealing zone cuttings, generally with specific reference to detecting the
cuttings from the sealing zone

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A. DRILLING PARAMETERS
• The concept behind the use of drilling

parameter is that:
– Upon approaching an abnormal pressured zone it
is possible that the seal zones will present itself as
a zone of greater compaction which will give
decreased penetration rates
– Upon entering the abnormally pressured zone, the
rock many become more porous & less dense &
this will result in increased penetration rates

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1. Drilling rate (penetration rate)
• Drilling rate breaks have been used for many years to

distinguish sand from shale
• However, the apparent relation of penetration rate to
variations in pore fluids P has been recognized
• Basically, drilling rate is a function of WOB, rotary
speed (rpm), bit type & size, hydraulics, drilling fluid
& formation characteristics
• Penetration rate decrease uniformly (due to
compaction) with depth (assuming all the above
parameters are constant)

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• However, in P transition zones &

overpressures → penetration rate
increases (see diagram)
• In the P barrier (caprock)

penetration rate decreases
• However, the dull bit may give
different result (see diagram)
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2. d-exponent (normalized rate of penetration)

• Since it is not always a possible to control/maintain WOB, rpm,
etc. (as discussed previously), an improved method has been
developed which allows plotting of a normalized penetration rate
(d–exp.) vs. depth
• Data required to calculate the d-exp. (a dimensionless no.) are
the penetration rate , bit size (diameter), WOB & rotary speed:
log (R / 60 N)
d=
log (12 W / 106 D)
R = rate of penetration (ft/hr)
N = rotary speed (rpm)
W = WOB (lbs)
D = bit diameter (in.)

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• Overpressured zone can be identified by plotting d-

exponent vs depth
• For accurate results the following conditions must
exist:
– no abrupt changes in WOB or RPM should occur,
i.e. keep WOB and RPM as constant as possible
– to reduce the dependence on lithology the equation
should be applied over small depth increments only
(plot every 10 ft)
– a good thick shale is required to establish a reliable
trend line

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Example :
R = 20
N = 100
W = 25,000
D = 9 7/8″
log[20/60(100)]
d= = 1.63
12(25,000)
10 6 (9 7/8)
Nomograph (as shown here) is available which graphically solve the above equation

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• Basically, plots of d–exponent

vs depth show an increasing
trend with depth
• In transition zones &
overpressure environments, the
calculated d-value diverge from
the normal trend to lower than
normal values (see figure)
• Computed d-values are affected
by any change in R, N, W & D.
Thus changes in bit size & type,
bit weight, etc. will affect the d-
exponent
• Lithology change, mud weight
change will also affect d-
exponent
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3. Modified d-exponent
• Since the d-exponent is influenced by mud
weight variations, a modification has been
introduced to normalize the d-exponent for the
effective mud weight such as:
d c = d • (ρ n /ρ e )
where:
dc = modified (corrected) d-exponent
ρn = mud ρ equal to a normal formation pore p gradient
ρe = Equilibrium mud ρ at the bit while circulating

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Example:
The following table is obtained from a well drilled at Alpha field.

Assuming the normal formation pressure of 9.0 ppg:
a. Make a plot of d-exponent vs. depth using Cartesian

coordinates
b. Make a plot of d-exponent vs. depth using semi-log
c. Make a plot of modified d-exponent vs. depth using Cartesian
coordinates
d. Make a plot of modified d-exponent vs. depth using semi-log
e. Determine the depth of upper zone of abnormal pressure
f. Can the d-exponent be used to determine the abnormal pressure
in this case? Give your reasons

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Depth Bit size Drlling time WOB N Mud density

(ft) (in.) (hrs) (lb) (rpm) (ppg)
6,000 8.500 4.72 35,000 120 9.0
6,500 8.500 4.85 35,000 120 9.0
7,000 8.500 6.50 35,000 110 9.0
7,500 8.500 7.58 35,000 110 9.0
8,000 8.500 11.21 30,000 110 9.4
8,500 7.875 10.87 30,000 110 9.4
9,000 7.875 12.69 30,000 110 9.4
9,500 7.875 14.28 30,000 110 9.8
10,000 7.875 6.49 30,000 110 10.1
10,200 7.875 7.61 30,000 100 10.1
10,400 7.875 8.10 30,000 100 10.1
10,600 7.875 8.62 30,000 100 10.5
10,800 7.875 9.17 30,000 90 11.1
11,000 7.875 10.47 30,000 90 11.1
11,200 7.875 11.17 30,000 90 11.3
11,400 7.875 11.91 30,000 90 11.6
11,600 7.875 9.13 35,000 90 11.6
11,800 7.875 9.71 35,000 90 11.8
12,000 7.875 9.71 35,000 90 13.1
12,200 7.875 10.00 35,000 90 13.4
12,400 7.875 11.11 35,000 90 13.6
12,600 7.875 11.11 35,000 90 14.2
12,800 7.875 11.77 35,000 90 14.5
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h ∆h t R = ∆h/t Dh W N ρe log (R / 60 N )
d= d c = ρ n / ρe
(ft) (ft) (hr) (ft/hr) (in.) (lb) (rpm) (ppg) (
log 12 W / 106 D )
6,000 4.72 8.500 35,000 120 9.0
6,500 500 4.85 103.1 8.500 35,000 120 9.0 1.4118 1.4118
7,000 500 6.50 76.9 8.500 35,000 110 9.0 1.4803 1.4803
7,500 500 7.58 66.0 8.500 35,000 110 9.0 1.5314 1.5314
8,000 500 11.21 44.6 8.500 30,000 110 9.4 1.5805 1.5132
8,500 500 10.87 46.0 7.875 30,000 110 9.4 1.6096 1.5411
9,000 500 12.69 39.4 7.875 30,000 110 9.4 1.6598 1.5892
9,500 500 14.28 35.0 7.875 30,000 110 9.8 1.6981 1.5594
10,000 500 6.49 77.0 7.875 30,000 110 10.1 1.4425 1.2854
10,200 200 7.61 26.3 7.875 30,000 100 10.1 1.7601 1.5684
10,400 200 8.10 24.7 7.875 30,000 100 10.1 1.7804 1.5865
10,600 200 8.62 23.2 7.875 30,000 100 10.5 1.8005 1.5433
10,800 200 9.17 21.8 7.875 30,000 90 11.1 1.7864 1.4485
11,000 200 10.47 19.1 7.875 30,000 90 11.1 1.8294 1.4833
11,200 200 11.17 17.9 7.875 30,000 90 11.3 1.8504 1.4738
11,400 200 11.91 16.8 7.875 30,000 90 11.6 1.8712 1.4518
11,600 200 9.13 21.9 7.875 35,000 90 11.6 1.8789 1.4578
11,800 200 9.71 20.6 7.875 35,000 90 11.8 1.8999 1.4491
12,000 200 9.71 20.6 7.875 35,000 90 13.1 1.8999 1.3053
12,200 200 10.00 20.0 7.875 35,000 90 13.4 1.9099 1.2828
12,400 200 11.11 18.0 7.875 35,000 90 13.6 1.9459 1.2877
12,600 200 11.11 18.0 7.875 35,000 90 14.2 1.9459 1.2333
12,800 200 11.77 17.0 7.875 35,000 90 14.5 1.9655 1.2200
70
d exponent d exponent
1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 1.0 10.0
6,000 6,000
7,000 7,000
8,000 8,000
9,000 9,000
Depth (ft)
Depth (ft)
10,000
10,000
11,000
11,000
12,000
12,000
13,000
13,000
14,000
14,000

71
dc exponent dc exponent
1.0 10.0
1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
6,000
6,000
7,000 7,000
8,000 8,000
9,000 9,000
Depth (ft)
Depth (ft)
10,000
10,000
11,000
11,000
12,000
12,000
13,000
13,000
14,000
14,000

Comparison of d and dc-exponents
Comparison of d and dc
exponents used in
d geopressure detection.
Increasing depth, ft
Both exponents may be

dc used for estimating the top
of an overpressured zone,
Normal but dc is more quantitative
pressure
Over since it considers mud
pressure
weight effects on drilling
rate.
1.0 2.0 3.0 10 11 12
Mud weight, ppg
73
Relation between dc exponent, resistivity & sonic log

dc exponent Resistivity Sonic
1000 1000 1000
response
1500 1500 1500 in casing
Cycle
2000 2000 2000 Skipping
TVD (m)
TVD (m)
TVD (m)
2500 2500 Top of
2500
Overpressure
Top Top
Overpressure Overpressure
3000 3000
3000
NCT
NCT NCT
3500 3500
3500
0.1 1 10
0.1 1 10 100 Sonic (usec/m) 1000
RILD (ohm.m)
Dc Exponent

Formation pressure can be derived from the dc, using Eaton’s equation
1.2
P S  S  P    dc 
= − −   
D D  D  D  n   d cn 
P
= formation pressure gradient (psi/ft)
D
S
= overburden stress gradient (psi/ft)
D
P
  = "normal" water gradient in area (psi/ft), e.g. 0.433 or 0.465 psi/ft
 D n
dc = actual d c -exponent from plot at given depth
d cn = d c -exponent from normal trend (i.e. extrapolated) at given depth

Example
Whilst drilling the 8.5” hole section, the mudloggers recorded the data as shown below.
Plot the d and dc exponents and determine whether there are any indications of an
overpressured zone. If an overpressured zone exists, what is the depth of the top of the
transition zone. Use the Eaton equation to estimate the formation pressure at 10,160 ft.
Assume a normal water gradient of 0.465 psi/ft, an overburden gradient of 1.0 psi/ft,
and a normal mud weight for this area of 10 ppg.
Depth (ft) ROP (ft/hr) N (rpm) WOB (lbs) MW (ppg)
10,000 35 60 40000 10.00

10,020 25 60 40000 10.00
10,040 12 40 30000 10.00
10,060 28 85 55000 10.10
10,080 25 90 60000 10.10
10,100 6 60 50000 10.30
10,120 3 60 20000 10.30
10,140 8 60 20000 10.40
10,160 10 90 20000 11.00
10,180 8 90 20000 11.25

76
Solution
(1) ( 2)
Depth (ft) ROP (ft/hr) N (rpm) WOB (lbs) MW (ppg) d-exponent dc-exponent
10,000 35 60 40000 10.00 1.61 1.61

10,020 25 60 40000 10.00 1.73 1.73
10,040 12 40 30000 10.00 1.68 1.68
10,060 28 85 55000 10.10 2.04 2.02
10,080 25 90 60000 10.10 2.18 2.16
10,100 6 60 50000 10.30 2.41 2.34
10,120 3 60 20000 10.30 1.99 1.93
10,140 8 60 20000 10.40 1.71 1.65
10,160 10 90 20000 11.00 1.76 1.60
10,180 8 90 20000 11.25 1.83 1.62
 R 
log    MWn 
 60N  (2) d c = d  
(1) d =
 12W   MWa 
log  6 
 10 B 

77
d-exponent and dc-exponent vs Depth

From the plot:
d-exponent / dc-exponent d c @ 10,160 ft = 1.60
9980
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00
d cn @ 10,160 ft = 2.75
10000 From Eaton Eqn.
1.2
10020
 P   S   S  P    dc 
 =  −  −    
10040  D   D   D  D n   d cn 
10060 Therefore, at 10,160 ft:
d dc
Depth (ft)
10080 1.2
P  1.60 
Top Overpressured Zone   = 1 − (1 − 0.465 )  
10100
D  2.75 
10120 d = 0.721 psi/ft
10140 ∴ P = 0.721 × 10,160 = 7,325 psi
dc
7, 325
10160 ∴ EMW =
0.052 × 10,160
10180 dc
dcn = 13.86 ppg
10200

78
B. DRILLING MUD PARAMETERS

1. Mud-gas cuttings
2. Flowline mud weight
3. Flowline temperature
4. Pit level & total pit volume
5. Mud flowrate

79
1. Mud-gas cuttings
Gas can be evolved in 2 ways:
a. From shale cuttings
Gas is commonly associated with shale & especially
overpressured shales which have a high φ. Drilled
shale cuttings can release gas as it expands as they
move up the annulus in the drilling fluid
b. Direct influx
The influx of gas can occur as the result of directly
removing the overbalance p or during the making of
connections when pulling back the drill string,
produces a tendency to swab

80
There are numerous

other mechanism for the
production of gas (see
figure), which can make
the determination of
abnormal pressures quite
difficult

81
2. Flowline mud weight
• The mud weight as measured at the flowline

will be influenced by any foreign fluid influx
• Gas is more readily noticeable because of the
ρ difference, but water is more difficult to
isolate
• Continuous measurement of mud weight is a
most useful technique, e.g. using a radioactive
densometer

82
3. Flowline temperature
• Water has a lower heat conductivity
than shale (≈ 60%)
• Heat rising through the earth toward
the surface will normally establish an
even T gradient but when the water
content is higher as in under
compacted shale, the T tend to be
higher & decrease rapidly through the
transition zone before establishing a
steady gradient through the normal P
interval (see figure)
• Problem → when flow is stopped,
mud in the hole near the surface cools
while deeper mud heats & pit mud
approaches ambient T. When
circulating resumes, mud from the
flowline slowly heats up to some
equilibrium value
83
4. Pit level and total pit volume
• Variations in the total mud volume can be

monitored by pit level indicators
• The increase or decrease in the pit volume
may be related to lost circulation, fluid influx,
gas influx, etc.

84
5. Mud flow rate

• Any abnormal rise in pit level caused by mud
flow from the annulus will also be reflected in
an increasing flow rate, which can be measured
by a standard flowmeter

85
C. DRILL CUTTINGS PARAMETERS

There are a number of analytical techniques
involving the use of drill cuttings mostly associated
with the identification of under-compacted shales:
1. Density of shale cuttings

2. Shale factor
3. Volume, shape and size of shale cuttings

86
1. Density of shale cuttings

• The density will vary with the degree of compaction
and is given by the following relationship:
where : ρsh =shale density
ρsh = φ ρw + (1 − φ) ρg ρw = water density
ρ2w ρg =grain density
or: ρsh = ρ =mixture density
2ρw − ρ
φ =shale porosity
• Bulk ρ in normally compacted shale increases with
depth in normally pressured reservoirs, a plot of bulk ρ
with depth should be a straight line as it will show
increased compaction with depth for a constant
lithology

87
• If under-compaction occurs
as is normally associated
with overpressures, the plot
will show shift
• It is possible to relate this
shift in bulk ρ directly to a
required increase in mud
weight (see figures)

88
Example:
ρ
Depth (ft)
Whilst drilling the 12 ¼” hole section (ppg)
of the well ABC1, the mudloggers 7500 12.85
measured the densities of the shale 7600 12.87
cuttings. At each depth, 5 samples have 7700 12.90
7800 12.92
been taken and the results averaged. 7900 12.93
The results are shown in the table. 8000 12.94
From the information provided, 8100 12.91
determine the top of any overpressured 8200 12.92
8300 12.92
zones (if any). Assume ρw = 8.3 ppg. 8400 12.93
8500 12.94
8600 12.95
8700 12.96
89
Solution
ρ2w =
Where ρw water= density 8.3 ppg (given)
ρsh =
2ρw − ρ ρ =density of mixture
Shale Density vs Depth

Shale Density (ppg)
mean density, ρ shale density, ρsh 18.20 18.40 18.60 18.80 19.00
Depth (ft) 7400
(ppg) (ppg)
7500 12.85 18.37 7600
7600 12.87 18.47
7800
7700 12.90 18.62
Depth (ft)
7800 12.92 18.72 Top Overpressured Zone
8000
7900 12.93 18.77
8000 12.94 18.82 8200
8100 12.91 18.67
8200 12.92 18.72 8400
8300 12.92 18.72

8600
8400 12.93 18.77
8500 12.94 18.82 8800
8600 12.95 18.87
8700 12.96 18.93 Top overpressured zone = 8,000 ft

90
2. Shale factor
• The shale factor is the determination of the reactive clay content using the
methylene blue dye test (MBT) which measures the cation exchange capacity
(CEC) of the system
• The test is a direct measurement of the quantity of montmorillonite content,
and thus, the water-holding capacity of cuttings (see figure below):

91
3. Volume, shape and size of shale cuttings
• An increased in penetration rate will results in

an increased volume of cuttings
• Additionally, the shape and size of the cuttings
will change
• In transition zone the cuttings shape will show
an angular and sharp edges and large cutting
size

92
Formation pressure and matrix stress
depth
matrix
= P + σ S P σ
S psi or
= + psi/ft
D D D
overburden formation matrix
overburden formation P matrix stress
stress = pressure + stress
stress gradient = gradient + gradient
(psi) (psi) (psi)
(psi/ft) (psi/ft) (psi/ft)

93
Example of pressure and matrix stress calculation
Given: Depth = 12,000 ft

Formation pressure = 9.1 ppg equivalent
Overburden stress = 1.0 psi/ft
Calculate: a. Formation pressure gradient

b. Formation pressure at 12,000 ft
c. Matrix stress gradient
d. Matrix stress at 12,000 ft

94
a. P = 0.052 ρ h
P
∴ Formation P gradient = = 0.052 ρ
h
= = 0.052 (9.1) 0.473 psi / ft
psi
b. Formation pressure at 12,000 ft = 0.473 × 12,000 ft
ft
= 5,676 psi
σ S P
c. Matrix stress gradient, = − = 1.0 − 0.473
D D D
= 0.527 psi / ft
psi
d. Matrix stress at 12,000 ft = 0.527 × 12,000 ft = 6,324 psi
ft

Formation Fracture Gradient
Definition:
Fracture gradient is a measure of how the strength of the rock
(i.e. its resistance to break down) varies with depth.
● In planning the mud program, it is useful to know the
maximum MW which can be used at any particular depth
● This maximum MW is defined by the fracture gradient
● The MW used in the well must lie between the formation
pressure gradient and the fracture gradient
● Knowledge of the fracture gradient is vital when drilling
through an overpressured zone
Pressure classification
Determination of fracture gradient
• In order to avoid lost circulation while drilling it is important to
know the variation of fracture gradient with depth.
• Fracture gradient can be determine using the following approach:
1. Tri-axial test (lab experiment)
2. Leak-off test (field testing)
3. Prediction using correlations:
a. Hubbert and Willis
b. Matthews and Kelly
c. Ben Eaton
d. Pennebaker
e. Christman, etc.

1. Tri-axial Test
● Fracture pressure can be tested in the

laboratory:
− Use Tri-axial machine
− Use core sample taken at pre-determined
depth

2. Leak-off Test
● Formation breakdown/fracture gradients
are determined by leak-off tests 
quantitative
● Procedure:
− Run and cement casing
− Drill about 5 - 10 ft below the casing
shoe
− Close the BOPs
− Pump slowly and monitor the pressure
− At the point where pressure begins to
bleed off stop pumping
Typical leak-off test results
101

Example
A leak-off test was Surface Pressure
Bbls Pumped
(psi)
carried out just below
1.0 400
the 13 3/8” casing shoe
1.5 670
at 7000 ft TVD using 2.0 880
9.0 ppg mud. The results 2.5 1100
are shown in the table. 3.0 1350
What is the maximum 3.5 1600
4.0 1800
allowable mud weight 4.5 1900
for the 12¼” hole 5.0 1920
section? 5.5 1880
6.0 1860
103
Solution
( 0.052 × MW × TVD ) + SP
Maximum allowable MW =
0.052 × TVD
Leak-off Test : Bbls Pumped vs Surface Pressure ( 0.052 × 9 × 7000 ) + 1800
=
0.052 × 7000
2500
Leak-off pressure = 1800 psi = 13.95 ppg
@ 4 bbls pumped
2000
∴ Formation strength gradient
= 0.052 × Max. allowable MW
Surface Pressure (psi)
1500 = 0.052 × 13.95

= 0.73 psi/ft
1000
Allowing safety factor 0.5 ppg,
500
Maximum allowable MW = 13.95 − 0.5
= 13.45 ppg
0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Volume of barrels pumped
∴ Formation strength gradient = 0.052 × 13.45
= 0.70 psi/ft

3. Fracture gradient determination using correlations

c. Ben Eaton
d. Pennebaker
e. Christman, etc.
Only Hubbert and Willis, Matthews and Kelly and

Ben Eaton will be discuss to calculate the fracture
gradient
● Hubbert & Willis were the first to try to predict fracture pressure as a
function of formation pressure.
● They calculate a maximum and minimum fracture gradient, based
totally on formation pressure:
1 2P  F = fracture gradient (psi/ft)

F=
min 1 +  P = formation pressure (psi)
3 D
D = depth of interest (ft)
1 P
F=
max 1 + 
P
2 D D
● Predicts higher fracture gradient in abnormal pressured formation

and lower fracture gradient in subnormal pressured formation
● Not suitable for soft rock formation like in the Gulf of Mexico and
northern part of North Sea area
● Proposed the method for use in sedimentary rocks
● They assumed an overburden gradient of 1 psi/ft
● They realize that fracture pressure is not only a function of
formation pressure, but also the matrix stress (Ki relates
the actual matrix stress to the normal matrix stress and can
be obtained from charts):
F = fracture gradient (psi/ft)
K iσ P K i = matrix stress coefficient
=F + σ = vertical matrix stress (psi)
D D P = formation pressure (psi)
P
D
c. Ben Eaton
● The most widely used in petroleum industries
● He did assumed a variable overburden gradient to
determine matrix stress, and instead of utilizing a matrix
stress coefficient, he uses a variable Poisson’s ratio
F = fracture gradient (psi/ft)
 S - P  υ  P S = overburden stress (psi)
F   + = formation pressure (psi)
 D 1−υ  D P
υ = Poisson's ratio
P
D

Poisson's ratio varies with depth and degree of compaction
Variation of Poisson's ratio with depth. Above ν = 0.5 the rocks become plastic.
Basically the three gradients must be estimated to assist in the selection
of mud weights and in the casing design
Example of how pore pressure and fracture gradients can be used to select casing seats

Example:
A Texas Gulf Coast well has a pore pressure gradient

of 0.735 psi/ft. Well depth = 11,000 ft.
a. Calculate the fracture gradient in units of lb/gal

using each of the above three methods.
b. Summarize the results in tabular form, showing
answers, in units of lb/gal and also in psi/ft.

1 2P 
Solution: F=
min 1 + 
3 D
a. Hubbert & Willis 1 P
F=
max 1 + 
P psi 2 D
The formation P gradient, = 0.735
D ft
1
Fmin = [1 + 2 (0.735)] = 0.823 psi/ft
3
0.823 psi / ft
= = 15.83 lb / gal
 psi / ft 
0.052  
 lb / gal 
1
Fmax =[1 + 0.735] = 0.8675 psi/ft
2
0.8675 psi / ft
= = 16.68 lb / gal
 psi / ft 
0.052  
 lb / gal 
K iσ P
=F +
b. Matthews & Kelly D D
In this case P & D are known (given: P/D = 0.735), σ may be
calculated & K i is determine grapkically.
=
S P + σ
σ = S − P = 1.0 (D) − 0.735 (D) = 0.265 (D)
= 0.265
= (D) 0.265 =
(11, 000) 2, 915 psi
Deter min e the depth, Di , where, under normally pressured conditions,
the rock matrix stress, σ would be 2,915 psi:
=
Sn Pn + σ n n = "normal"
(1.0 × Di )= (0.465 × Di ) + 2, 915
Di × (1.0 − 0.465) = 2, 915
2, 915
∴ D= i = 5, 449 ft
0.535
Find K i from the plot for
Di = 5,449 ft. For a south
Texas Gulf Coast well:
→ Ki = 0.685
K iσ P
=F +
D D
0.685 × 2, 915
F + 0.735
11, 000
= 0.9165 psi / ft
0.9165
= 17.63 ppg
0.052

114
5,449
Depth, Di
0.685
Fracture Gradients
Ki
1.11- 114
 S - P  υ  P
=F   +
b. Ben Eaton  D 1−υ  D
S
= ?= υ ?
D
From the graph,
at 11,000 ft
→ S/D = 0.96 psi/ft
1,000’
0.96

116
From the graph,

at 11,000 ft
→ υ = 0.46 psi/ft
 S - P  υ  P 1,000’
F   +
 D 1−υ  D
 0.46 
F=(0.96 − 0.735)   + 0.735
 1 − 0.46 
= 0.9267 psi/ft
= 17.82 ppg 0.46

117
Summary of results
Fracture gradient
psi/ft ppg
Hubbert & Willis (min.) 0.823 15.83
Hubbert & Willis (max.) 0.868 16.68
Mathews & Kelly 0.917 17.63
Ben Eaton 0.927 17.82

Summary of results
• Note that all the methods take into consideration the pore
pressure gradient. As the pore pressure increases, so does
the fracture gradient.
• In the above equations, Hubbert & Willis apparently
consider only the variation in pore pressure gradient.
Matthews & Kelly also consider the changes in rock matrix
stress coefficient, and in the matrix stress ( Ki and σi ).
Ben Eaton considers variation in pore pressure gradient,
overburden stress and Poisson’s ratio, and is probably the
most accurate of the three methods. The last two methods
are actually quite similar, and usually yield similar results.
119
Similarities
Matthews & Kelly
K iσ P
=F +
D D
 S - P  υ  P
=F   +
 D 1−υ  D
Ben Eaton

120
Before hand calculators and computers were available graphs such as this
one were used to determine fracture gradients based on pore pressure.

Summary of procedures
In planning a well using formation pressures and fracture
pressures the following procedure applies:
● analyse and plot log data or d-exponent from an offset well
● draw in the normal trend line, and extrapolate below the
transition zone
● calculate a typical overburden gradient using density logs
from offset wells
● calculate formation pressure gradients from equations (e.g.
Eaton)
● use known formation and fracture gradients and overburden
data to calculate a typical Poisson's ratio plot
● calculate fracture gradient at any depth

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1

SKPP 3413 - DRILLING ENGINEERING

Chapter 5 – Formation Pressures

Petroleum Engineering Dept.

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Define the following terms:

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Balanced, overbalanced & underbalanced pressures

(a) TVD = vertical depth independent of path

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

a. Hydrostatic pressure (Phyd)

• In terms of drilling operations, we can write:

● Typical average of hyd. P gradient:

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Example: Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of 10.5 ppg

Example: Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of 40 °API oil

• The hydrostatic P gradient is affected by the

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

b. Overburden pressure (Po)

weight ( fluid + rock matrix)

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

• Sediment porosity decrease under

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

• In sandstones and carbonates, this relationship is a function of many

Figure shows the average bulk density changes in sediments

• The total of overburden pressure is

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

ii. Rock grain pressure

 Since individual grains often do not exist within a

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

c. Formation Pressure (Pf)

• Expressed either in psi, atmosphere or kg/cm2

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

High density mud (for an

Abnormally low P Abnormally high P

• Subsurface P & stress concepts are related:

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Normal and Abnormal Formation Pressures

Normal Pressure Gradients

Formation Pressure, psig

The influence of formation pressures on the

• In order to maintain hole stability (by

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

A technique for predicting formation pressures would be

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Normal pore pressure gradients in specific geographic area.

Example: Based on the above Table, determine the normal formation

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Example: A formation is to be hydraulically fractured at the depth of

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Example: During the drilling of a well, a protective string of 10 ¾ in.

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Example: A formation has a pressure of 4,000 psi at 7,500 ft.

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

World distribution of abnormal pressure

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

• A normal, hydrostatic pressured geologic environment can

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Abnormal pressure in Europe Abnormal pressure in USSR

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Density of mud required to control this pore pressure

0.433 psi/ft 8.33 lb/gal