Transport mechanisms in concrete

and durability test methods

Dhanya B. S.
Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras

National Workshop on Achieving Durable Concrete Construction Through Performance Testing

 Common durability problems in concrete

 Corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete

• Chloride induced corrosion
• Carbonation induced corrosion
 Sulphate and other chemical attack
 Alkali-aggregate reaction
 Freezing and thawing
 Why durability problems?

Typical section through an RC member

Cover-crete
Heart-crete Durability!!
Strength

Ballim, 2008
 Why durability problems?
 Concrete
• Hydrated Cement Phase (HCP)
• Aggregate phase
• Interstitial Transition Zone (ITZ)
 Gel pores, Capillary pores, Air voids
 Permeability and porosity

 Aggressive species
• Moisture, Sulphates, Chlorides, Carbon
dioxide, Oxygen, Alkalies etc.
TRANSPORT MECHANISMS IN
CONCRETE
 Diffusion
 Flow under concentration gradient

 Gaseous diffusion
• Through unsaturated concrete
 Ionic diffusion
• Through saturated and partially saturated concrete
 Molecular diffusion
• If the pores are relatively large
Equations of diffusion

C1

C2
x
Equations of diffusion

C1
+ Δt

C2

x
 Measuring diffusion coefficient

 For steadystate: measurement of chloride

concentrations upstream and downstream

 Unsteady state: Chloride ponding or

immersion, measurement of chloride content
along the depth of concrete and application of
error function to determine diffusion coefficient
 Permeation

 Saturated liquidtransfer controlled by a

pressure gradient across the concrete
 Ionic
species dissolved in water also can
move by permeation of water
 Permeation higher when cracks and defects
are present
Equations of Permeation
 Water permeability

 True indicator of concrete permeability to water

 Measures the steady state permeability
coefficient for water flow under a constant
pressure head
 Attainment of steady state conditions takes a
long time
 Can be modified to check the depth of water
penetration by splitting the specimen
Measuring water permeability

Measurement of
Depth of
penetration
or after
splitting
Measurement of flow rate
 Measuring Gas permeability

By measuring the pressure rise in a vacuum

cell, placed on the concrete surface
 Measuring Gas permeability

By applying a pressure gradient across the test

specimen and monitoring the pressure decay over
 Measuring Gas permeability

By measuring the gas flow though the concrete

sample under a constant pressure gradient
 Sorption/ Capillary water absorption

 Uptake of liquid into unsaturated or partially

saturated solids
 Influenced by large capillaries and degree of
continuity, compaction, aggregate orientation and
distribution, mix composition etc.
 Create conditions of capillary rise in concrete
 Measure the mass of water absorbed by the
concrete over time
 Test is done for 24 hours, although most of the
readings are taken within the first hour, as it is
critical to get many data points in that period
Equation of Sorption
 Measuring Sorption

 Measure the mass of water absorbed by the

concrete over time

Epoxy coated
surface

Curve through actual data points

Ma Regression line through initial data points
Slope = capillarity index, or sorptivity

√t
 Absorption

 Refers to the bulk uptake of water

 unsaturated or partially saturated concrete
subjected to complete or partial immersion
 Easy to measure
 Difficult to penetrate all pores of concrete
 cannot get a true measure of porosity
 Water absorption measurement

 Simplest measurement
• Measure oven dry mass, and saturated mass
• Saturation generally done for at least 18 hours
 Boiling
water absorption test
 Vacuum saturation method
 Migration/ Conduction

 Movement of ionic species driven by difference in

electrical potential

 Nernst Planck Equation

 Measurement of Migration
 Electrical field is introduced into the test
container by two electrodes which are
connected to a potentiostat
 Generally Cathode is the up-stream cell while
the anode is the down-stream cell.
 Wick action

 Transport of liquid from a face in contact with liquid

to drying face, where the liquid evaporates and
dissolved ions precipitate as salts in the pores or on
the surface of the medium
 Wetting and drying cycles
DURABILITY TEST METHODS
 Test methods to assess chloride penetration

Rapid Chloride Permeability Test Accelerated Chloride Migration Test

(ASTM C 1202) (NORD 492)

Chloride Conductivity Test Bulk diffusion Test

(SA DI Manual) (ASTM C 1556)
 Test methods to assess gas penetrability

Oxygen Permeability Test Torrent Air Permeability Test

Accelerated Carbonation Test
(SA DI Manual) (SIA 262/1)
 Test methods to assess water penetrability

Water sorptivity Test Water Permeability Water Permeability

(SA DI Manual) (Germann) (DIN 1048 part 5)
Test method to assess concrete resistivity

Wenner four probe resistivity Test

 Durability test methods and Parameters
Category Test method Parameter

Test methods to Rapid Chloride Permeability Total charge passed

assess chloride Accelerated Chloride Migration Non-steady state diffusion coefficient
penetration
Chloride Conductivity Chloride Conductivity
Bulk diffusion Chloride concentration profile
Test methods to Oxygen Permeability Oxygen Permeability Index
assess gas Torrent Air Permeability Coefficient of Permeability
penetrability Accelerated Carbonation Carbonation depth
Test methods to Sorptivity Sorptivity index
assess water Germann water Permeability Surface Permeability
penetrability German water Permeability Water penetration depth
Test method to Wenner 4 Probe Resistivity Surface Resistivity
assess concrete
resistivity
 Transport mechanisms in concrete and test methods

Mechanism Definition Test method

Sorption Capillary action Sorptivity
Permeation Flow under pressure Oxygen permeability, Torrent air
permeability (Gas permeability)
Germann water Permeability, DIN 1048
water penetration (Water permeability)
Diffusion Flow under concentration Bulk diffusion, RCPT, Accelerated Chloride
gradient Migration, Accelerated carbonation
Migration/ Movement due to applied RCPT, Accelerated Chloride Migration,
Conduction electric field Chloride conductivity, Wenner resistivity
Wick action Transport of ions or water from Sorptivity
a face in contact with water to
drying face
Absorption bulk intake of water Sorptivity
Adsorption process of attachment of Sorptivity
molecules on the surface
Convection Flow due to temperature RCPT
difference
Thank You…..
 Wenner 4 Probe Resistivity Test

Method Merits Demerits

•Consists of four • Quick method •Depends on pore

probes • Resistivity is used to solution
•Through two outer calculate the conductivity and
probes current is corrosion rates in moisture condition
applied while the concretes of the specimen
inner two probes •Avoids heating •Inclusion of
measure the • Very low voltage conductive
potential (10V or lower) is materials affect the
applied for a short results
time

Resistivity,
Concrete quality
Classification kΩ cm
Criteria > 100 Good
(Andrade et al., 50 - 100 Normal
2004) 10 – 50 Poor
< 10 Very poor
 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (ASTM C 1202)
Method Merits Demerits

•Specimen •Widely used test •Current passed is

subjected to a 60V method related to all ions
potential, for 6 •Gives qualitative in the pore
hours classification of solution
• -ve side filled concrete •Increase in
with 3% NaCl temperature
solution and +ve •Presence of
side with 0.3M conductive 60V
NaOH solution materials affects DC

•Current is the test results #20 brass #20 brass

measured in each •Many transport mesh
screen
mesh
screen

half hour, from mechanisms act 3% NaCl 0.3 N NaOH

which the total together Vacuum saturated specimens

charge passed is (100mm dia. , 50 mm thickness)

calculated

Classification
Criteria
(ASTM C 1202)
 Accelerated Chloride Migration Test (NT Build 492)
Method Merits Demerits

•30 V potential is applied •Capable of •Presence of

initially and after addressing conductive
measuring the initial some of the materials affects
current, voltage is criticisms of the test results
adjusted. RCPT related to •Many transport
•After specified duration the mechanisms
the specimen is split and examination of acts together
silver nitrate solution is actual chloride
sprayed ion movement
•Depth of chloride and
penetration is used to temperature
calculate the non-steady rise.
state diffusion coefficient

Classification Nordtest Method BUILD 492, Concrete

Migration coefficient (m2/s) quality
Criteria
< 2 × 10-12 Very good
(RILEM TC PSC – 2 – 8 × 10-12 Good
230 Draft) 8 – 16 × 10-12 Normal
> 16 × 10-12 Poor
 Chloride Conductivity Test (DI Manual, SA)

Method Merits Demerits

•Consists of a two cell •Specimens •Destructive
conduction rig in which preconditioned •Can not be
concrete core specimens before testing to applied on site
are exposed on either side standardize the
to a 5M NaCl solution pore water
•Chloride conductivity is solution
determined by measuring •Nullify the effect
the current flowing of other ions in
through the specimen due the pore solution
to the application of 10V
potential difference

Chloride conductivity
Concrete quality
Classification (mS/cm)
Criteria: < 0.75 Very good
Alexander et al., 1999 0.75 – 1.50 Good
1.50 – 2.50 Poor
> 2.50 Very poor
 Bulk diffusion test (ASTM C 1556)
Method Merits Demerits
•Natural diffusion under a •Identical to •Slow process
very high concentration natural diffusion •Powder can be
gradient process lost during
•Specimens saturated •Other transport profiling
with saturated lime water mechanisms are •Effect of
is immersed in 3% NaCl avoided aggregates is
solution for 35 days unavoidable
•Uni-directional diffusion
•Chloride profiling with
profile grinder
•Chloride ion
concentration determined
Apparent diffusion Resistance to chloride
coefficient (x 10-12 m2/s) penetration
> 15 Low
Classification
10 – 15 Moderate
criteria – Nilsson
5 – 10 High
et al.1998
2.5 – 5 Very High
< 2.5 Extremely High
 Oxygen Permeability Test (DI Manual, SA)

Method Merits Demerits

•Measures the pressure •Good correlation •Sensitive to
decay of oxygen passed with accelerated macro- voids
through an oven dried, 30 carbonation test and cracks
mm thick slice of a 70mm •Sensitive to
diameter core placed in a the edges of
falling head permeameter the specimen
•The oxygen permeability
index is defined as the
negative log of the
coefficient of permeability

Classification Oxygen permeability

Criteria: index Concrete quality
Alexander et OPI
al., 1999 > 10 Very good
9.5 - 10 Good
9.0 – 9.5 Poor
<9 Very poor
 Torrent Air Permeability Test
Swiss Standard SIA 262/1-E:2003
Method Merits Demerits
•Method is based on •Simple •Sensitive to
creating a vacuum on the •Non destructive the moisture
surface of the concrete •Both lab and condition of
and monitoring the rate at
site application the specimen
which the pressure is
•Test is more
raising in the test
chamber after the vacuum sensitive to
pump has been the surface
disconnected condition of
the specimen

Torrent kT
Concrete quality
×10-16m2
Classification
< 0.01 Very good
criteria:
0.01 - 0.1 Good
Torrent and
0.1 - 1.0 Normal
Jacobs, 2009
1.0 - 10 Poor
> 10 Very poor
 Accelerated Carbonation Test

Method Merits Demerits

•Measuring the depth of •Mechanism is •High degree of
carbonation at different diffusion, carbonation
sections of the prismatic which is may lead to
samples at different time
similar to the microstructural
intervals (70,98, 112 and
natural alterations at
154 days)
•Phenolphthalein used as phenomena high CO2
indicator – colourless concentrations
implies carbonated
 Sorptivity Test (DI Manual, SA)

Method Merits Demerits

•Measures the rate of •Simulates natural •Sensitive to
movement of a water phenomena macro-voids and
front through the •Applicable to cracks
concrete under drilled cores •Sensitive to the
capillary suction micro-structural
properties of the
near-surface zone
of concrete
•Destructive

Water sorptivity
Concrete quality
test, mm/√h
Classification
<6 Very good
Criteria:
6 - 10 Good
Alexander et al., 1999 10 - 15 Poor
> 15 Very poor
 Germann Water Permeability Test (GWT)

Method Merits Demerits

•A sealed pressure chamber
is attached to the concrete
surface.
•Water is filled into the
pressure chamber and a
specified water pressure is
applied to the surface
•Pressure is kept constant
using a micro-meter gauge
with an attached pin that
reaches into the chamber
•Non-destructive •Pressure is not
•Both field and lab sufficient for
test impermeable
concretes
•Water flow may
not be parallel to
the gasket if
pores are present

Classification Coefficient of water

permeability, Concrete
Criteria quality
(RILEM TC PSC – m2
< 10-12 Good
230 Draft)
10-12 - 10-10 Normal
> 10-10 Poor
 Water Permeability Test (DIN 1048 part 5)

Method Merits Demerits

•Measure of the resistance •Depth of •Destructive
of concrete against the water •Air
penetration of water penetration compressor
exerting pressure. is measured is needed to
•The test be done when the keep the
age of concrete is between pressure
28 and 35 days constant
•A water pressure of 0.5
N/mm2 is applied for a
period of 3 days
•After the pressure is
released, the specimen is
split into two and the depth
of water penetration is
noted.