10AE71 – Control Engineering – Lecture Notes (Unit 1)

(For private circulation only)

(Dr RMO Gemson, Visiting Prof)
Desired outcome – on completion of this unit, the student should become familiar with:
 concepts of a system; Automatic control system; Feedback control system or closed
loop control system
 terminologies associated with closed loop control system
 categories of control system
 merits & demerits of each type
 typical applications
 the analysis of a physical system to determine whether it is open loop or closed loop
and identify various elements in it
1.1 Introduction to Control Systems:
Engineering can be defined as the art of putting together elements, natural or manufactured, so as to get the
optimum conversion of resources for the benefit of mankind. Control engineering can be viewed as study of
behavior of such built-up systems subjected to control actions.
A system can be natural, man-made or combination of the two.
In modern times, control systems play a very important role in our daily life. The concepts of automatic control
are fundamental and well mixed in every aspect our life touches. From a simple bread toaster to a complex
modern power plant, there is a series of control principles that affect our life.
Elementary acts such walking or moving a chalk to a particular point on the blackboard illustrate control
principles and advanced examples of launching a satellite, regulating the power generation in a power plant,
tracking an enemy plane on radar etc. show exhaustive application of control principles.
Practically an engineer has to deal with systems in any industry he / she lands in, and so it is necessary to be
familiar with the analysis and design aspects of modern control systems. One must be aware that the principles
of control theory are applicable to engineering as well as non- engineering fields. Also, control engineering can
be associated with general engineering, biological, sociological, organizational, defense, etc.
1.2 Some important Definitions:

Input System Output

Fig 1 a) Typical block diagram representation of a system

Fig 1 b) Block diagram of a feedback control system

(1) Control: It means to regulate, direct or command a system so that the desired objective is attained.
(2) Input: The stimulus or excitation applied to a control system from an external source in order to produce
the output is called input.
(3) Output: The actual response obtained from a system is called output.
(4) Plant: It is the body or process or machine whose particular quantity or condition is controlled.

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(5) System: A system is an arrangement of or a combination of different physical components connected or
related in such a manner as to form an entire unit to accomplish an objective for some input(s).
It can be seen that a system has an input, an output and a process to achieve this input-output combination.
Combining the above definitions, we can define control system as:
(6) Control System: It is an arrangement of different physical elements connected in such a manner so as to
regulate, direct or command it-self to achieve a certain objective (or command some other system to achieve a
certain objective).
Thus a control system must have the following:
(i) An input or inputs; (ii) An output or outputs; (iii) An arrangement to process and achieve the input-output
objective.
2.1 Classification of control systems:
Control action is the actuating signal that is responsible for stimulating the plant / process to produce the output
(Fig 1 b)).
Depending on whether such a control action is dependent on the output or not, control systems are categorized
as:
(a) Open loop systems (b) Closed loop systems.
3.1 Open Loop System:
Definition: A system in which the control action is totally independent of the output of the system is called as
open loop system. Open systems are calibrated systems and the control action is equal to the input.

Reference Controller Plant / Controlled

Input r(t) Process Output c(t)
Control
action Fig 2 Typical Block Diagram
3.2 Examples of Open Loop System:
Automatic hand drier; automatic washing machine; bread toaster; automatic (Nescafe) coffee server; automatic
milk server; electric lift; traffic signals; theater lamp dimmer; cold drink - milk bottling system; automatic
Xerox machine are few examples of open loop systems
3.3 Advantages of open loop systems:
1. Contains less number of components
2. They are simple in construction and design.
3. They are economical.
4. Easy for maintenance.
5. Not much problems of stability.
6. Convenient to use when output is difficult to measure.
3.4 Disadvantages of open loop systems:
1. Output could be inaccurate and unreliable because accuracy is dependent on accuracy of calibration.
2. Inaccurate results are obtained with system parameter variations, internal & external disturbances.
3. To maintain better accuracy, recalibration of the controller is necessary from time to time.
4.1 Closed Loop System:
Definition: A system in which the control action is somehow dependent on the output is called as closed loop
system.

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 Control
action

Fig 3 Generalized block diagram of closed loop (Feedback) control system

There is a comparison of the output and reference input state. This property is known as feedback and this is the
main difference when compared to the open loop systems.
Definition: Feedback is that property of the system which permits the output to be compared with the reference
input so that appropriate control action is formed.
In fig 3: r (t) ~ reference input; e (t) ~ error signal; b (t) ~ feedback signal; m (t) ~ actuating signal /
manipulated signal; c (t) ~ controlled output
The comparison between reference input r (t) and feedback b (t) gives the error e (t). When feedback signal is
positive, system is called Positive feedback System and
e (t) = r (t) + b (t). When feedback signal is negative, system is called as Negative feedback System and e (t) = r
(t) - b (t), which would generally be the case.
This error is applied to the controller which gives the activating signal m (t) for the process. (In many cases the
controller may contain more than one block in series so as to achieve necessary power amplification and
compensation to drive the process).
The action of the controller will be to drive the controlled output in such a manner that the error is reduced to
zero i.e. the feedback signal is equal to reference input r (t).
4.2 Important terms in closed loop system are given below: (Refer Fig 3)
(i) Command Input: The command is the input signal, which corresponds to the desired output, given to the
reference transducer
(ii) Reference Transducer: The transducer which generates a reference input when a command signal is given
to it.
(iii) Reference Input r(t): It is an external signal applied to a feedback control system in order to obtain a
specific action from the system. .
(iv) Primary Feedback Signal b(t): It is the signal proportional to controlled output c(t) and is algebraically
summed with reference input r(t) to get the error signal e(t ).
(v) Error Signal: It is the signal obtained by algebraic sum of reference input signal and primary feedback
signal, i, e. r(t) ± b(t).
(vi) Controller: It the unit which produces the manipulated output based on the control scheme and error
signal.
(vii) Manipulated Variable: The output of the controller is the manipulated variable that controls the output of
plant
(viii) Plant: It is the body or process or machine whose particular quantity or condition is controlled
(ix) Disturbance: It is an undesired input e.g. noise.
(x) Controlled Output: It is the output of the plant / process to be controlled.

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(xi) Feedback Element: It is the transducer that produces feedback signal b(t) proportional to controlled output
c(t)
(xii) Forward Path: It is the transmission path from the actuating signal to the controlled output
(xiii) Feedback Path: It is the transmission path from the controlled output to the primary feedback signal b(t)
4.3 Examples of Closed Loop System:
Automatic electric iron; DC motor speed controlled by tachometer feedback; railway reservation status display;
missile launched and auto-tracked by radar; Servo voltage stabilizer; human perspiration system; sun-seeker
solar systems; water level controller; automobile driver executing a curved turn; paper winding machine;
automatic door opening and closing system; etc.
Example 1: Automatic Electric Irons:
An Automatic Electric Iron regulates the temperature of iron such that for a given cloth selection the
temperature remains in a specified range. When the temperature falls below the lower limit, heating is started
and when it exceeds the upper limit heating is stopped. Thus it is closed loop with respect to temperature as the
control action (which initiates heating or not heating the coil) depends on the output temperature. This is the
principle of closed loop temperature control. Refer Fig. 4

Fig 4 Automatic Electric Iron

In simple electric iron systems bimetallic strips are used but in sophisticated systems, the feedback transducer
could be a thermocouple or remote temperature detecting device or some similar device.

Example 2: Voltage Stabilizers / Regulator:

Single phase AC supply is usually expected to be 230 V. But variations from 200 to 250 V are common,
voltages being low in day and high in night. There are many devices that cannot tolerate such high input
variations. Voltage stabilizers accept variable input voltages and give fixed voltage as outputs. A brief
discussion will enable to appreciate the control principles involved.
Principle of operation:
The circuit of a voltage stabilizer basically consists of a voltage sensor. It is configured to detect the rise or fall
of the AC voltage at the load. As soon it senses a risky input voltage to the load, it immediately energizes
the relays connected to it. These relays in turn swaps and switches the appropriate winding terminals of the auto
transformer to correct and stabilize the output voltage. Thus the appliance which is connected to this output of
the voltage stabilizer circuit always receives a safe, tolerable voltage and is able to function reliably,
irrespective of the fluctuating input voltages.
The example described with numerical values: Consider a transformer having 100 turns on the primary winding
and 150 turns on secondary side. Let the secondary winding be provided with multiple tapping points. It is
𝑉
known that, 𝑁𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑁𝑖 ; where N0 is the number of turns in the secondary winding (variable), V0 is the
𝑖
required voltage (fixed), Ni is the number of turns in the primary winding (fixed) and Vi is the input voltage
(variable).
Consider a transformer with 100 turn primary (Ni). The voltage per turn is 250 / 100 = 2.5 V. Assume that the
input voltage exceeds normal voltage of 230 V, say to 250 (Vi). To get 230 V (Vo) at the output, the number of
turns at the secondary side should be (230 / 250)*100 = 92, and hence the switch should be connected to a point
below A (i.e. towards C side). Hence when input is above normal, number of turns of secondary is to be
reduced.

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Similarly when voltage is say 180 V, secondary should be such that it is a step-up transformer i.e. tapping
towards B side. (Fig. 5)

Fig 5 principle of operation of voltage stabilizer Fig 6 Voltage Stabilizer

As fixed taps are used voltage will be around 230 V and not exact. Most of the voltage stabilizers one finds for
refrigerators are of this type. A block diagram representation of this type of voltage stabilize is shown in Fig 6.
Servo voltage stabilizer: Instead of using a fixed tap, the entire secondary can be tapped at any point as shown
in Fig. 7
In this arrangement a servo motor drives the shaft on which the tapping is mounted. Hence voltage is better
regulated at 230 V than the fixed tap secondary. Such schemes are available in market as Servo voltage
stabilizers. They are usually used as fixed input voltage power supply for computers, Xerox machines,
sophisticated CNC machines, etc.

Fig 7 Servo Voltage Stabilizer

Servo voltage stabilisers in which position of secondary tap is controlled using servomotor is an example of
servomechanisms. .
Solid state devices based voltage stabilizers are also available.
A voltage stabilizer is a device designed to reduce the variations in voltage of the supply to some other
apparatus with fixed load whereas a regulator is one maintains reference input or command at a set point, which
is a constant value, for a long time, often the entire period of operation.
Example 3: Perspiration: When the body temperature goes up, we perspire. Body heat is used to evaporate the
sweat and our temperature falls as a result. Hence our body maintains constant skin temperature and is closed
loop system. A simplified block diagram representation of the perspiration system is given in Fig. 8.

Fig 8 Perspiration system (Biological system)

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Example 4: Identify the organ system components, and the input and output and describe the operation of the
biological control system of a human-being reaching for an object.
The basic components, of this intentionally oversimplified control system description, are the brain, arm and
hand, and eyes (Fig 9).
The input is object position. Hand position is the output for the system.
The objective of the control system is to reduce the distance between hand position and object position to zero.
The eyes, employed as a sensing device, are "feeding back” continuously the position of the hand to the brain.
The brain sends the required signal to the nervous system of the arm and hand to reach for the object. This
signal is amplified in the muscles of the arm and hand, which serve as power actuators for the system.
The dashed lines and arrows, shown in Fig 9, represent the direction of information flow. From the description
it can be understood that this is closed loop system. This can be converted to open loop by closing the eyes, the
sensing device.

Fig 9 Human- being reaching for an object

Example 5:
Device a closed-loop automatic toaster
Assume each heating element supplies the same amount of heat to both sides of the bread, and toast quality can
be determined by its colour. A simplified schematic diagram of one possible way to apply the feedback
principle to a toaster is shown in Fig. 10. Only one side of the toaster is illustrated

Fig 10. Possible arrangement for closed loop bread toaster

The toaster is initially calibrated for a desired toast quality by means of the colour adjustment knob. This setting
never needs readjustment unless the toast quality criterion changes. When the switch is closed the bread is
toasted until the colour detector “sees” the desired colour. Then the switch is automatically opened by means
the feedback linkage, which may be electrical or mechanical.
5.1 Typical steps to ascertain whether a system is closed loop or open loop.
Aim: What is the objective of the system under study?

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Input: What is given to the system?
Output: What the system is supposed to give as final product?
Mechanism (Method) of achieving: How it achieves objective?
Check for closed loop or open loop: Does system see present state of output and accordingly change the
parameters associated with the method? If yes – closed loop, if no – open loop

5.2 Some practical examples are discussed below:

(A) Discussion on Electric Hand Drier:
An electric hand drier sends a gush of hot air, with fixed rate of flow and at a fixed temperature, when wet
hands are taken near it. The input is the wet hands and output is dried hand. A photocell, gives actuating signal
whenever light flow is interrupted and stimulates the control action. The process supplies a whirl of hot air for
fixed duration.

Aim: What is the objective of the system To dry wet hands

under study?

Input: What is given to the system? Wet hands

Output: What the system is supposed to Dry hands

give as final product?

Mechanism: How it achieves objective? By blowing hot air over the wet hands
(at a fixed temperature, fixed flow rate
and for fixed duration)

Check for closed loop or open loop:
Does system see present state of output
and accordingly change the mechanism
parameters? If yes – closed loop, if no –
open loop
Does the system see the present state i.e.
the wetness of the hand and changes the
duration of blowing of the hot air any
other parameter? – No
Hence – Open loop

(B) Discussions on Automatic Washing Machine:

The output is the clean cloths when loaded with them. The soap, water etc. can be taken as inputs too. The
control action is determined by the timer which determines wash and wrings cycles. The output is less than
100% clean at start, and ideally at the end of the time is 100% clean. The control action has nothing to do with
the actual status of 'clean' cloth. (If a 100% clean cloth is dropped, still the machine washes it). Hence open
loop.
Aim: What is the objective of the system To clean clothes
under study?
Input: What is given to the system? Dirty clothes
Output: What the system is supposed to Clean the clothes
give as final product?
Mechanism: How it achieves objective? Washes clothes with detergent for fixed
time.
Check for closed loop or open loop: Does Does the system see the degree of
system see present state of output and cleanliness of the clothes and accordingly
accordingly change the mechanism change the mechanism? – No
parameters? If yes – closed loop, if no – Hence open loop
open loop
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6.1 Effects of Feedback:
Refer Fig. 11 When feedback is given the error between system input and output is reduced. However
improvement of error is not the only advantage.

Fig. 11: Effects of Feedback

The effects of feedback are:

(1) Gain is altered by a factor 1 / 1 + G H
(2) Reduction of the effect of parameter variation by a factor 1 + G H
(3) Improvement in sensitivity.
(4) Stability may be affected
Points (1) and (4) are disadvantages that can be overcome by gain amplification and good design respectively.
7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Closed Loop System:
Advantages:
(i) Accuracy is very high as any error arising is corrected.
(ii) It senses changes in output due to environmental or parametric changes, internal disturbances etc. and
corrects the same.
(iii) Reduced effect of nonlinearity
(iv) High Bandwidth.
(v) Facilitates Automation.
Disadvantages:
(i) Complicated in design
(ii) More number of components and hence expensive
(iii) Maintenance is expensive.
(iv) System may become unstable.
A table of comparison of open and closed loop systems is presented below:

Sl No Open Loop System Closed Loop System

1 No feedback Hence feedback elements Feedback exists. Hence feedback

absent. elements exist.

2 No error detector Error detector is present

3 Total number of components are less Total number of components are more

4 It is inaccurate (depends on calibration) It is accurate (Continuous error

correction occurs)

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 Highly sensitive to changes in plant Less sensitive to changes in plant
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parameters, operating environment and parameters, operating environment and
to disturbances. to disturbances.

6 Small bandwidth. Large bandwidth

7 Stable May become unstable.

8 Simple to construct and cheap. Hence Complicated to design and build hence
ownership cost and maintenance costs ownership cost and maintenance costs
are low are high

9 Typical Examples: Coffee maker, Typical Examples: Guided missile,

automatic toaster, hand drier, etc. Temperature control of oven,
Perspiration, Servo voltage stabilizers,
etc.
9.1 Requirements of an Ideal Control System
Control systems are always designed for a specific purpose. To achieve the required objective, a good control
system must satisfy the following requirements.
1) Accuracy: A good control system must be highly accurate. It should operate with as little error as
possible. The open loop systems are generally less accurate and hence feedback is deliberately introduced to
reduce the error in the system. Such closed loop system requires a design so that steady state error tends to zero.
2) Sensitivity: Sensitivity requirements often play an important role in the design of control systems. All
physical elements have properties that change with environment and age and the parameters of control systems
cannot be considered to be constant over the entire operating life of the system e.g. the winding resistance of
motor changes with respect to time. A good control system should be very insensitive to such parameter
variations but sensitive to the input commands. It requires that, its performance should not be affected by
small changes in the certain parameters of the system.
3) External disturbance or noise: All the physical systems are subjected to external disturbances and noise
signals; during operation. Brush and commutator noise in motors, thermal noise voltage in electronic circuits
are good examples of noise while effect of wind on performance of antenna is a good example of external
disturbance. A requirement of a good control system is that the system is insensitive to noise and external
disturbances but sensitive to the input commands. It should be able to reduce the effects of undesirable
disturbances.
4) Stability: A concept of stability means output of system must follow reference input and must produce
bounded output for bounded input. However due to wrong selection of parameters it is possible that output
tends to increase without bounds. This is called as unstable condition. A good control system is one which is
inherently stable in nature.
5) Bandwidth: This requirement is related to the frequency response of the system. For the input frequency
range, it should give satisfactory output. The frequency range for which output is satisfactory is its bandwidth.
The satisfactory output means maximum possible output without overshoots and it should not change with
input frequency in given range. A good control system should be having fairly large bandwidth.
6) Speed: A system should have good speed of response. This means output of the system should approach to
its desired value as quickly as possible. This is measured in terms of its rise time and settling time. System
should settle down to its final value as quickly as possible.
7) Oscillations: The good control system should exhibit suitable damping i.e. the controlled output should
follow the changes in the reference input without unduly large oscillations or overshoots.
In general a good control system should be (i) accurate, (ii) reliable, (iii) stable, (iv) fast acting, (v)
insensitive to parameter variations, (vi) insensitive to disturbance inputs, but (vii) sensitive to changes
input.

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10.1 Classification of control systems: Some of the types of control systems are
(i) Time invariant – Time varying systems; (ii) Linear – Nonlinear systems; (iii) Continuous time – Discrete time; (Analog
– Discrete – Digital systems); (iv) Deterministic – Stochastic systems; (v) Lumped parameter – distributed
parameter systems; (vi) Single input – single output (SISO) and Multi input – multi output (MIMO) systems; (vii)
Optimal control systems;
(viii) Adaptive system; (ix) stabilizer; (x) regulator; (xi) servo mechanism; (xii) causal (cause – effect) system;
(xiii) non – causal (anticipatory) system; etc.
10.1.1 Time Invariant (TI) – Time varying system:
Mathematical models of most physical systems are described by differential equations. A mathematical model
is time invariant if the differential equations describing it has coefficients which are constants. If the various
coefficients describing differential equations are constants the model is time invariant. In the time invariant
system only independent variable is the time.
On the other hand if the coefficients are functions of time then the system described by the model is linear time
varying. A typical example is a rocket in flight where in the fuel is consumed thus affecting the mass and inertia
properties.
10.1.2 Linear and Nonlinear system:
The mathematical model of a physical system is linear if it obeys the principle of superposition and
homogeneity. Output – input will be exhibiting a straight line relationship over the range of interest, (eg. Y = m
X, with usual notations). Laplace transform and Z transform tools can be applied to analyse these systems.
A nonlinear is one does not obey the principle of superposition, i.e. its response will be highly sensitive to the
input amplitude. The stability of a nonlinear system is very much dependent on the input and the initial state. A
nonlinear system may exhibit limit cycle oscillations which are self-sustained oscillations which are not seen in
linear systems.
10.1.3 Continuous time data – Discrete time data Control System:
A continuous data system is one in which the signal at various parts of the system are all functions of the
continuous time variable t. Sampled-data and digital-data control systems differ from the continuous data
systems in that the signal in one or more sections of the system is in the form of either a pulse train or a
numerical code. Usually, sampled-data systems refer to a more general class of systems whose signals are in the
form of pulsed data, whereas the term digital control systems implies the use of a digital computer or digital
sensing element in a system. In this text, the term discrete-data control systems is used to describe both types of
systems.
In general, a discrete-data system receives data or information only intermittently at some specific instants of
time. For instance, the error signal in a control system may be supplied only intermittently in the form of pulses,
in which case the control system receives no information about the error signal during the periods between two
consecutive pulses. Figure l2 illustrates how a sampled-data control system operates.

Fig 12 Block diagram of a sampled – data control system

A continuous input signal r(t) is applied to the system. The continuous error signal e(t) is sampled by a
sampling device, the sampler, and the output of the sampling device is a sequence of pulses. Usually the
sampler has a uniform sampling rate. However, in general, the sampling schemes may take any form. Some of
the sampling schemes may be periodic, cyclic, multi-rate, skip-rate, random, and pulse-width modulated. The
most common variations are single-rate and multi-rate samplings.
The output of a sampler contains a train of pulses; the amplitude of each pulse follows the amplitude of the
input time function during the pulse width. However, the exact analysis of sampled-data systems with finite
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pulse widths is quite complex. Usually, the sampler is replaced by an ‘ideal sampler’ whose output contains a
train of impulses. If the pulse width of the sampler output is very small compared to the dominant time constant
of the continuous part of the system and to the sampling period, the pulse train of finite pulse width can be
approximated by an impulse train. Fig 13 illustrates the sampled output from a sampling device.

Fig 13 Input signal e(t) and sampled signal e*(t)

A digital control system is shown in block diagram form in Fig. 14. The appearance of digital signals (such as
binary numbers) in part of the system requires the use of digital-to-analogue as well as analogue-to-digital
converters.

Fig 14 A typical digital control system

1.1.4 Deterministic and Stochastic Control Systems:

A control system is said to be deterministic when its response to input as well as behaviour to external
disturbances is predictable and repeatable. Otherwise it is called Stochastic Control System.
1.1.5 Lumped Parameter and Distributed Parameter Control System:
Control systems whose parameters are distributed come under distributed parameter system. A common
example is that of a transmission line, where the resistance, inductance and capacitance vary with length as one
moves along the line. These parameters may be assumed as lumped at certain points and solved or one can
obtain exact solutions by following rigorous methods. Lumped control systems are described by ordinary
differential equations and distributed control systems by partial differential equations.

Servomechanism is a power amplifying feedback control System in which the controlled variable is
mechanical position or it's time derivatives, such as velocity, acceleration.

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 Fig 15 Position control system
Few other examples of servomechanisms are:
1) Power steering apparatus for an automobile.
2) Machine tool position control.
3) Missile launchers.
4) Roll stabilization of ships.
Regulating System (Regulator)
It is a feedback control system in which for a pre-set value of the reference input the output is kept constant at
its desired value.
In such systems reference input remains constant for long periods. Most of the time the reference input or the
desired output is either constant or slowly varying with time. In a regulator, the desired value of the controlled
outputs is more or less fixed. Similarly the reference input is also fixed and called set point. Thus the regulator
maintains a constant output for a fixed reference input. The problems due to disturbances are mainly rectified
by the regulator. A simple example of such regulator system is servo stabilizer. We have seen earlier that in
voltage stabilizer position of tap on secondary is adjusted by using relay controls.

Fig 16 Voltage Regulator Fig 17 Block diagram of Voltage Regulator

But instead of fixed tap, the entire secondary can be smoothly tapped using servomotor drive. The servomotor
drives the shaft and controls the position of tap on the secondary as per the controller signal. Due to the
fluctuations in the main input if the load the changes, such effects are rectified by the regulator to keep load
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voltage constant. The actual scheme is shown in the Fig. 16, while its block diagram representation is shown in
the Fig. 17.
Few other examples of regulating system are:
Temperature regulators.
Frequency controllers.
Speed governors.
11.1 Additional physical control system and block diagrams (Fig 18)

(a) Automobile steering control system: (b) Automatic tank level control system
(Combined natural and man-made system)
(Ref: Control Systems Engineering by I J Nagarth & M Gopal; page 4)

(c) Missile launching and guidance system (d) Constant tension reeling system
Fig 18
(Ref: Control Systems Engineering by I J Nagarth & M Gopal; page 12)
11.1 Controller Principles
The concept of a control system is to sense deviation of the output from the desired value and correct it, till the
desired output is achieved. The deviation of the actual output from its desired value is called an error. The
measurement of error is possible because of feedback. The feedback allows us to compare the actual output
with its desired value to generate the error. The error is denoted as e(t). The desired value of the output is also
called reference input or a set point. The error obtained is required to be analyzed to take the proper corrective
action.

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The controller is an element which accepts the error in some form and decides the proper corrective
action. The output of the controller is then applied to the process or final control element. This brings the
output back to its desired set point value. The controller is the heart of a control system. The accuracy of the
entire system depends on how sensitive is the controller to the error detected and how it is manipulating such an
error. The controller has its own logic to handle the error. Nowadays for better accuracy, the digital controllers
such as microprocessors, microcontrollers, and computers are used. Such controllers execute certain algorithm
to calculate the manipulating signal.
11.2 Properties of Controller
Consider a basic control system shown in the figure 19 below.
The actual output is sensed by a sensor and converted to a proper feedback signal b(t) using a feedback element.
The set point value is the reference input r(t). For example the actual output variable may be temperature but
using the thermocouple as the feedback element, the feedback signal b(t) is an electrical voltage. This is then
compared with the reference input which is also an electrical voltage. The thermocouple senses the output
temperature and produces the corresponding electrical voltage as the feedback signal. Hence the actual output
variable sensed and the feedback signal may be having different forms.

Fig 19 Basic Control System

 Error
The error detector compares the feedback signal b(t) with the reference input r(t) to generate an error.
e(t) = r(t) - b(t)
This gives an absolute indication of an error. To obtain correct information from the error, it is expressed in
percentage form related to the controller operation. It is expressed as the percentage of the measured variable
range. The range of the measured variable b(t) is also called span.
Thus span = bmax – bmin
r b
Hence error can be expressed as percent of span as, ep   100 where ep = error as % of span
bmax  bmin

 Variable Range
In practical systems, the controlled variable has a range of values within which the control is required to be
maintained. This range is specified as the maximum and minimum values allowed for the controlled variable. It
can be specified as some nominal values and plus-minus tolerance allowed about this value. Such range is
important for the design of controllers.
 Controller Output Range
Similar to the controlled variable, a range is associated with a controller output variable. It is also specified in
terms of the maximum and minimum values.
But often the controller output is expressed as a percentage where minimum controller output is
0 % and maximum controller output is 100 %. But 0 % controller output does not mean zero output. The
controller output as a percent of full scale when the output changes within the specified range is expressed as,

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 u - u min
p  100
u max  u min
where p = controller output as a percent of full scale; u = value of the output; umax = maximum value of
manipulated variable and umin = minimum value of manipulated variable
 Control Lag
The control system can have a lag associated with it. The control lag is the time required by the process and
controller loop to make the necessary changes to obtain the output at its set point. The control lag must be
compared with the process lag while designing the controllers. For example in a process a valve is required to
be opened or closed for controlling the output variable. Physically the action of opening or closing of the valve
is very slow and is the part of the process lag. In such a case there is no point in designing a fast controller than
the process lag.
 Dead Zone
Many a times a dead zone is associated with a process control loop. The time corresponding to dead zone is
called dead time. The time elapsed between the instant when an error occurs and the instant when first
corrective action occurs is called dead time. Nothing happens in the system, during this time though the error
occurs. This part is a called dead band. The effect of such dead time must be considered while the design of
controllers.
12.1 Classification of Controllers
The classification of the controllers is based on the response of the controller and mode of operation of the
controller. For example in a simple temperature control of a room, the heater is to be controlled. It should be
switched on or off by the controller when temperature crosses its set points. Such an operation of the controller
is called discrete / discontinuous operation and the mode of operation is called discrete / discontinuous mode of
controller. But in some process control systems, simple on / off decision is not sufficient, for example
controlling the steam flow by opening or closing the valve. In such case a smooth opening or closing of valve is
necessary. The controller in such a case is said to operating in a ‘continuous mode’.
Thus the controllers are basically classified as discrete position controllers and continuous controllers.
The discrete position mode controllers are further classified as two ON – OFF controllers and multi position
controllers.
The continuous mode controllers are further classified as proportional controller, integral controllers and
derivative controllers.
Some continuous mode controllers can be combined to obtain composite controller mode. The examples of
such composite controllers are PI, PD and PID controllers. The most of the controllers are placed in the forward
path of control system. But in some cases, input to the controller is controlled through a feedback path. The
example of such a controller is rate feedback controller.
13. 1 Discrete position Controller Modes
Let us discuss the two controller modes based on the discrete position controller output as the error varies.
These two controller modes are,
1) Two – position Mode
2) Multi – positions Mode
13.1.1 Two Position Mode (ON-OFF Controller)
This is one of the most common and simplest modes of controller. It has to control positions of control element,
either on or off. Hence this mode is also called ON-OFF controller mode. It is the cheapest controller and often
used if its limitations are within the tolerance.
This controller mode has two possible output states namely 0 % or 100 %.
Mathematically this can be expressed as,

15
 P = 0 % for ep < 0 and P = 100 % for ep >0
The p is the controller output and ep is error based on the percent of span.
Thus if the error rises above a certain critical value, the output changes from 0 % to 100 %. If the error
decreases below certain critical value, the output falls from 100 % to 0%.
The best example is a room heater. If the temperature drops below a set point, the heater is turned ON and if the
temperature increases above a set point, the heater is turned OFF.
In all the practical implementations of the ON-OFF controller there is an overlap as the error increases through
zero or decreases through zero. Such an overlap creates a span of error in which there is no change in the
controller output. This span is called neutral zone, dead zone or dead band. (Fig 13)

Fig 20 ON-OFF controller with dead band

This is shown in the Fig. 20. It can be seen that till the error changes by Δep there is no change in the controller
output. Similarly while decreasing also the error must decrease beyond Δep below 0 to change the controller
output. Hence during the range of 2 Δep there is no change in the controller output. This zone is also called the
differential gap.
In such a controller, the control variable always oscillates with a frequency which increases with decreasing
width of the dead band. Hence dead band is purposely designed to prevent the oscillations in ON-OFF
controllers.
In a two position controller, there exists undershoot and overshoot in the output. The Fig 21 shows the output
with the position controller which shows undershoot and overshoot. Such undershoot and overshoot are
inherent in two position mode.

Fig 21 indicating overshoot and undershoot

The applications of such two position control mode are room air conditioners, ON-OFF of a heater, liquid level
control in large volume tank etc. These controllers are preferred for large scale systems with relatively slow
process rates.
Example of two-position on – off controller:
Consider the liquid-level control system shown in Figure 22 (a) where the electromagnetic valve shown in
Figure 22 (b) is used for controlling the in-flow rate. This valve is either open or closed. With this two-position
control, the water inflow rate is either a positive constant or zero. Depending on the accuracy of the level to be
maintained, the inflow rate and zero state may tend to oscillate between the two limits required to cause the
actuating element to move from one fixed position to the other, one corresponding to the filling curve and the

16
other to the emptying curve. Such output oscillation between two limits is a typical response characteristic of a
system under two position control.

Figure 22 Liquid-level control system

The amplitude of the output oscillation can be reduced by decreasing the differential gap. But, the decrease in
the differential gap would increase the number of on-off switching per minute and reduce the useful life of the
component. The magnitude of the differential gap must be determined from such considerations as the accuracy
required and the life of the component.
13.1.2 Multiple position Mode
Instead of only two, more than two settings can be provided to the controller output. Such a controller having
more than two settings to the controller output is called multi-position mode controller. This reduces the
oscillatory behavior of two position controller and also reduces the under-shoot and overshoot which is
common in two position controller.
Mathematically multiple position mode is expressed as,
P = pi ep > | ei | where i = 1,2, …., n
As the error ep exceeds the set limits ± ei then the output of the controller is adjusted to preset value Pi. For
example a three position controller in which,
P = 100 % ep > + e1
P = 75 % -e1 < ep < + e1
P=0% ep < - e1
So, as long as error is within ± el of the set point, the controller output is 75 %. If error increases the set point
by el or more, the output is 100 %. If error is less than the set point by -el or more, the output of the controller is
0 %.
The Fig. 23 shows the graph of error and controller output against time, without time lag, for a three position
controller.

17
 Fig 23 Behavior of three position controller
Similar to the three position, multi-position mode controllers also can be designed.
14.1 Continuous Controller Modes
In the discontinuous controller mode, the output of the controller is discontinuous and not smoothly varying.
But in the continuous controller mode, the controller output varies smoothly proportional to the error or
proportional to some form of the error. Depending upon which form of the error is used as the input to the
controller to produce the continuous controller output, these controllers are classified as,
1. Proportional control mode
2. Integral control mode
3. Derivative control mode
4. Combination control mode
The different types of controllers are described with a typical example each.
A familiar example of a control loop is the action taken when adjusting hot and cold valves to maintain the
water at a desired temperature. This typically involves the mixing of two process streams, the hot and cold
water. The person touches the water to sense or measure its temperature. Based on this feedback he / she
performs a control action to adjust the hot and cold water valves until the process temperature stabilizes at the
desired value.
The sensed water temperature is the process variable or process value (PV). The desired temperature is called
the set point (SP). The input to the process (the water valve position) is called the manipulated variable (MV).
The difference between the temperature measurement and the set point is the error (e) and quantifies whether
the water is too hot or too cold and by how much.
After measuring the temperature (PV), and then calculating the error, the controller decides when to change the
tap position (MV) and by how much. When the controller first turns the valve on, it may turn the hot valve only
slightly if warm water is desired, or it may open the valve all the way if very hot water is desired. This is an
example of a simple proportional control.
In the event that hot water does not arrive quickly, the controller may try to speed-up the process by opening up
the hot water valve more-and-more as time goes by. This is an example of an integral control.
Making a change that is too large when the error is small is equivalent to a high gain controller and will lead to
overshoot. Repeated back and forth operations may lead to oscillations. In the interest of achieving a gradual
convergence at the desired temperature (SP), the controller may wish to damp the oscillations. So in order to
compensate for this effect, the controller may elect to temper its adjustments. This can be thought of as a
derivative control method.
Let us now discuss each control mode in detail
18
Proportional Control Mode
In this control mode, the output of the controller is simple proportional to the error e(t). The relation between
the error e(t) and the controller output p is determined by constant called proportional gain constant denoted as
Kp. The output of the controller is a linear function of the error e(t). Thus each value of the error has a unique
value of the controller output. The range of the error which covers 0 % to 100 % controller output is called
proportional band. Fig 24 shows a typical block diagram representation of proportional mode control system.

Fig 24 Proportional Controller

Now though there exists linear relation between controller output and the error, for a zero error the controller
output should not be zero, otherwise the process will come to halt. Hence, there exists some controller output p0
for the zero error. Hence mathematically proportional control mode is expressed as,
p(t) = Kp e(t) + p0
where Kp = Proportional gain constant and p0 = controller output with zero error.
The direct and reverse action is possible in the proportional control mode. The error (r – b) may be positive or
negative because b can be less or greater than reference set point.
If the controlled variable increases with increase in the controller output, the action is called direct action. For
example if the output valve is to be controlled to maintain the liquid level in a tank, when the level increases,
the output valve should be opened more to maintain the level.
If the controlled variable decreases, with increase in the controller output the action is called reverse action. For
example consider a simple heater control for maintaining temperature. If the temperature increases, the drive to
the heater must be decreased and vice versa.
The proportional controller depends on the proper design of the gain Kp. For fixed p0 if gain Kp is high, then
large output results for small error but only narrow error band can be handled. Beyond these limits of the error,
output will be saturated. If the gain is small then the response is smaller but large error band can be handled.
This is shown in the Fig. 25

Fig 25 Gain vs Error Band

Characteristic of Proportional Mode Controllers
The various characteristics of the proportional mode are,
1. When the error is zero, the controller output is constant equal to p0
2. If the error occurs, then for every 1 % of error the correction of Kp % is achieved.

19
3. If error is positive, Kp% correction gets added to p0 and if error is negative, Kp% correction gets subtracted
from p0
4. There can be a band of error for which the output of the controller is between 0 % and 100% without
saturation.
5. The gain Kp and the error band PB are inversely proportional to each other.
Offset
The major disadvantage of the proportional control mode is that it produces an offset error in the output. When
the load changes, the output deviates from the set point. Such a deviation is called offset error or steady state
error. Such an offset error is shown in the Fig. 26. The offset error depends upon the reaction rate of the
controller. Slow reaction rate produces small offset error while fast reaction rate produces large offset error.
The dead time or transfer lag present in the system further worsens the result. It produces not only the large
offset at the output but the time required to achieve steady is also large.
The offset error can be minimized by the large proportional gain Kp which reduces the proportional band. If Kp
is made very large, the proportional band becomes so small that it acts as an ON/OFF controller producing
oscillations about the set point instead of offset error.

Fig. 26 Offset error in proportional mode controller

Applications
The proportional controller can be suitable where
1. Manual reset of the operating point is possible.
2. Load changes are small.
3. The dead time in the system is small.
Integral Control Mode
In the proportional control mode, error reduces but does not go to zero. It finally produces an offset error. It
cannot adapt with the changing load conditions. To avoid this, another control mode is often used in the control
systems, which is based on the history of the errors. This mode is called integral mode or reset action controller.
Figure 27 shows the block diagram representation of integral control system

Fig 27 Block diagram of integral controller

In such a controller, the value of the controller output p(t) is changed at a rate which is proportional to the
actuating error signal e(t). Mathematically it is expressed as,

20
 dp(t)
 K i e(t )
dt
where Ki = Constant relating error and rate of controller output.
The constant Ki is also called integral constant. Integrating the above equation, actual controller output at any
time t can be obtained as,
t
p  K i  e( )d  p(0)
0

where p(0) = controller output when integral action starts i.e. at t = 0.

The output signal from the controller, at any instant is the area under the actuating error signal curve up to that
instant. If the value of the error is doubled, the value of p(t) varies twice as fast i.e. rate of the controller output
change also doubles.
If the error is zero, the controller output is not changed. The control signal p(t) can have nonzero value when
the error signal e(t) is zero. This is because the output depends on the history of the error and not on the
instantaneous value of the error. This is shown the Fig. 28.

Fig 28 Response of error and controller output for Integral mode controller

The factor or constant Ki expresses the scaling between error and the controller output. Thus a large value of Ki
means that a small error produces a large rate of change p(t) and vice versa. This is shown in the Fig 29. If there
is positive error, the controller output begins to ramp up.

Fig 29 Effect of Ki for error correction rate

Characteristics of Integral Mode

The integrating controller is relatively slow controller. It changes its output at a rate which is dependent on the
integrating time constant, until the error signal is cancel1ed. Compared to the proportional control, the integral
control requires time to build up an appreciable output. However it continues to act till the error signal
disappears. This corrects the problem of the offset error in the proportional controller. .

21
For example, let us assume that the integral controller is used to control the armature current of a d. c. motor
and to keep its value constant at 500 A. As long as the armature current is less than
500 A, the armature voltage, controlled by the controller, will increase. Thus the output of the controller will
increase and will continue to do so till the error becomes zero i.e. armature current becomes 500 A. Then the
controller output will remain at that value reached. This is possible because the output of the controller can
remain at any value within its range, if the input is zero. The controller must not be overdriven as it will not
then be effective.
Thus for an integral mode,
1. If error is zero, the output remains at a fixed value equal to what is was, when the error became zero.
2. If the error is not zero, then the output begins to increase or decrease, Ki % per second for every ± 1% of
error.
In some cases, the inverse of Ki called integral time is specified, denoted as Ti,
1
Ti  = Integral time
Ki
Applications
The comparison of proportional and integral controller behavior at the time of occurrence of an error signal
is tabulated below:

Controller Initial behavior Steady state behavior

Proportional Acts immediately. Action according to Offset error always present Larger
Kp the Kp smaller the error.

Integral Acts slowly It is the time integral of the Error signal always becomes zero.
error signal

It can be seen that proportional mode is more favorable at the start while the integral is better for steady state
response. In pure integral mode, error can oscillate about zero and can be cyclic. Hence in practice integral
mode is never used alone but combined with the proportional mode, to enjoy the advantages of both the modes.
Derivative Control Mode
In practice the error is function of time and at a particular instant it can be zero. But it may not remain zero
forever after that instant. Hence some action is required corresponding to the rate at which the error is changing.
Such a controller is called derivative controller. Figure 30 shows a block diagram representation of a system
with derivative control.

Fig 30 Block diagram of a derivative controller

In this mode, the output of the controller depends on the time rate of change of the actual errors. Hence it is also
called rate action mode or anticipatory action mode.
The mathematical equation for the mode is,
de(t )
p(t )  K d
dt
where Kd = Derivative gain constant.
The derivative gain constant indicates by how much % the controller output must change for every % per sec
rate of change of the error. Generally Kd is expressed in minutes. The important feature of this type of control
mode is that for a given rate of change of error signal, there is a unique value of the controller output.
22
The advantage of the derivative control action is that it responds to the rate of change of error and can produce
the significant correction before the magnitude of the actuating error becomes too large. Derivative control thus
anticipates the actuating error, initiates an early corrective action and tends to increase stability of the system
improving the transient response.
Characteristics of Derivative Control Mode
The Fig. 31 shows how derivative mode changes the controller output for the various rates of change of the
error.
The controller output is 50 % for the zero error. When error starts increasing, the controller output suddenly
jumps to the higher value. It further jumps to a higher value for higher rate of increase of error. Then error
becomes constant, the output returns to 50%. When error is decreasing i.e. having negative slope, controller
output decreases suddenly to a lower value.

Fig 31 Controller output response for error & its rate

The various characteristics of the derivative mode are,
1. For a given rate of change of error signal, there is a unique value of the controller output.
2. When the error is zero, the controller output is zero.
3. When the error is constant i.e. rate of change of error is zero, the controller output is zero.
4. When error is changing, the controller output changes by Kd % for even 1 % per second rate of change of
error.
Applications
When the error is zero or a constant, the derivative controller output is zero. Hence it is never used alone. Its
gain should be small because faster rate of change of error can cause very large sudden change of controller
output. This may lead to the instability of the system.
Composite Control Modes
As mentioned earlier, due to offset error proportional mode is not used alone. Similarly integral and derivative
modes are also not used individually in practice. Thus to take the advantages of various modes together, the
composite control modes are used. Generally, the following composite control modes are used, namely,
1. Proportional + Integral mode (PI)
2. Proportional + Derivative mode (PD)
3. Proportional + Integral + Derivative mode (PID)
Let us see the characteristics of these three modes.
Proportional plus Integral Mode (PI Control Mode)
This is a composite control mode obtained by combining the proportional mode and the integral mode.
Schematically it is shown in Fig 32.

23
 Fig 32 Block diagram of P I Controller
The mathematical expression for such a composite control is,
t
p(t )  K p e(t )  K i  e( )d  p(0)
0

where p(0) = Initial value of the output at t =0

The important advantage of this control is that one to one correspondence of proportional mode is available
while the offset gets eliminated due to integral mode, the integral part of such a composite control provides a
reset of the zero error output after a load change occurs.
Consider the load change occurring at t =t1 and due to which error varies as shown in the Fig. 33. The controller
output changes suddenly by amount Vp due to the proportional action. After that the controller output changes
linearly with respect to time at a rate Ki. The reset rate is defined as the reciprocal of Ti.

Fig 33 Controller output response for step error input – Direct action
The response shown in the Fig. 33 is for the direct action of the controller. The response of composite PI
control mode for the reverse action is shown in the Fig. 34.

Fig 34 Controller output response for step error input – Reverse action
In the reverse action, the proportional part is the image of the error. The sum of proportional plus integral action
finally leaves the error to zero.
Characteristics of PI Mode
The various characteristics of the composite PI mode are,
1. When the error is zero, the controller output is fixed at the value that integral mode had when the error went
to zero. This is nothing but p(0).
24
2. When the error is not zero, proportional mode adds the correction while the integral term starts increasing or
decreasing from its initial value depending upon reverse or direct action.
3. It improves the steady state accuracy.
4. It increases the rise time so response becomes slow.
5. It decreases bandwidth of the system.
6. It filters out the high frequency noise.
7. It makes the response more oscillatory.
Applications
The composite PI mode completely removes the offset problems of proportional mode. Such mode can be used
in the systems with the frequent or large load changes. But the process must have relatively slow changes in the
load, to prevent the oscillations.
Proportional plus Derivative Mode (PD Control Mode)
The series combination of proportional and derivative control modes gives proportional plus derivative control
actions. The mathematical expression for the PD composite control is
de(t )
p(t )  K p e(t )  K d  p(0)
dt
A block diagram representation of P – D controlled system is shown in Fig 35

Fig 35 Block diagram of P – D controller

The behavior of such a PD control to a ramp type of the input is shown in the Fig. 36
The ramp function of error occurs at t =t1. The derivative mode causes a step Vd at t1 and proportional mode
causes a rise of Vp equal to Vd at t2. This is for direct action PD control.
The Fig. 36 shows the behavior of PD control for the arbitrary load changes for reverse action.
For reverse action, the controller output is image of the error for the proportional mode. The derivative mode
causes sudden increase or decrease in the output corresponding to decrease or increase in the error. This mode
cannot eliminate the offset of the proportional mode.

Fig 36 Response of P – D controller – Direct action

25
Characteristics of PD Mode
The various characteristics of the PD mode are,
1. It improves the damping and reduces overshoot.
2. It reduces the rise time and makes response fast. .
3. It makes the response stable very fast.
4. It improves the bandwidth of the system.
5. It cannot eliminate offset error.
6. It may make the noise dominant at high frequencies.
7. It is not very effective for lightly damped systems.
8. It may require a relatively large capacitor for the circuit implementation.

Fig 37 Response of P – D controller – Reverse action

.Applications

It cannot eliminate offset error of proportional mode. But it can be used to handle fast process load changes if
offset error is tolerable. It is used in many industrial process control systems.
Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative Control Mode
The composite controller including the combination of the proportional, integral and derivative control mode is
called PID control mode and the controller is called three mode controller. It is very much complex to design
but very powerful in action.
A general block diagram of the controller consisting of all the three types namely, proportional, integral and
derivative action on the error signal is given below (Fig 38).

Fig 38 General arrangement of P – I – D controller

Mathematically such a control mode can be expressed as,
t
de(t )
p(t )  K p e(t )  K i  e( )d  K d  p(0)
0
dt
where p(0) = Initial value of the output

26
This mode has advantages of all the modes. The integral mode eliminates the offset error of the proportional
mode and the response is also very fast due to derivative mode.
The sudden response is produced due to derivative mode. Thus it can be used for any process condition.
With the PID control action there is no offset, no oscillations with least settling time.
So there is improvement in both transient as well as steady state response. The Fig. 39 shows the response of
PID control for a particular error signal, assuming direct action.

Fig 39 Response of a P – I – D controller

The Fig. 40 shows the response of various control modes to sudden load change for an arbitrary system.

Fig 40 System response for various control modes

The proportional and PD control produces the offset error. It requires significant time to attain the steady state.
The PI control eliminates the offset but at the expense of higher maximum overshoot, a long period of
oscillations and more settling time. The PD control produces the steady state very quickly with least oscillations
and smallest maximum overshoot but offset is significant. With PID control, there is no offset and system
achieves the steady state with less settling time. Thus PID is the ultimate process composite controller.
Tuning the values for Kp, Ki and Kd are often a trade-off between decreasing overshoot and increasing settling
time.
Typical question and answer:
Q 1. Explain the working principle of an automatic electric iron with temperature control using block diagram.
List the advantages of this system with conventional non automatic electric iron
(A) In an automatic electric iron, there is a thermostat which senses the temperature. If temperature is beyond
the particular value, it switches off the supply to f, the iron and maintains constant temperature at the output.
Thus the principle of feedback is used in an automatic electric iron. Hence it is closed loop system.
The block diagram is as shown in the Fig. 34

27
 Fig 34 Block diagram of automatic electric iron
In non-automatic iron, there is no control over the temperature. The supply remains on and hence there is
wastage of electricity, though required temperature is achieved.
The person using iron has to feel the temperature and switch it off manually. Hence it is an open loop system.
The advantages of automatic electric iron are,
1. It is closed loop in nature.
2. Accuracy is high.
3. Saving in electric power.
4. Highly reliable operation
Q 2. a) Identify the input and output for an automatic washing machine.
(A) Many washing machines operate in the following manner. After the clothes have been put into the machine,
the soap or detergent, bleach, and water are entered in the proper amounts. The wash and spin cycle-time is then
set on a timer and the washer is energized. When the cycle is completed, the machine shuts itself off.
If the proper amounts of detergent, bleach, and water, and the appropriate temperature of the water are
predetermined or specified by the machine manufacturer, or automatically entered by the machine itself, then
the input is the time (in minutes) for the wash and spin cycle. The timer is usually set by a human operator.
The output of a washing machine is more difficult to identify. Let us define clean as the absence of foreign
substances from the items to be washed. Then we can identify the output as the percentage of cleanliness. At
the start of a cycle the output is less than l00%, and at the end of a cycle the output is ideally equal to 100%
(clean clothes are not always obtained).
For most coin-operated machines the cycle-time is pre-set, and the machine begins operating when the coin is
entered. In this case, the percentage of cleanliness can be controlled by adjusting the amounts of detergent,
bleach, water, and the temperature of the water. We may consider all of these quantities as inputs.
Other combinations of inputs and outputs are also possible.
Q 2 b) Explain how a closed loop automatic washing machine might operate.
(A) Assume all quantities described as possible inputs above, namely, cycle time, water volume, water
temperature, amount of detergent and amount of bleach, can be adjusted. A closed loop automatic washer might
continuously or periodically measure the percentage cleanliness (output) of the item being washed, adjust the
input quantities accordingly, and turn itself off when 100% cleanliness has been achieved.
Q 3 a) Describe, in a simplified way, the components and variables involved in walking in a prescribed
direction.
(A) The major components involved in walking are the brain, eyes, and legs and feet. The input may be chosen
as the desired walk direction, and the output the actual walk direction. The control action is determined by the
eyes, which detect the difference between the input and output and send this information to the brain. The brain
commands the legs and feet to walk in the prescribed direction.
Q 3 b) Is walking a closed loop operation or not? Why?
(A) Walking is a closed-loop operation because the control action is a function of the output.
Walking is usually more accurately controlled than with the eyes always closed.
Q 3) c) Indicate how the human walking can be made an open-loop system? Assume the person has normal
vision
(A) If the eyes are closed, the feedback loop is broken and the system becomes open loop.
Q 3) d) Briefly outline how it can be made a sampled data system?
(A) If the eyes are opened and closed periodically, the system becomes a sampled-data one.

28
Question bank:
1. Define the following terms: (i) System (ii) Control system (iii) Input (iv) Output (v) Disturbance
2. What are open and closed loop systems? Distinguish between them.
3. Define control system. Illustrate with suitable example consisting of man – made, natural and a hybrid
system (partly both man – made and natural type)
4. Draw the generalized feedback control system block diagram and explain various terms.
5. Give any four open loop and any four closed loop system examples and describe how?
6. What are the effects of feedback?
7. Explain how the control systems are classified / Write a short note on types (varieties) of control
systems.
8. What is meant by servomechanism? Explain with two examples.
9. What are regulators? Explain with two examples.
10. Give reasons how "Bread toaster is open loop".
11. Explain the various requirements of a good control system.
12. Define & describe briefly, with two examples each, linear and nonlinear control systems.
13. What is time variant system? Give suitable example. How is it different from time invariant system?
14. With reference to feedback control system define the following terms
15. Command input (ii) Reference input (iii) Disturbance input (iv) Forward path (v) Feedback path
16. Distinguish between feedback control system and feed forward control system.
17. Differentiate between:
i) Linear and Nonlinear systems; ii) Continuous and Discrete data systems;
(iii) Causal system; (iv) Deterministic and Stochastic system;
(v) Feedforward system
18. Write short notes on multivariable control systems and Adaptive control system
19. Draw a block diagram of proportional – integral controller and explain. Give application examples
20. Discuss the characteristics of an integral controller
21. Describe a controller which will improve the transient behavior of the system
22. Describe the characteristics of P – I – D controller with necessary block diagram and mathematical
expressions and responses obtained in an arbitrary system experiencing sudden load change.
23. Describe briefly (a) milk bottle filling system, (b) automatic door operation system with suitable block
diagrams indicating the various input – output details
24. Explain the working principle of an automatic electric iron with temperature control using block
diagram. List the advantages of this system with conventional non automatic electric iron
25. An aircraft in flight is a multi-input multi –output system – discuss
26. Say whether true or false. Give reasons
a. Walking on road is an open loop.
b. Feedback improves quality of output.
c. Open loop systems use feedback.
27. Devise a control system to fill a compressed air supply tank and maintain the pressure to a wind-blown
pipe organ. Draw a possible schematic arrangement of such a device.
28. Devise a simple control system which automatically turn on room lamp at dusk and turns it off in day
light.

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