ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL
Title No. 116-M22
Mechanical Properties of Cement-Based Materials and
Effect of Elevated Temperature on Three-Dimensional (3-D)
Printed Mortar Specimens in Inkjet 3-D Printing
by Pshtiwan Shakor, Shami Nejadi, Gavin Paul, Jay Sanjayan, and Ali Nazari
Three-dimensional (3-D) printers have the potential to print
samples that can be used as a scaffold for a variety of applications
in different industries. In this paper, cement-based materials
including ordinary portland cement, calcium aluminate cement
(passing 150 µm [0.0059 in.] size sieve), and fine sand were inves-
tigated as the cement-based materials in inkjet 3-D printing. Prism
specimens were printed for the three-point bending test; and cubic
specimens were printed for the uniaxial compressive strength test.
Prism samples were printed along different directional axes (X, Y,
and Z). The tests were conducted at different saturation levels
(water-cement ratio [w/c]) as represented by S100C200, S125C250,
S150C300, and S170C340. The prism specimens were cured in
water for 7 and 28 days while cubic specimens were cured in
Ca(OH)2 and water for 7 and 28 days at the same ambient tempera-
tures. In general, the results changed according to the directional
axes of the prisms. However, following water curing, the cubic
samples were heated up to 40°C (104°F) in an oven and a higher
compressive strength was evident compared to the samples which
were only cured in the room-temperature water. The wettability test
for both powders has been conducted in the presented study.
Keywords: cement-based materials; mechanical properties; three-
dimensional (3-D) printing; variable temperature and direction (X, Y, Z).
INTRODUCTION
Techniques in rapid prototyping have improved dramat-
ically in recent years from the old-style manufacturing of
complex components to include works of medical treat-
ment, food, and the automobile and architecture industries
(Lipson and Kurman 2013). The use of three-dimensional
(3-D) printing (3DP) technology has been progressively
integrated into the field of building and construction (Shakor
et al. 2018).
Recent studies are mostly focused on the characteristics of
3-D-printed layers of cementitious materials, their mechan-
ical properties, and finite element modeling. According to
these studies, different directions of layers in compression
tests and flexural tests generate different results. Cubic spec-
imens produced using these methods tend to have similar
failure features (that is, an hourglass-shape in the X, Y, and
Z directions) but yield a compression strength and elastic
modulus which are highest in the X-direction. Based on the
compression tests and stress-strain relationship, 3-D printed,
powder-based materials are described as orthotropic materials
(Feng et al. 2015a). The results show that the printing direc-
tion elicits an important effect on the load-bearing capacity
of the specimen. Therefore, a corresponding enhancement
ACI Materials Journal/March 2019
TECHNICAL PAPER
can easily change the compressive strength of the elements.
Developing a technique to improve the mechanical behavior
of 3-D-printed structural elements becomes a crucial part of
research in the field of 3DP technologies.
In inkjet 3DP, the powder particles and the layer thick-
ness have a significant influence on the shape of the printed
specimens. Farzadi et al. (2014) discovered that the powder
particles influence the thickness of specimens. It was found
that specimens with a higher resolution were obtained in a
thin layer scaffold. However, they discovered that the layers
should be thicker than the largest particle size of the powder.
Moreover, the materials that could be used for printing
the scaffold in a powder-based method are plaster, cement,
cement mortar, metal, and ceramic (Utela et al. 2008;
Shakor et al. 2017b; Feng et al. 2015b). For instance, Pegna
(1997) categorized the additive manufacturing processes
and discussed the selective aggregation of the reactive bulk
material to fabricate a large solid structure. Pegna’s speci-
mens consisted of placing layers of reactive materials (port-
land cement) over layers of silica material. In Pegna’s tests,
two options were proposed to bind the materials in a solid-
free fabrication: 1) the binder is placed and the blanket is
activated; or 2) the binder is used as a blanket. The structures
built with sand and portland cement were activated by water
vapor. The resulting material was heavier than the normal
cast and yet it had the same compressive strength.
In recent decades, various technologies have been
developed to implement additive manufacturing in the
construction industry. These techniques can be broadly
divided into two categories: extrusion printing and powder-
based printing (that is, inkjet printing or binder jetting).
Extrusion printing technique
The extrusion printing technique involves extruding
cementitious material from a nozzle, which is mounted on a
framework, to print structural elements layer by layer—for
example, concrete printing, designed by Le et al. (2012) and
contour crafting, established by Khoshnevis et al. (2001).
Furthermore, the extrusion printing for the cement mortar
has been optimized and developed by Shakor et al. (2017a).
ACI Materials Journal, V. 116, No. 2, March 2019.
MS No. M-2018-183.R1, doi: 10.14359/51714452, received May 27, 2018, and
reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright © 2019, American Concrete
Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s
closure, if any, will be published ten months from this journal’s date if the discussion
is received within four months of the paper’s print publication.
55
 One example is concrete printing that was used to examine
the hardened properties of high-performance printed
concrete in relation to the implementation of a 9 mm (0.35 in.)
diameter-printing nozzle. It was found that the compressive
strength of the printed samples in different directions was
between 75 and 102 MPa (10,877.8 and 14,793.8 psi) (Le
et al. 2012). The perpendicular load direction was the highest
compressive load, while in a conventional mold, the cast
cube had a compressive strength of approximately 107 MPa
(15,519 psi). Furthermore, they stated that the printed
concrete had a higher density, approximately 2350 kg/m3
(146.71 lb/ft3), compared to the control cast cube, which was
approximately 2250 kg/m3 (140.46 lb/ft3). This could have
been due to the gentle vibration of the concrete as it flowed
from the nozzle. Furthermore, small pumping extrusions
during printing reduced the void ratios, which resulted in an
increase in density.
Powder-based printing technique (inkjet printing)
The powder-based printing, also known as inkjet printing
(3DP binder jetting), is another additive manufacturing
technique that creates precise scaffolds with complicated
geometries. The materials is bonded by dropping binder
fluid (or “toner”) selectively into a powder bed, which binds
the powder where it impacts, as shown in Fig. 1. Jee and
Sachs (2000) proposed a visual simulation and developed
a geometric model of surface texture designs applied to a
fabricated model.
Post-processing procedures are crucial when fabricating
3DP specimens. Vorndran et al. (2011) claimed that there
was a post-hardening process after printing a specimen and
that it was possible to increase the compressive strength up
to 35 MPa (5076.32 psi) for newberyite and up to 10 MPa
(1450.38 psi) for struvite. The shrinkage level was found to
be 5 to 7% compared to the original model. In this study,
the primary attempt is to use post-processing techniques to
increase the strength of the 3DP objects.
Many studies have investigated the use of powders in
conjunction with the inkjet 3-D printer. For example, Klam-
mert et al. (2010) investigated the application of magne-
sium ammonium phosphate (struvite) with a neutral setting
reaction by printing farringtonite (Mg3(PO4)2) powder with
ammonium phosphate solution as a binder. After long curing,
the achieved compressive strength was approximately 2 to
7 MPa (290.075 to 1015.26 psi). In another example, Shakor
et al. (2017b) replaced the cement mortar powder with
gypsum hemihydrate so as to enable resulting parts to be
used in construction applications.
In the present study, the influence of different saturation
levels with different curing conditions and the effects of
X, Y, and Z directions on the flexural strength in 3DP were
investigated in addition to the mechanical properties of the
specimens. Predominantly, this study presents a novel meth-
odology in its use of cementitious material for the require-
ments and demands of the commercially available gypsum
powder (3-D printer consumer powder) by using 3DP
technology. In addition, this study proposes to increase the
number of different types of materials that can be used by
powder-based 3-D printers in the construction industry. In
56
Fig. 1—3-D printer main components while printing cubic
samples.
this paper, printable cementitious materials are prepared by
blending portland cement, calcium aluminate cement, fine
sand and lithium carbonate.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
The significance of this research was using an inkjet 3DP
printer to fabricate various specimens from cementitious
powder. The paper also studied various post-processing
procedures, which can be applied for the 3DP specimens
to gain higher strength in construction applications. More-
over, investigations on the mechanical properties of the 3DP
samples along different directional axes have been described.
The two main compressive strength and three-point bending
tests have been studied with different dimensions and
different saturation (water-cement ratio [w/c]) levels. Inkjet
3DP is work based on the flowability of powder and wetta-
bility in the powder; these aspects have been discussed in
this paper.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Standard tests (according to ASTM C293 and ASTM
C39) were conducted in the experimental program to deter-
mine the flexural and compressive strength of the printed
scaffolds (ASTM C39 2001; ASTM C293/C293M 2002). In
addition, the samples were examined for the effects of heat,
the impacts of different curing conditions, and the influences
of printing along different directional axes. There were three
main factors that affected the printed samples including the
material components, sample preparation/3DP parameters,
and the curing parameters.
Material components
Powder preparation—The samples were fabricated by
mixing CAC (6.78 kg [239.15 oz]), OPC (3.22 kg [113.58 oz]),
fine sand (0.5 kg [17.63 oz]), and lithium carbonate (0.45 kg
[15.87 oz]), which made up the total weight of the powder.
Two types of cement, calcium aluminate cement (CAC)
(Al2O3 ≥ 37%, CaO ≤ 39.8%, SiO2 ≤ 6%, Fe2O3 ≤ 18.5%),
ordinary portland cement (OPC) conforming to AS 3972
general purpose type (C3S, C2S > 70%, C3A > 4%, C4AF >
10%) and fine sand (SiO2 ˃ 90%, Australia—maximum size
of approximately 300 µm [0.011 in.]), were used to create
ACI Materials Journal/March 2019
Table 1—Details of 3-D-printed and manual mixture specimens (60 x 5 x 5 mm) for flexural strength
Number of samples
Specimens CAD dimension, mm Printed direction 7 days 28 days
S100C200 60 x 5 x 5 X,Y,Z 1 3
S125C250 60 x 5 x 5 X,Y,Z 1 3
S150C300 60 x 5 x 5 X,Y,Z 1 3
S170C340 60 x 5 x 5 X,Y,Z 1 3
S100C200 60 x 5 x 5 Manual mixture 1 1
S125C250 60 x 5 x 5 Manual mixture 1 1
S150C300 60 x 5 x 5 Manual mixture 1 1
S170C340 60 x 5 x 5 Manual mixture 1 1

Note: 1 mm = 0.039 in.

Table 2—Details of 3-D-printed specimens for compressive strength

Number of samples
Specimens CAD dimensions, mm Curing method 1 day 7 days 28 days
Green Part 20 x 20 x 20 — 3 3 3
S100C200 20 x 20 x 20 Water 3 3 3
S125C250 20 x 20 x 20 Water 3 3 3
S150C300 20 x 20 x 20 Water 3 3 3
S170C340 20 x 20 x 20 Water and Ca(OH)2 0 9 9

Note: 1 mm = 0.039 in.

Table 3—Details of 3-D-printed specimens (70 x 10 x 4 mm) for flexural strength

Number of samples
In (YZ 0,90°) directions
Specimens CAD dimensions, mm Printed sample in YZ plane 7 days 28 days
S100C200 70 x 10 x 4 YZ 0° YZ 90° 2 6
S125C250 70 x 10 x 4 YZ 0° YZ 90° 2 6
S150C300 70 x 10 x 4 YZ 0° YZ 90° 2 6
S170C340 70 x 10 x 4 YZ 0° YZ 90° 2 6

Note: 1 mm = 0.039 in.

a total of 110 specimens for the mechanical tests (refer to
Tables 1, 2, and 3). Lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) (reagent
grade by American Chemical Society) was mixed to accel-
erate the setting time of the mortar. The prepared specimens
were divided into two batches of 54 samples for the compres-
sive strength test and 56 samples for the flexural strength
test and each value is presented as an average (approximate
standard deviation). For each test, three specimens were
printed, which are the minimum requirements for making
and curing samples according to the Australian standard (AS
1012.8.3 2015). The mixture ratio was the closest ratio to a
gypsum powder. The gypsum powder is the recommended
powder that is supplied by the inkjet printer supplier. In the
present study, the gypsum powder has been compared with
cement mortar (modified powder). It should be noted that
the gypsum powder was chiefly calcium sulfate hemihydrate
(CaSO4·0.5H2O), also known as plaster of Paris (Zhou et
al. 2013). The gypsum powder was used for the delicate
models. The powder was a combination of carbohydrate
(<10%), vinyl polymer (<20%), and plaster (<90%) which
was applied without further sieving.
The particle size distribution of the powders was measured
by using a laser diffraction particle size analyser. All powder
samples were measured three times to determine the D10,
D50, and D90 values, which designate that 10, 50, and 90%
of the particles were less than those sizes (refer to Fig. 2).
The layer thickness was approximately 0.1 mm (0.0039 in.)
according to the setting of the 3-D printer, which determines
each layer while spreading through the roller (refer to Fig. 3).
The surface area test for the powder specimens was
performed with a multipoint surface area analyser (BET
analysis). In addition, the bulk density was determined
according to ASTM C29.
Binder characterization—A fluid solvent was used as an
adhesive during the 3DP process. The binder was a commercial
clear liquid solution with a viscosity close to pure water. The
formation of the binder was mostly water with 2-Pyrrolidone
(Farzadi et al. 2014).

ACI Materials Journal/March 2019 57

Sample preparation and 3DP parameters
Literature on inkjet 3DP parameters—The inkjet 3DP
could be adjusted only for different saturation levels (binder/
volume ratio) or the w/c. Recently, new products from the
same company have made it possible to adjust the sample
thickness layers in addition to saturation levels. The thick-
ness and saturation levels of the specimens had a significant
effect on the porosity and stability of the samples’ green
parts. The appropriate time to remove a green part from the
unbounded powder depends on the duration of drying in
the powder bed and saturation levels. Green parts (uncured
objects) can be defined when a binder (liquid) is added to the
powder and reacts to build a printed scaffold (Gibbons et al.
2010). Additionally, evaporation of the printing liquid plays
a crucial role. The saturation levels of the printer can be
adjusted according to the outer and inner scaffold, which are
known as the shell and core, respectively. The ratio of binder
to powder materials influences the degree of unification and
consolidation. Furthermore, the layer thickness determines
the infiltration and final resolution of the printing liquid. The
saturation levels are presented in Table 4.
Lee et al. (2007) studied the compressive strength values
in different rapid prototyping (RP) machines. Fused deposi-
tion modelling (FDM) and the inkjet 3DP were assumed as a
rapid prototype machine and it revealed anisotropic charac-
teristics in the compressive strength results of the specimens.
According to Lin et al. (2015), the extrusion 3DP samples
could achieve a compressive strength of approximately 10 to
20 MPa (1450.38 to 2900.75 psi) after 2 hours and approxi-
mately 50 to 60 MPa (7251.89 to 8702.26 psi) after 28 days.
The setting time of concrete was between 20 and 60 minutes
after using lithium carbonate as an accelerator. However, the
main differences observed in powder-based printer samples,
compared to extrusion printing, were the saturation levels
for the core and shell of the structure. Szucs and Brabazon
(2009) claimed that an increase in the saturation level of
printed samples could improve the mechanical properties
of the structure. Based on the same study, the stiffness and
compressive strength of the 3DP samples rise at a higher
sintering temperature. Moreover, sintering can reduce the
specific surface area and increase the porosity of the sample.
They discovered that the obtained mechanical properties
were still not sufficient for load-bearing applications. In this
study, to harden the powder for the cubic samples, a higher
saturation level is used to produce a 3DP part. It is expected
that the customized powder will be stronger than the powder
that is commercially available.
From the literature review, it is evident that existing
research recognized the critical role played by layer thick-
ness and the binder saturation level. For instance, Lu and
Reynolds (2008) created a complex shape from TiNiHf
shape memory alloy (SMA). Furthermore, they have found
that a particle diameter 35 µm (0.0013 in.) printing sample
with a 170% binder saturation level has the highest struc-
tural mesh integrity. In general, a printing layer thickness

Table 4—Description of saturation levels,

consumed binder, and time taken to build cubic
(20 x 20 x 20 mm) sample
Sample Sample Binder/ Duration,
name description volume ratio Binder, mL min
Shell: 100,
S100C200 0.244 3.24 8.55
Core: 200
Shell: 125,
S125S250 0.305 3.74 8.66
Core: 250
Shell: 150,
S150C300 0.366 4.24 8.88
Core: 300
Shell: 170,
Fig. 2—Particle size distributions of gypsum and S170C340 0.415 4.66 9.00
Core: 340
CAC&OPC powders. (Note: q3 is unit standing for loga-
rithm of percentage of total particles; 1 µm = 0.000039 in.) Notes: 1 mL = 0.033 fl oz; 1 mm = 0.039 in.

Fig. 3—Layer explanation and powder/binder interaction between layers.

58 ACI Materials Journal/March 2019

Fig. 4—(a) Cubic specimens (20 x 20 x 20 mm [0.78 x 0.78 x 0.78 in.]); and (b) prism specimens (60 x 5 x 5 mm [2.36 x 0.19 x
0.19 in.]).
Fig. 5—Different plane in 3DP software for each axis (X, Y, Z); prism (70 x 10 x 4 mm [2.7 x 0.39 x 0.15 in.]) presented in
plane of YZ 0° and YZ 90°.
of 35 µm (0.0013 in.) and binder saturation level of 170%
were found to be the optimum requirements when printing
samples using a TiNiHf 3-D mesh scaffold.
Preparation of 3DP parameters—The specimens were
sketched using computer-aided design software to prepare
for printing through the inkjet 3DP. In Fig. 4 to 6, the cubic
samples with dimensions of 20 x 20 x 20 mm (0.78 x 0.78 x
0.78 in.) and two prism specimens with dimensions of 60 x
5 x 5 mm (2.36 x 0.19 x 0.19 in.) and 70 x 10 x 4 mm (2.75 x
0.39 x 0.15 in.), are shown.
A cartridge was used as a print head by the inkjet printer
with a surface tension of 45 dynes/cm (0.00025 lb/in.) and
viscosity of 1.35 cP (0.0009 lb/ft.s) similar to the work that
has been done by Utela et al. (2008). Figure 5 illustrates the
different plane and directions of the printed samples for the
flexural strength test. Table 1 present the flexural strength of
specimens, while Table 2 presents the specimen’s compres-
sive strength details. Table 3 presents the flexural strength
details of specimens with dimensions 70 x 10 x 4 mm
(2.75 x 0.39 x 0.15 in.).
Other specimens, with dimensions of 70 x 10 x 4 mm
(2.75 x 0.39 x 0.15 in.), were also fabricated for flexural
strength at the same saturation levels of shell and core
(refer to Fig. 6). They were printed in two orientation
degrees in the YZ plane: (i) YZ 0° (width of scaffold parallel
to X-direction of the printer); and (ii) YZ 90°, when it was
ACI Materials Journal/March 2019
rotated 90 degrees (thickness of scaffold parallel to X-direc-
tion); refer to Table 3 and Fig. 5 for more details.
To measure the mechanical properties of the printed
scaffolds, uniaxial compressive strength was performed
at a loading rate of 0.03 kN/s (6.74 lb/s). In this study,
uniaxial compressive strength was conducted only in the
X-orientation.
Curing conditions
The curing process and conditions are another important
aspect of 3DP for this application. The last process of printing
is post-hardening. Post-hardening in 3DP has three alterna-
tives: wax, super glue, and epoxy. These could be applied
as a dip, drizzle, and spray, respectively. However, the
cementitious powder has different processes for curing. In
this study, water was used to cure the cement powder. Some
samples were cured with 5% calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
dissolved in the total weight of water. Table 5 summarises
the dimensions and weight of the S170C340 sample in
the different curing scenarios with water and 5% calcium
hydroxide. As shown in Table 5, the specimens in water
increase their dimensions when they were cured for 7 and 28
days. Specifically, if a sample was cured in water with 5%
calcium hydroxide after drying in an oven for approximately
an hour at 40°C (104°F), the original dimensions changed
by 2 ± 0.22 mm (0.078 ± 0.008 in.), which means the dimen-
59
Fig. 6—(a) Prism specimen (70 x 10 x 4 mm [2.7 x 0.39 x 0.15 in.]) YZ 90°; and (b) prism specimens (70 x 10 x 4 mm [2.7 x
0.39 x 0.15 in.]) YZ 0°.
Table 5—Curing method of S170C340 in water and
5% of Ca(OH)2 after drying at 40°C in oven
Sample Dimensions, mm Weight, g
descrip- Curing
tion method 7 days 28 days 7 days 28 days
Water 20.94 x 21.53 x
15.85 16.55
(40°C) 20.64 22.07
Water and
S170 5% of 22.37 x 22.05 x
16.60 16.85
C340 Ca(OH)2 22.19 22.1
(40°C)
Green
Fig. 7—Steps of penetrating water-based liquid into gypsum 21.12 x 20.83 12.64
parts
powder: (a) impact time of droplet on surface of powder; (b)
penetration processes of liquid on powder after 16 seconds; Notes: 1 mm = 0.039 in.; 1 g = 0.035 oz; °F = (°C/1.8) + 32.

and (c) absorbing most of liquid into powder.
sional rate increased by 6%. According to the study of Pfister
et al. (2004), when comparing 3-D bioplotting to 3DP, the
maximum elongation was found to be four times greater
and the maximum flexural strength was three times higher.
The swelling of the 3-D bioplotting matrix was 14% smaller
than in 3-D printing by water. As another example, Seitz
et al. (2005) used hydroxyapatite (HA) powder to fabricate
3-D printed specimens. They found that the dimensions of
printed parameters were 3% smaller than the dimensions of
the real model.
Wettability and drop penetration test
This test has been conducted using two different methods.
One of the methods uses the contact angle goniometer
method, while another method uses the high-resolution
camera to investigate the penetration time of the drop of
liquid on the powder bed of the printer. Figure 7 shows how
a contact angle goniometer has been used for this inves-
tigation, to capture image frames of each test at a rate of
60 frames/second. In Fig. 8, the second approach used a
high-speed video recorder, operating at 240 frames/second,
to capture images of the path a single binder droplet as it
penetrated the powder bed. For each of the powders and
methods, the test was replicated three times.
A single droplet of binder was used for depositing and
consequently penetrating the powder bed. The powder bed
was prepared in the printer before the process of drop fall
penetration. After the process was completed, the build
chamber was taken out of the 3-D printer and was used to
conduct the drop penetration test. Therefore, a binder droplet
with a volume of approximately 60 μL (0.002 fl oz) was
dropped by a 1 mL (0.000033 fl oz) medical syringe (25-gauge
needle), which was placed over the powder surface.
In the following test, frame-by-frame shots by a high-
speed camera were used to both determine the drop penetra-
tion time and examine the complete drop penetration process
as it has been prepared in previous studies (Hapgood et al.
2002; Nguyen et al. 2009; Zhou et al. 2014). The starting
point was indicated as an impact point to the surface when
the droplet first touches the powder bed surface. Thereafter
the end-point was determined as the time when completely
liquid was diminished under the surface of the powder bed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Powder characterization
The particle size of the gypsum powder has a similar size
to 67%CAC & 33%OPC powders. The most widely used
method of describing particle size distribution is a D value,
and D90 values are equal to 127.11 µm (0.005 in.) for CAC
and 38.46 µm (0.0015 in.) for OPC powders. The surface
area and bulk density of both powders are shown in Table 6.
The main goal of this research is to fabricate a stronger
sample. However, in the authors’ earlier study, Shakor et al.
(2017b), the gypsum powder was modified and the w/c for
the manual mixture was investigated. According to the exper-
imentation results, it has been shown that it was not possible
to obtain consistent and acceptable mechanical properties in
the produced printed samples. In the previous study, it was
also found that the maximum compressive strength reached

60 ACI Materials Journal/March 2019

Fig. 8—Illustration of drop penetration test setup.
8.26 MPa (1198.01 psi) after 28 days when the samples
were only cured in water. In the current research, the curing
medium of the printed sample was changed to gain better
outcomes. Although the green samples should have enough
strength to hold their shape while handling and removing
the excess material, it was initially concerning when it was
discovered that they did not have high compressive strength.
In addition, dimensional accuracy was another concern.
The 3DP samples did not have the exact dimensions of the
original CAD design model. To examine and monitor the
overall parts of the fabricated cubic and prism specimens for
compressive and flexural strength, the external dimensions
of each sample were measured accurately using a digital
calliper with an accuracy of 0.01 mm (0.00039 in.). The
weight of the specimen was also measured on a precision
scale with an accuracy of 0.001g (0.000035 oz).
Effects of 3DP parameters
This research also investigates how the saturation settings
influence the strength of the cement component powder. It
was obvious that the flexural strength in the X-direction had
the highest strength (approximately 6.21 MPa [900.68 psi])
because it required the least number of layers to construct in
this direction compared to the other directions (axes) (refer
to Fig. 6). This is consistent with the study by Farzadi et al.
(2014). This was due to the acceptable coincidences between
layers in this direction where the movement is parallel to
the printer head. For illustration, Castilho et al. (2011) stated
that the 3DP scaffold stiffness decreases when the number
of elementary units (layers) increases. This suggestion was
also put forward by Vaezi and Chua (2011). Therefore, in the
present study, a similar thickness was used. The literature
also supports the case that a higher saturation level leads to
a higher compressive strength. Experimental work by Vaezi
and Chua (2011) found that increasing the binder satura-
tion level from 90 to 125% increases the sample’s flexural
and tensile strengths, which has been also confirmed by the
presented study.
The existing work uses the layer thickness print 0.102 mm
(0.004 in.), while most of the particle sizes used are less than
0.1 mm (0.0039 in.). According to Withell et al. (2011), an
ACI Materials Journal/March 2019
Table 6—Properties of gypsum and cementitious
powders
Powder properties Gypsum CAC, OPC
Surface area, m2/g 0.999 1.021
Bulk density, g/cm 3
0.912 0.79
Note: 1 m2/g = 307.42 ft2/oz; 1 g/cm3 = 0.578 oz/in.3.
increase in the layer thickness requires a higher saturation
level to ensure complete cohesion between the layers. In this
work, the fast-axis mounted print head, which was set on a
default speed, can build two to four layers in 60 seconds.
In addition, the three-point bending test equipment was
custom made to test the flexural strength of 3DP specimens
by ignoring friction which shows the flexural test setup.
According to ASTM C29, flexural strength is approximately
10 to 20% of the compressive strength value. This depends
on the size, volume, and type of the coarse aggregates that
were used. The samples with 60 x 5 x 5 mm (2.36 x 0.19 x
0.19 in.) were put on a simply supported edge with the exact
dimensions being 50 mm (1.97 in.) center to center. To eval-
uate the flexural strength of printed specimens, manually
mixed samples were prepared with the same dimensions and
compacted. It is noted that flexural strength in the manual
mixture at a saturation level of (S125C250) was recorded
as the highest result among all the specimens, at approxi-
mately 9.77 MPa (1417.02 psi) (refer to Fig. 9). This result
suggests that, due to decent vibration in the normal mixture,
the outcomes were higher than the 3-D-printed samples. The
dimensions of the specimen were found to have a signifi-
cant impact on the results. The specimens were produced in
accordance with printer constraints, similar to those of Feng
et al. (2015b), who conducted their samples in a similar way.
The specimens 60 x 5 x 5 mm (2.36 x 0.19 x 0.19 in.)
were tested for flexural strength and the results are shown
in Fig. 10.
Furthermore, other samples with dimensions of 70 x 10 x
4 mm (2.75 x 0.39 x 0.15 in.) were subjected to a three-point
bending test to measure the bending strength. In Fig. 11 and
12, the results of the bending strength test are illustrated
with the sample in the YZ plane is 0 degrees (called YZ 0°);
61
Fig. 9—Flexural strength of manual mixture cementitious
prism specimens. (Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi.)
Fig. 10—Flexural strength of cementitious printed prism
tested in different directions (X, Y, and Z) and saturation
levels. (Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi.)
refer to Fig. 5. When the sample rotates 90 degrees in the
YZ plane, it is called YZ 90°. The finding of the prelimi-
nary flexural strength test concerning the YZ 0° samples was
that the strength of bending increases when the saturation
level is increased. Figure 13 shows that the maximum peak
point of bending strength of YZ 0° was 7.25 ± 0.11 MPa
(1051.52 ± 15.95 psi). It can be seen that the sample printed
in the plane YZ 0° can resist more bearing loads because
it needs less time to print the samples than those that are
printed in YZ 90°. Also, the largest part printed in the X-
direction or plane of YZ 0° has stronger mechanical proper-
ties than when printed in the other directions. Previous work
by Withell et al. (2011) agreed that the X-direction YZ 0° has
the best results for flexural strength.
Figure 12 illustrates the optimum bending strength YZ 90°
at S150C300. It was recorded as the highest point of deflec-
62
Fig. 11—Flexural strength of cementitious prism samples
when tested in YZ 0º. (Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi.)
Fig. 12—Flexural strength of cementitious prism samples
when tested in YZ 90º. (Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi.)
tion (3.22 ± 0.12 MPa [467.02 ± 17.4 psi]) but overall still
had less strength than YZ 0°. It was noted that this specimen
was more fragile than specimens printed in the other printed
plane. This was because printing in YZ 90° takes longer and
leaves a large number of voids between the particles of
the powder.
Research by Vlasea et al. (2015) discovered that the
different layer orientation had an effect on the mechanical
properties of the printed scaffold. Similarly, Castilho et al.
(2013) produced almost the same results. In the present
work, all the cubic samples were tested parallel to the X-
direction (0°), except for the prisms, which were tested in
different directions.
Effects of curing parameters
The present research found that the curing parameters
had a significant impact on the mechanical properties of the
ACI Materials Journal/March 2019
Fig. 13—Cementitious cube: (a) sample under uniaxial
compressive strength test; and (b) after removal from
uniaxial compressive strength test.
materials’ composition. All the tests used a universal testing
machine (50 kN [11,240.44 lb]), as shown in Fig. 13.
Figure 14 shows how the 3DP samples changed under
high temperature in two types of curing scenarios. Compres-
sive strength was examined according to ASTM C39. In the
present study, the highest compressive strength was recorded Fig. 14—Compressive strength of cementitious cube at
(14.68 ± 0.43 MPa [2129.15 ± 62.36 psi]) when compared different curing conditions and saturation level S170C340.
to other recorded samples that were cured without drying at (Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi.)
high temperature (4.81 ± 0.86 MPa [697.63 ± 124.73 psi]).
These are explained in more detail in Fig. 15. For instance,
in the study by Ma et al. (2015), carbon powders with small
particle sizes were used as a solution binder. Then it was
found that the bending strength of the samples was very low,
but after pre-sintering, this doubled.
The 3DP sample (S170C340) had the highest result in
compressive strength when cured for 28 days in water and
then dried for approximately 1 hour at 40°C (104°F) in the
furnace. The tests were conducted in the laboratory with
samples which were dried in the laboratory oven at 40°C
(104°F) for approximately 1 hour and then left to cool to
room temperature. The samples were cured for 28 days in
water blended with 5% Ca(OH)2, which yielded weaker
compressive strength than the samples that had been cured
in water only. This might be due to the Ca(OH)2 not helping
to fill the gaps between the particles. As shown in Table 5,
the sample cured in Ca(OH)2 had larger dimensions and a
heavier weight. This means that the samples in Ca(OH)2
became larger, increasing the voids and not providing any
reactions with the Ca(OH)2. Goto and Roy (1981) found
that the curing temperature and w/c influenced the pore size Fig. 15—Compressive strength of cementitious cube at
distribution, the porosity, and the permeability of the cement different saturation level and curing in normal temperature
paste. However, the samples by Goto and Roy (1981), which water. (Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi.)
were cured at 60°C (140°F), had a smaller total porosity than
land cement and is related to the strength in cement-based
the samples cured at 27°C (80.6°F). Goto and Roy (1981)
materials.
also claimed that tricalcium silicate (C3S), when cured at
Figure 15 shows the compressive strength for the cubic spec-
a higher temperature, becomes larger in size than when
imens (S100C200, S125C250, S150C300, and S170C340),
cured at a lower temperature at an early age. In addition,
which used different saturation levels while retaining the same
Sandor (1986) emphasized and proofed that the compressive
curing scenarios. It was observed that the maximum compres-
strength of the sample is improved when the exterior holds
sive strength was 4.81 ± 0.79 MPa (697.63 ± 114.57  psi)
less wetness than the interior. Moreover, Patel et al. (1996)
when it was not dried in the oven. Hence, this emphasises that
discovered that the thickness of the calcium silicate hydrate
high-temperature curing has a more significant effect on the
(C-S-H) rims in paste increased from 5 to 25 mm (0.196 to
mechanical behavior of materials.
0.98 in.) at 20 and 80°C (68 and 176°F), respectively, at 28
There are several factors that led to the compressive
days age. C-S-H is the basic product of the hydration of port-
strength results, as shown in Fig. 15, where some specimens
did not develop effectively for the 7- and 28-day curing ages.

ACI Materials Journal/March 2019 63

Fig. 16—Interior (core) and exterior (shell) for same satura-
tion levels in 3DP sample.
Firstly, the binder used in this preparation is not pure water,
which affects the final mechanical strength of the mortar.
Secondly, the samples had orthotropic properties despite
being as isotropic as normal mortar. Moreover, porosities
were prominent among the particles due to their free-flowing
nature. Layer processes made complete shapes, which also
created open pores between layers. Another point to consider
is the hydration process. Figure 16 shows how all particles
did not hydrate at the same time in the same saturation level
because the dispersion of the binder on the powder was not
distributed evenly (some parts of the powder were wet, and
some others were still dry). Accordingly, it was observed
that when they were put in the water for curing, the unhy-
drated particles released from the hydrated particles. The
combined particles resulted in better bonds, and the C-S-H
bonds became stronger. However, they did not have enough
strength for structural purposes. This is further evidenced
when Parr et al. (2005) and Patel et al. (1996) samples’
gained better mechanical strength after being heated in the
oven because it helped the C-S-H or C-A-H to form a
better bond.
Additionally, the normal cement mortar is usually cast
under compaction or vibration, resulting in higher strength
than the 3DP samples due to the removal of voids. In the
3DP process, there was no such compaction.
Most notably, CAC (6.78 kg [2.2 lb]) and lithium
carbonate (0.45 kg [0.99 lb]) in the powder quickly set the
sample at an early age with a higher strength than normal
cement. However, as shown in Fig. 15 and corroborated by
Ann and Cho (2014), the development of later-age strength
(28 days) is negatively affected.
Two sizes of the 3DP samples are presented in Fig. 17.
The result shows that the samples of 20 x 20 x 20 mm
(0.78  x 0.78 x 0.78 in.) have a slight difference in their
compressive strength, with the standard mortar cube sample
50 x 50 x 50 mm (1.96 x 1.96 x 1.96 in.). This study needs
further investigation to find the differences in all three axes
when compared with conventional mortar mixture. Due to
the consistency of the printing layer and binder distribu-
tion on powder bed, there was little difference in stiffness
between the two different printed dimensions. However, the
64
Fig. 17—Comparison of compressive strength of 3DP
cement mortar cube in different sizes.
compressive strength results in the conventional mixture
for the different dimensions of cube mold can make an
enormous difference due to the compaction, porosity, and
particle size distribution, as explained by Hamad (2017) and
Majeed (2011). On the other hand, for the 3DP specimens,
the compressive strength increases with 14% while the 3DP
cube changes dimensions from 20 x 20 x 20 mm (0.78 x
0.78 x 0.78 in.) to 50 x 50 x 50 mm (1.96 x 1.96 x 1.96 in.),
which is contrary to the prepared conventional mortar cube.
For further understanding the anisotropic properties of the
3DP cube, this work required further examination and extra
study. Additionally, the produced 3DP scaffold continuously
changed its properties and dimensions over time or in a vari-
able environment such as medium conditions, temperature
and humidity (Farzadi et al. 2015).
Wettability and drop penetration
The wettability and drop penetration tests were conducted
for the gypsum powder and CAC&OPC powder (modified
powder). In this test, it has been observed that both test
methods provided similar outcomes for the penetration time
of the water-based droplet into the powder.
Figure 18 shows the test results for the gypsum powder
and modified powder for both the contact angle goniom-
eter methodologies. It presented that drop penetration time
takes longer to absorb the whole drop binder in the gypsum
powder, with an average value of 55.24 ± 5.4 seconds,
while the absorption of the whole drop takes less time in the
modified powder (cementitious powder), where the average
value was 3.70 ± 1.4 seconds. For each powder, the test was
repeated three times. Each of the trials has been indicated in
different color lines in Fig. 18.
Figure 19 shows the test results with the images of the
droplet penetration taken by the high-speed camera for both
powders. The binder drop penetration in this method has
similar results to the goniometer method. In this approach,
the drop penetration average value time in gypsum powder
ACI Materials Journal/March 2019
Fig. 18—(a) Penetration time per volume (µL) consumed by gypsum powder; and (b) penetration time per volume (µL)
consumed by CAC&OPC powder. (Note: 1 µL = 0.000033814 fl oz.)
was approximately 55.93 ± 0.66 seconds, while the drop
penetration average value time for the modified powder was
1.28 ± 0.07 seconds. These experiments were also delin-
eated by Hapgood et al. (2002) and Zhou et al. (2014). The
significant differences in penetration time happened due to
agglomeration in the modified powder. Agglomeration is
when the modified powder is naturally packed more closely
in the powder bed than the gypsum powder. In other words,
gypsum powder distributed as a homogeneous powder and
the CAC&OPC (modified) powder distributed as a hetero-
geneous powder during the preparation for the bedding layer
and testing for the droplet penetration.
The earlier studies by Nguyen et al. (2009) used two types
of powder with different particle sizes for the hydrophobicity
and hydrophilicity. They discovered that the smaller-sized
particle has hydrophobic properties. That study also showed
that the penetration time increased as a result of adding the
fine particles powders to the mixture powder. Hence, this
research agrees with the same study that has been done
by Hapgood et al. (2003). In all the previously conducted
investigations into the penetration time, evidence shows
that the hydrophobic phenomena will occur in the finer
powder particles. The literature thus agrees with the results
that are presented in this paper. In Fig. 2, it was shown that
the gypsum powder has a smaller particle size than that of
CAC&OPC.
As further evidence, Fuhr et al. (2013) showed that the
fungi penetration time increases with decreasing the pore
size in the wood. In the presented study, it was observed
that gypsum powder has a smaller pore size than cementi-
tious powder. Another study, performed by Tschapek (1984),
stated that the porosity in the soil helps the water easily pass
through the soil particles (hydrophilic soil).
Further study should be conducted to better understand the
phenomenon for the drop penetration through two different
powders. The porosity between particles has a great effect on
the droplet penetration in the powder, which is led to droplet
penetrating the unpacked surface faster.
This experimental work revealed that the water-based
droplet on gypsum powder particles took longer to
completely penetrate the surface.
ACI Materials Journal/March 2019
The wettability test is used to find how the structural form
is made and the coherence between the printed part occurred.
The coherence of 3-D-printed objects is mainly dependent
on the strength of the bond between particles, and how the
droplet binds to the particles. The morphology of the parti-
cles and the presence of interparticle pores could be another
reason for differences incoherence. Cement particles may
provide an additional reason, and according to Kirchberg
et al. (2011) fine particles increment the contact angle and
decrease the powder’s wettability. Figure 2 clearly shows the
peak particle sizes in gypsum powder that is inclined to have
finer particles than CAC&OPC powder.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper described the modification to the inkjet 3-D
printer, which operates by using low-cost cementitious
powder materials. This powder can be used in construction
work as it is fit-for-purpose and affordable. This study has
demonstrated reasonable mechanical strength which, with
further investigation, can potentially help enable the produc-
tion of large structural elements. This study also describes the
influence of various parameters and how they can affect the
quality of the sample. Moreover, experimental results were
presented by producing a higher compressive strength when
curing in a furnace while using the CAC&OPC powder. The
compressive strength under different curing conditions and
drying at high temperatures was also discussed. Comparisons
were made with other samples of 5% Ca(OH)2 dissolved in
water and 100% water. Experimental tests were conducted
on flexural strengths in different 3DP directions, which
showed that samples printed along the X-directional axis had
the highest flexural strength. In addition, the compressive
strength for the cube increased by 14% while the dimensions
of the cube changed from 20 x 20 x 20 mm (0.78 x 0.78 x
0.78 in.) to 50 x 50 x 50 mm (1.96 x 1.96 x 1.96 in.). There-
fore, when the size of the cube increases, the compressive
strength of the specimen increases as would occur contrary
in a conventional mortar cube mold. The penetration time
for gypsum powder and CAC&OPC powders has also been
investigated in this research, which led to the conclusion
that the heterogeneous powder quickly absorbs liquid into
the powder due to the higher porosity among its particles.
65
Fig. 19—Images from video recording for penetration time per drop of binder in gypsum powder and CAC&OPC powder.
Future work should focus on analyzing the various
percentages of Ca(OH)2 in water and employing various
temperatures or steam conditions. Finally, it is also necessary
to evaluate larger particle sizes of fine sand in the powder. It
is important for researchers to use distilled water instead of
the water-based liquid from the supplier until a better reac-
tion emerges between the particles.
AUTHOR BIOS
Pshtiwan Shakor is a Casual Staff and a PhD Candidate in the School
of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Technology
Sydney, Sydney, Australia. His research interests include serviceability and
durability of concrete and additive manufacturing technology for construc-
tion applications.
Shami Nejadi is an Associate Professor at the School of Civil and Envi-
ronmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney. He received his
PhD in structural engineering from the University of New South Wales,
Sydney, Australia, in 2005. His research interests include serviceability,
creep, shrinkage, durability, and service life of concrete and prestressed
concrete structures.
Gavin Paul is a Senior Lecturer, School of Mechanical and Mecha-
tronic Engineering and Core Member at Centre for Autonomous Systems.
His research interests include additive manufacturing for construction
application.
Jay Sanjayan is a Professor in the Faculty of Science, Engineering &
Technology at Swinburne University, Melbourne, Australia. He received his
PhD from Monash University, Melbourne, Australia. His research inter-
ests include cement hydration, 3-D printing for construction, and concrete
construction.
Ali Nazari is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow in the Faculty of Science,
Engineering & Technology at Swinburne University. His research interests
include materials and modeling.
66
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge that the experimental program
of this study has been conducted in the Smart Structures Laboratory at the
Swinburne University of Technology and the Civil and Structural Engi-
neering Laboratory at the University of Technology Sydney.
REFERENCES
Ann, K. Y., and Cho, C.-G., 2014, “Corrosion Resistance of Calcium
Aluminate Cement Concrete Exposed to a Chloride Environment,” Mate-
rials (Basel), V. 7, No. 2, pp. 887-898. doi: 10.3390/ma7020887
AS 1012.8.3, 2015, “Methods of Making and Curing Concrete—Mortar
and Grout Specimens,” Standards Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
ASTM C29/29M-07, 2007, “Standard Test Method for Bulk Density
(Unit Weight) and Voids in Aggregate,” ASTM International, West Consho-
hocken, PA.
ASTM C293/C293M-02, 2002, “Standard Test Method for Flexural
Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Center-Point Loading),”
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM C39-01, 2001, “Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength
of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens,” ASTM International, West Consho-
hocken, PA.
Castilho, M.; Dias, M.; Gbureck, U.; Groll, J.; Fernandes, P.; Pires, I.;
Gouveia, B.; Rodrigues, J.; and Vorndran, E., 2013, “Fabrication of Compu-
tationally Designed Scaffolds by Low Temperature 3D Printing,” Biofabri-
cation, V. 5, No. 3, p. 035012. doi: 10.1088/1758-5082/5/3/035012
Castilho, M.; Pires, I.; Gouveia, B.; and Rodrigues, J., 2011, “Struc-
tural Evaluation of Scaffolds Prototypes Produced by Three-Dimensional
Printing,” International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology,
V. 56, No. 5-8, pp. 561-569. doi: 10.1007/s00170-011-3219-4
Farzadi, A.; Solati-Hashjin, M.; Asadi-Eydivand, M.; and Abu Osman,
N. A., 2014, “Effect of Layer Thickness and Printing Orientation on
Mechanical Properties and Dimensional Accuracy of 3D Printed Porous
Samples for Bone Tissue Engineering,” PLoS One, V. 9, No. 9, p. e108252.
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0108252
Farzadi, A.; Waran, V.; Solati-Hashjin, M.; Rahman, Z. A. A.; Asadi, M.;
and Osman, N. A. A., 2015, “Effect of Layer Printing Delay on Mechanical
Properties and Dimensional Accuracy of 3D Printed Porous Prototypes in
Bone Tissue Engineering,” Ceramics International, V. 41, No. 7, pp. 8320-
8330. doi: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2015.03.004
Feng, P.; Meng, X.; Chen, J.-F.; and Ye, L., 2015a, “Mechan-
ical Properties of Structures 3D Printed with Cementitious Powders,”
ACI Materials Journal/March 2019
Construction and Building Materials, V. 93, pp. 486-497. doi: 10.1016/j.
conbuildmat.2015.05.132
Feng, P.; Meng, X.; and Zhang, H., 2015b, “Mechanical Behavior of
FRP Sheets Reinforced 3D Elements Printed with Cementitious Mate-
rials,” Composite Structures, V. 134, pp. 331-342. doi: 10.1016/j.
compstruct.2015.08.079
Fuhr, M. J.; Schubert, M.; Stührk, C.; Schwarze, F. W.; and Herrmann,
H. J., 2013, “Penetration Capacity of the Wood-Decay Fungus Physis-
porinus Vitreus,” Complex Adaptive Systems Modeling, V. 1, No. 1, p. 6.
doi: 10.1186/2194-3206-1-6
Gibbons, G. J.; Williams, R.; Purnell, P.; and Farahi, E., 2010, “3D
Printing of Cement Composites,” Advances in Applied Ceramics, V. 109,
No. 5, pp. 287-290. doi: 10.1179/174367509X12472364600878
Goto, S., and Roy, D. M., 1981, “The Effect of w/c Ratio and
Curing Temperature on the Permeability of Hardened Cement Paste,”
Cement and Concrete Research, V. 11, No. 4, pp. 575-579. doi:
10.1016/0008-8846(81)90087-9
Hamad, A. J., 2017, “Size and Shape Effect of Specimen on the Compres-
sive Strength of HPLWFC Reinforced with Glass Fibres,” Journal of King
Saud University, Engineering and Science, V. 29, No. 4, pp. 373-380.
Hapgood, K. P.; Litster, J. D.; Biggs, S. R.; and Howes, T., 2002, “Drop
Penetration into Porous Powder Beds,” Journal of Colloid and Interface
Science, V. 253, No. 2, pp. 353-366. doi: 10.1006/jcis.2002.8527
Hapgood, K. P.; Litster, J. D.; and Smith, R., 2003, “Nucleation Regime
Map for Liquid Bound Granules,” AIChE Journal. American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, V. 49, No. 2, pp. 350-361. doi: 10.1002/aic.690490207
Jee, H. J., and Sachs, E., 2000, “A Visual Simulation Technique for 3D
Printing,” Advances in Engineering Software, V. 31, No. 2, pp. 97-106. doi:
10.1016/S0965-9978(99)00045-9
Khoshnevis, B.; Bukkapatnam, S.; Kwon, H.; and Saito, J., 2001,
“Experimental Investigation of Contour Crafting Using Ceramics
Materials,” Rapid Prototyping Journal, V. 7, No. 1, pp. 32-42. doi:
10.1108/13552540110365144
Kirchberg, S.; Abdin, Y.; and Ziegmann, G., 2011, “Influence of Particle
Shape and Size on the Wetting Behavior of Soft Magnetic Micropow-
ders,” Powder Technology, V. 207, No. 1-3, pp. 311-317. doi: 10.1016/j.
powtec.2010.11.012
Klammert, U.; Vorndran, E.; Reuther, T.; Müller, F. A.; Zorn, K.; and
Gbureck, U., 2010, “Low Temperature Fabrication of Magnesium Phos-
phate Cement Scaffolds by 3D Powder Printing,” Journal of Materials
Science. Materials in Medicine, V. 21, No. 11, pp. 2947-2953. doi: 10.1007/
s10856-010-4148-8
Le, T. T.; Austin, S. A.; Lim, S.; Buswell, R. A.; Law, R.; Gibb, A. G.;
and Thorpe, T., 2012a, “Hardened Properties of High-Performance Printing
Concrete,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 42, No. 3, pp. 558-566. doi:
10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.12.003
Lee, C. S.; Kim, S. G.; Kim, H. J.; and Ahn, S. H., 2007, “Measure-
ment of Anisotropic Compressive Strength of Rapid Prototyping Parts,”
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, V. 187-188, pp. 627-630. doi:
10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2006.11.095
Lin, X.; Zhang, T.; Huo, L.; Li, G.; Zhang, N.; and Liao, J., 2015,
“Preparation and Application of 3D Printing Materials in Construction,”
27th Biennial Conference of the Concrete Institute of Australia, Melbourne,
Australia.
Lipson, H., and Kurman, M., 2013, Fabricated: The New World of 3D
Printing, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Lu, K., and Reynolds, W. T., 2008, “3DP Process for Fine Mesh Struc-
ture Printing,” Powder Technology, V. 187, No. 1, pp. 11-18. doi: 10.1016/j.
powtec.2007.12.017
Ma, Y.; Yin, X.; Fan, X.; Travitzky, N.; and Greil, P., 2015, “Fabrication
of MAX-Phase-Based Ceramics by Three-Dimensional Printing,” Journal
of Ceramic Science and Technology, V. 6, No. 2, pp. 87-94.
Majeed, S. A., 2011, “Effect of Specimen Size on Compressive,
Modulus of Rupture and Splitting Strength of Cement Mortar,” Journal of
Applied Sciences (Faisalabad), V. 11, No. 3, pp. 584-588. doi: 10.3923/
jas.2011.584.588
Nguyen, T.; Shen, W.; and Hapgood, K., 2009, “Drop Penetration Time
in Heterogeneous Powder Beds,” Chemical Engineering Science, V. 64,
No. 24, pp. 5210-5221. doi: 10.1016/j.ces.2009.08.038
ACI Materials Journal/March 2019
Parr, C.; Simonin, F.; Touzo, B.; Valdelièvre, B.; and Namba, A., 2004,
“Impact of Calcium Aluminate Cement Hydration upon the Properties of
Refractory Castables,” Journal of Technical Association of Refractories
Japan, V. 25, No. 2, pp. 78-88.
Patel, H.; Bland, C.; and Pool, A., 1996, “The Microstructure of Steam-
Cured Precast Concrete,” Advances in Cement Research, V. 8, No. 29,
pp. 11-19. doi: 10.1680/adcr.1996.8.29.11
Pegna, J., 1997, “Exploratory Investigation of Solid Freeform Construc-
tion,” Automation in Construction, V. 5, No. 5, pp. 427-437. doi: 10.1016/
S0926-5805(96)00166-5
Pfister, A.; Landers, R.; Laib, A.; Hubner, U.; Schmelzeisen, R.;
and Mulhaupt, R., 2004, “Biofunctional Rapid Prototyping for Tissue-­
Engineering Applications: 3D Bioplotting versus 3D Printing,” Journal of
Polymer Science. Part A, Polymer Chemistry, V. 42, No. 3, pp. 624-638.
doi: 10.1002/pola.10807
Sandor, P., 1986, “Effect of Curing Method and Final Moisture Condi-
tion on Compressive Strength of Concrete,” ACI Journal Proceedings,
V. 83, No. 4, July-Aug., pp. 650-657.
Seitz, H.; Rieder, W.; Irsen, S.; Leukers, B.; and Tille, C., 2005,
“Three-Dimensional Printing of Porous Ceramic Scaffolds for Bone Tissue
Engineering,” Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. Part B, Applied
Biomaterials, V. 74B, No. 2, pp. 782-788. doi: 10.1002/jbm.b.30291
Shakor, P.; Nejadi, S.; Paul, G.; and Malek, S., 2018, “Review of
Emerging Additive Manufacturing Technologies in 3D Printing of Cemen-
titious Materials in the Construction Industry,” Frontiers in Built Environ-
ment, V. 4, p. 85.
Shakor, P.; Renneberg, J.; Nejadi, S.; and Paul, G., 2017a, “Optimisation
of Different Concrete Mix Designs for 3D Printing by Utilizing Six Degrees
of Freedom Industrial Robot,” 34th International Symposium on Automa-
tion and Robotics in Construction, Taipei, Taiwan.
Shakor, P.; Sanjayan, J.; Nazari, A.; and Nejadi, S., 2017b, “Modified
3D Printed Powder to Cement-Based Material and Mechanical Properties
of Cement Scaffold used in 3D Printing,” Construction and Building Mate-
rials, V. 138, pp. 398-409. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.02.037
Szucs, T. D., and Brabazon, D., 2009, “Effect of Saturation and Post
Processing on 3D Printed Calcium Phosphate Scaffolds,” Key Engineering
Materials, V. 396, pp. 663-666.
Tschapek, M., 1984, “Criteria for Determining the Hydrophilicity-­
Hydrophobicity of Soils,” Zeitschrift für Pflanzenernährung und Boden-
kunde, V. 147, No. 2, pp. 137-149. doi: 10.1002/jpln.19841470202
Utela, B.; Storti, D.; Anderson, R.; and Ganter, M., 2008, “A Review of
Process Development Steps for New Material Systems in Three Dimen-
sional Printing (3DP),” Journal of Manufacturing Processes, V. 10, No. 2,
pp. 96-104. doi: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2009.03.002
Vaezi, M., and Chua, C., 2011, “Effects of Layer Thickness and Binder
Saturation Level Parameters on 3D Printing Process,” International Journal
of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, V. 53, No. 1-4, pp. 275-284. doi:
10.1007/s00170-010-2821-1
Vlasea, M.; Pilliar, R.; and Toyserkani, E., 2015, “Control of Structural
and Mechanical Properties in Bioceramic Bone Substitutes via Additive
Manufacturing Layer Stacking Orientation,” Additive Manufacturing, V. 6,
pp. 30-38. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2015.03.001
Vorndran, E.; Wunder, K.; Moseke, C.; Biermann, I.; Müller, F. A.; Zorn,
K.; and Gbureck, U., 2011, “Hydraulic Setting Mg3(PO4)2 Powders for 3D
Printing Technology,” Advances in Applied Ceramics, V. 110, No. 8,
pp. 476-481. doi: 10.1179/1743676111Y.0000000030
Withell, A.; Diegel, O.; Grupp, I.; Reay, S.; de Beer, D.; and Potgieter, J.,
2011, “Porous Ceramic Filters through 3D Printing,” Innovative Develop-
ments in Virtual and Physical Prototyping: Proceedings of the 5th Interna-
tional Conference on Advanced Research in Virtual and Rapid Prototyping,
Leiria, Portugal, Sept. 28- Oct. 1, p. 313.
Zhou, Z.; Buchanan, F.; Mitchell, C.; and Dunne, N., 2014, “Print-
ability of Calcium Phosphate: Calcium Sulfate Powders for the Application
of Tissue Engineered Bone Scaffolds Using the 3D Printing Technique,”
Materials Science and Engineering C, V. 38, pp. 1-10. doi: 10.1016/j.
msec.2014.01.027
Zhou, Z.; Mitchell, C. A.; Buchanan, F. J.; and Dunne, N. J., 2013,
“Effects of Heat Treatment on the Mechanical and Degradation Properties
of 3D-Printed Calcium-Sulphate-Based Scaffolds,” ISRN Biomaterials,
V. 2013, pp. 1-10. doi: 10.5402/2013/750720
67
 Researchers, Maximize
Your ACI Membership

 Technical Presentations and Documents: Access to a vast

abstract library, online presentations, webinars, and
educational documents are often free for members

Attend Conventions: Provides opportunity to develop codes

and standards, learn about the latest technology, and network

 Call for Papers: ACI is accepting the submission of papers for

conventions, committees, chapters, and subsidiaries

ACI membership gives researchers and ACI Convention Schedule

educators unique opportunities to expand City Location Dates
their careers and further their education.
Québec Québec City
ACI events such as ACI’s biannual City, QC, Convention Centre
March 24-28,
conventions give participants the chance 2019
Canada & Hilton Hotel
to participate in the development of
Duke Energy
industry codes and standards, learn about Cincinnati, Convention Center October 20-24,
the latest in concrete technology, network OH, USA & Hyatt Regency 2019
with other concrete professionals, and Cincinnati
fulfill potential continuing education
Chicago/
requirements. ACI membership also Rosemont,
Hyatt Regency March 29-
allows professionals access to a vast O’Hare April 2, 2020
IL, USA
abstract library, online educational
Raleigh Convention
presentations, webinars, and ACI Raleigh, October 25-29,
Center & Raleigh
education documents at either no or NC, USA
Marriott
2020
minimal cost. ACI and its subsidiaries
are always accepting the submission
of papers for potential publication and
distribution. More information about
ACI’s conventions, technical presentations
and documents, and calls for papers can
be found at www.concrete.org.

For more information visit Concrete.org   