; .

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SPHOTA THEORY; APHILOSOPHIC~~D~SYCHOLOGICAL
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ANALYSIS

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A PHILOSOPHICAL AND PSCYHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS,
.t, .
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OF

THE SPHOTA l<rHEORY OF LANGUAGE AS REVELATION

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By
,
HAROLD GEORGE. COWARD, B.A" B.D., -M.A.

"$1

"

\
A Thesis

Submitted t~ School 'of Graduate Studies

. ,

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for th~ Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

'.-
November, 1973

@ Harold George CO,ward

 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (1973)
. (Religion) ,"
. . Mcl~TERUNIVERSITY
.Hamilton, Ontario·
f
r'
TITLE: ;, A Philosophical' and Psychological Analy~is of the'
Sphota Theory of Language as Revelation
'."<,, .

AUTHOR: Harold George Coward, B.A. (University of Alberta)

, ~ B.D. (Univer~ity of Alberta)
M.A. (University of Alberta)

SUPERVISORS : Professor J. G. Arapura

Professor G. P. Grant

NU}ffiER OF PAGES: viii~ 340

" .
SCOPE AND CONTE~~S:

The aim of this study' was to cl~arly.describe the Sphota theory

of language showing both its logical consistency and its'psychologieal

basis in experience. In Part One the philOso~hical task of de~c~ibing

·the Sphota theory in a reasonable and logically consistent ~nrier was

'.'

undertaken. . Chapter Two est'ablished the ground for ;.this philosophical

.. . ' . .. ,
.. ! ' .

analysis by presenting a cc:mceptuaf.survey of . Indian ,-thought regarding

f\lang~age and revelation, so as" ·to make clear the

. ,- -
. .",.,,". . . . ..
''::'" ")

.
me.taphysical background

against and out of which the Sphota theory·-(If

. .
lang~a:ge as reve'l~tion
developed. The Third Chapter carried out the actual philosophical .. task,

namely, a description,of the logical consiste~cy ot theSpho~a theory - ,

itself. In Part Two. of the study a psychological interpretation was

offered showing how, .accotding to traditional Indian Yoga, the Sphota

view of language (as )ogically conceived) is practically possible. The

psychologic,al interpretai:1~n was developed in two steps.

ii
In Chapte~
,
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 I

Four, attention was focused on the psychological processes that take

place Within th~ mind of the

-.. speaker showing how
.. the.Sphota
. . can
..cognize
.
,',)
.
,"

itself' 'into the two aspects of uttered sounds and inner meaning.
, '
Fol:- "

towing through the practical experi~nce of language communication,

Chpater Five analyzed the psychological processes that occur within

the 'mind of the hearer in his c~gnition of the uttered sounds and

their correlate revelation Of the same meaning-whole or sphota f~om

",which the speaker originally began.

'.
The major conclusion reached was that the Sphota theory of
.
language as revelation is .both logically COnsistent and {when interpreted

by Yoga)~psychologically realizable in practical experience, It was also

found that ,PatanJali 's Yo~a when taken 'up to. the nirvicara stage'of
,", " r,
samprajnata samadhi (but not beyond since Bhartrhari's sphota, by de-
"
~-. ? •

finition, does- not admit of an asamprajnata samadhi) provides a psycho-

.,
logical discipline which seems to fit well with
~ ,
Bhart~hari's
. unexplained
,"
<·tr~
. /..- -
assumption of sabdapurvayoga as a means for purifying vSk'and achieving
•
moksa. Sabdapurvayoga effects this puriU'cation4ly. the removal,of ob-:
- I-
structing
. vasanas,
. . through the practice of the yogangas,
. .
so as to allow_
.,. .
, -/ '

the teleology of citta (given by the grace of Isvara) to pass naturally'

.'
into the noumenal state'of the attaJnment of true knowledge. ' .The

implications of these findings for the'~ngoing language debate witHin'

Indian philosophy and for future comparative studies, especially in

relation to contemporary WesteJ;tl psychol.ogy, were discussed.

iii
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,ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS,
•
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I gratefully acknowledge ~he helpful,guidance and encoural4P&

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,support given by my co-supervisors, Professors,J. G. Arapura and G. PI
" ,"", J
Grant, .throughout this thesis projec't. Professor Arapura I would'
"
especially thank for ,the pA,tientway he helped me, over some of the

problems encountered in carrying through the',Yoga

, interpretation, and

for his inspiring visipn of the dialogue between the'spheres of the,

spirit, as a.'me thodology for the c~mpa~ative's(udY

.
of . '\
C,
\
Religion. 'Professor

Grant, I want to thank~,for his penetrating insight into the ~roblems of'

delimiting and structu~i~g an interdisciplinary project such as this,

and\for the,ded~cated concern which he directed towards the' successful

'completion of this thesis. I must thank Professor A. H. Black for his

valuable advice in the delimiting of the psychological interpretation.

,and for his patient' endurance 1,n readi'ng a manuscript filled with

unfamiliar Sanskift terms. I am also :grateful to Dr. S.' J. MacIsaac

for her helpful comments relating to Analytical Psychology. "

I t is impossible for me to put into words the deep sense of

,.
indebtedness I feel towards Professor T. R. V. Murti. Ri fl . i~sigh,tful
.", ' 'i •.
:','"
guidance h~lped me greatly in thefo~ulation of this thesis problem•
....
and his p~tient and illuminating reading of the Sanskrit texts,of the

.; Yoga Sutd~ and 'the Sphotasiddhi pro,vided me with the'basic knowledge

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required :::e::::i:: ::::

r
:::d:~ the encouragement and hospitality
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of Professor }lurti that I was abl~ to ttavel to Varanasi in 1972 t9,. ',., ,
':' ..,
iv

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undertake my bas,ic research.- In this connection,. I want ,to acknow~edge .

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the kindness oj; "the, staff me;m,ers of, the Advanced Center for tpe Study
• ",' . •
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of Philosophy, Banaras Hindu University" for receiving. me a~ a 'visiting
". . .... . . ';

researCh schdlar during the sunnner of 1972. I 'must also express my.

'"thimks. to Mr; H. D. Sharma, Deputy Librarian, BaI!ara~ Hin'du University,

( for allowi~g me' to search. the litera'tur~ cif the Central . Library and
, / ....
!
for assisting me wi,th the photocopy.i~g of relevant articles .

• Finally, I want to acknowledge the, financial assist;.anc;e of

,
McMaster University. in providingme wi'th. a travel research grant

which 'made .pC)Ssible my tr;l11 to India, and for the ~IcMaster Graduate
, , .
; Fellowship which made the writing 'of this thesis possible •

.'~,
.

v
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- ," ;j TABLE' OF CONTENTS

Page
1. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM. ... .. 1

The Pro1>.iem,
~
',' •• roo • • • • • .'" ••• ,• • • • . • • • • • • • • . • • • • •• 4

}Ietho~ology and Definition 'of ,Terms 10

Sources and Treatment of ~indings , .. " •• " •••• .............. • .15

" " \
PART ONE: A PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS OF, THE SPHOTA THEORY 9F
.
,LANGUAGE AS REVELATION f

n. METAPHYSICAL BACKGROUND OF THE SPHOTA THEORY •• . ... '" ...... ......... 19

The Br3hmariical Tradition ••• .................... .. '" 20

"
The Approaches: of the Rsi'to the Divine VB!< •• . •.•.. 23

Language in tl1e'Br;fuiii.iillcal'Schools. .. .
siitikhya •• .37
YOg~·•• ( . ..: .40

Mimiimsa.:..
, ,
. ~.: ..•.•.. ...... 44
•
Vedanta.' - ~ '".. .. .54
--...
The Naturalistic' Tradition ~ 63

Carvaka.. .. .. ". .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. - 64

Early Buddhisl'l '•••••••••••••••••••' •••••••••

. I IJ'
'~65
,__~_~-JIla[junLaa. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... 9"

Nyaya •••• ....... ...,

. ".'" 73

The SphotaApproach .• ...... .. ......... . . • ••,80

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Page' •
LA..~GUAGJ:: AS REVElATION ••••••••••••• ~88
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III. . THE SPHOTA',THEORY:OF
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Spho~a•••••••'•• '• • ~ ~-• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 88
De'flnition of
. . . '-
!'
.
••
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. ". Reason for the -Phenomenali.zation of the Spho;a.; ...... 98

Sphota Defined as SenteMe (Vakya-Spho;a) ~ .:. ~ • ~ ••••• 105

Variations in the Definitions of SPhot~•• ! ; 109

" '! . , .'/
.{

How the Sphota Reveals M~aning.; ~,'."" ':••• 114

.'.""
Sphd;a ~d Word-Meaning \racla~Sphota) •••••••••••••.. 115,

. Sphota artd Sentence~eani~g (Vakya-Sphota)

.... ... -..
•.•••• ; .• ;lS7
, .
"'.,~~-.~---.._

Pratibha •••••••••'•••••••• '• •• -•••••••••••••••.•••••• ~3,

.
. . ~ I .
. . .
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Sphota in Relation to.the Le:"'els of Language •••••••••• 166
.

Conclusion: SUIlII!lary' ofth~ Majo,r sp~o;a Te1nts •••••• 177,

PART TWO: A PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE S~hO':A' -

'THEORY OF LANGUAGE AS, REVELATION

IV. CONSCIOUSNESS 1N TRE EXPRESSION OF ~PBOTA ••••••••••••• ,.18l

.
rne Nature of.Consciousrtess •••• ; •••••••••• ;.:••••••: •• 182

The Yoga Conception or .Consciousness as Citta ••••••• 190

'<:itta- ~ a Psychological Interpretat,ion of spho;a

ro • . , " • . ..••
, ConsciollSness.•.••••••• ~ •••.•.•.•:.:••••••••••••••••• .• 194
.. "
~ General Comments on Consciousness asCitta.; ••••.•.• 198

·The Individuation of Consciousness in the Expression

o.f Spho.~a •••••••'••••••••••••·••.•••••' ~ •• • 209

Rajas Individuation ..of Citt~ as,>the Instirive

BaSis of Speecl1: .• ,•••.....••,..•••.•..... ,. ••.•..•...• 219

The Individuated Expression

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of Sphota as Artha and .
Dhvan.1·•••• '~.~ ............. •'••••.•• ~ •••••••••• _•. __ •• 220

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Page

Comments on the Individuated Expression of

. \ . .
/. Sphota ' ,. . 228
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'V. THE, EXPERIENCE OF SPHOTA AS PERCEPTION ••••••..•••.••• 245

Perception of Sphota at the Levels of Vaikharl,

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'ana'Madhya~ Vak••••• ~ •• ; •••••••••.••••• ! . • • • • • • 24?

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, - . -
Sabdapurvayoga
. as Interpreted by Yogangas ••••••.• 26l
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Comments on"the Yoga Interpretation of Vaikha:J;l,

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Madhyama and Sabdapurvayoga •••..•• ',' .•••,•.•••. 276
, ,.' --
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Perception of Sphota at the Levelcf Pasyanti Vak •• 293 '

Comments on Ni'rvi tarka 8!1d Nirvicara Sa:M"dhL .... 298 ,

Conclusion: Sununary,of the Major Sphota Tenents

•
• as Interpreted by .Yoga Psychology ,.•.•••••••• , •• 308
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v:J:. CONCLUsi-oN ,
;~ : .. ~ , '
0 314

SUllllDSry of Hajor SphotaTcnents Found to ,be both

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Logically Consisten~~and Psychologically
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Expe'rienceab'le .. _'~ ..' ~

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Sp~ci,alImplications. of the Psychological. ,,;
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Interpre,tation for the Philosophical Analysis
I

at" Sphota Theory." ';. .,,:~ 1 320

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Some General Implications Indicating

. Possibilities for ,Further Sbidy 325

BIBLIOGRAPHY ' ' - ' '. 331

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viii

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CHAPTER" I.

\-.~

• INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM

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'", Indian speculations on language or speech (vak) bE\gan" with

, . the·Veda and ,have continued to the"present day. Several of the ~
!-

,Veda hymns :aredevoted to viik·and the s;1me'line of thought can be

tll
found continuing in the Brahma~as and the Upani~ads. .Patanjali, .in

. ..
his Mahabhasya, eomments on these eariier iueas establishing the.

basic formulations for a philosRphy of language. ,These 'seed', formu-

lations are given further develop~ent' by both the Mimamsa and the'
( ,
Grammar schools, with the latter producing the Spho:a theory., Al~
•
though these schools differ wit~ regard to the exact way in.which
..
words re~eal meaning, they both hold t~at.the capacity of words to

" .denote objects is ·inherent and given (with the exception of technical
, .
words and proper names). In the case of.objects ~tich as' table or
\ -
'chair, .experience is" necessary to enable one to use the denot:ative )
:'<dJ '. " .
word correct{y, but the capacity of "a word to signify a particular

, referent is intrinsic in it . I n the case of word"s symbolizing

'supersensuous r~lity, such as "Brahman", we need not have seen the

object·orheard the word before to be ~ble to understand 'itssignifi~

cance. While perception (pratyaksa), . inferen~e (anumana). comparison

.
..
(~amana) and, in the case of· the Bhatta-mfmamsa and Vedanta postu-

lation (arthiipatti) and negation (anupalabdhi), may give valid

,
..
1 . ,

~
,.,
, ,

'l~

.:\""
..- "~.
 L

,
indications as to the pature of reality, it is only through the ,reve-
/ ,<
latory power of words (sabda) that ultima~eknowl~dge of rea11ty can

be realized.. ~

The SphQ,ta theorists, along''?-t9 the,'MIma~akas"hold that

,/
~ab,dais both divine in origin ,and is the means, bl'which the divine"
/~
.
,
may be known. The Carvakas, Buddhists and vai~e,!ika!!,hOwever; ,do not

recognize ~abda as a valid source of knowledge (pramana). The Carvakas~'

taking their 'stand on perception as the only pramana, maintain that

• . • . . • C7

/
,:,ords ,or l;abda may give knowledge only so lang as they are cases "of

percep~ion, ?ut insofar as wards a~e said to signify supersensuaus

".' " ;' .
objects they are not free from error or doubt. In such cases of'sabda,

e.g., the,Ved~s, authority is invoked by the process of inference, and 't

infer~nce, when analyze shows itself to be an uncertain ,leap f~pm

., the known 'to the' unk own.

" . -- The Buddhists also, challenge the orthodox
," --,"'-
" '

view by maintaining\
, like .the Carvakas,
~ .
that
. -
"
~abda is not an independent \

,
source of knowledge but a case o,f perception or inference. The"
/ . /
Vaisesikas, 'too, include sabda wi thin inference since the ground of

,knowledge is the same in' both.

'/
In )aina thought sabda is recognized as a ~eparate prama04

which comes, at its highest or scriptural level, fr~ a perfected

and· omniscient finite ~elf. Both San~ya and Yoga accept ;abda as

pramana but, as will be shown in Chapter Two, with the latter sch8P~
,
gi~ng it more ,weight than the former. For both, however, sabda is
,
,impersonal and 'therefore possesses self-eviden~ validity. The Nyaya,

on the other hand, hold that the Vedas have'been created by God, arid,

as much as any other form of knowledge, mus,t be proven by reason.

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, . , ,

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a
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Mimamsa though t; although c'ontaining diffex:ences of opinion on the '
. , .
, . •
, , .
. - l

nature of personal (pauruseya) sabda, agrees that impersonal

.. '. " .' .' ...
- . '" '. / . .' - ,
(apauruseya) or scriptural sabda provides valid knowledge of super-
. . . .
. " . <.- '
.
sen~uous realities. Like the Mfmamsa, the' Vedarttists'v1ew Vedic
, ' 'It .
;, .~ '~"
sabda as impersonal
" , revealed but. not created by God -arid
.' . , .
'_ 1
pramana,
. '. ,~' ,-
In addition to bei~ challen~ed by'th~·Ca~v.akas ap.d ,Buddhists,
,,
, ,
fo~ their ontologi~al,view-of the nature ofsab?a' the Sphota

theQristsxlSO att"cked from,wi~hin their own Brahmanical camp •

,
'because of their viejo' 'that meaning is conveyed by virtue of ~ab!la's"
"
2
primary existence as a ~aning-whole or sphota.
. The 'M1mamsas 'and
i-
3
Vedantists , rejected, this Sphota tbeory
. '
~d 'argued 'that me~~{ig i,s,
conveyed as a result of 'the summationof the primary {abda phonemes

or letters. It seems w~r~note

,
t!lat, in spit~ of receiving so
'

little support within the overall context of Indian thought, the

,'Spho~a theory has continued to be hotly c;ontested righ,i: up to the,

present ,time. To~ay, in addition to the ~ontinuirig cha,llenges from
,

"
~e'a~ove s~iy .statlements introduCing, t~ll different
stands taken on sabda 'by the various Indian s.chools of thought is ,
,ma'1ply based'~pon Satischandra'Chatter~ee, The NyBya'Theory of Know-
, ledge, Calcutta: 'University of Calcutta, 1965, pp. -319+321; and'S.
C. Catterjee and D. M. Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy,.
Calctitta:
.:. tJnivers~ty
-
of '
Calcutta,
. -
1939 • . ~

1.._" ,"

2~e. for exaD!Plei sutra ,V. section 12 "On SphC)ta" 0.£

"
" _
Slokavartika by Kumarila Bhatta. trans. by Ganganatha Jha: Calcutta:
Asiatic Society. 1909 ~ , •• ,
\
3, ,. , . . - ' -
"See, 'for, example. SaOkara's bhasya:on'the Vedan-ta Sutras.
trans. by G; Thibaut~ .vol. XXXIV. '!Sacre'd Books of· the East';. reprinted
by Kotilal Banars~s. 19~8.'~.3.28. pp~ 206-211~
• • ~J

. .' -;:#' (;!..,,,,

tI"; ..... ' i..J ,
$,..:." i)
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4
"

_.0 _" "": ;.

Within Eastem thought, the,Sphota,th~o~ is confronted by contem:=-Y

;..<-~,.• ' .~ . '
J
porary Westem conventional views of language in t~rms of empirical"
.-:...,~-
,. . '. 4 "
factuality and linguistic game ,theory •. '. Y·e~.... in.s.pite of all this

, '-, calling into 'l~Jl tion, -fcjr one empiri..~~~~'·~~tr'i~~edWes temer. at

least. ~ta theory see~ w'orthy" ~ considerati0I!c.because of

." . ~.. .' • • ,,",.. 0
. '"
-

its"e'xpli5~tion of t~e felt divine\1Ility ·of language. In ,the face'

of s\lch challenges, howev;er. the Sphota view of language. if it' is

.l} ~ ",

to De credible. must continue to support itself not only by logical

aiugment but also by demonstrating'psychologic~levidence for its

.position •.

,.J>,
I. THE fROBLEM
,~ ,
"
. Statement of the: problem. I t was the purpose of this
!--

study (1) to clearly set forth the Sphota theory of language showing

its ~Lcal cO~isten~;' and' (2) to. describe psychological eVidence

s,llpporting tbeSpho;a theory of language. While the psychological

-' .. . ~ .
interpret~tion that. is planned here"Will use, both traditional Indian .

, psychology ~)and modem ,Western' psychology. more lfe1ght is 'given

>.- '(,,-\.
.. : 1'; ~

to trad1.ticmal. Indian psychology ,with W;estern psychology bein:g used

. ., I . . -. .' • "~_ I f'

. to., proyide adc!ed ev;1dence andelucidat!.on. '

...
, ~; .

/
/.-"

"
,'., , .

t·"
~. " ~

.. \lmportance of the's tudy • The ques tion as to how language

\"1 ' ." .' . . . . •
conveys ~ledge. in ordinary inter-personal communication. or as

to how ~guage reveals knowledge •. ill intra-person~l reflectlo~has

-,'

.'. 4See • for example,

LoBi~Philosophicus. London:
th:~ L. Wittgenstein. Tractatus
Rout],edge & Ke-gan Paul, 1963.
,.
'-""

., 5,

attracted the attention of philosophers, in bpth the East and the'

West. Speculation as to the relation between t~o~ghts, words or

~_ J

",~entences,and the reality to which they refer ,-;:has been one of the
- , 5
oldest preoccupations' of the human mind. Urban clearly eXpresses

the'relationsfl'ip between language and knowledge: " .•• the problem of

," ,

what we~an know is so ~losely bound,up with the question· of what we

can say. that all meditation on knowledge involves meditation on

. ,
,,--" 6 -, '
.." speecli"., Although no attempt is made here to ,review the vast Western
..'.
:.. "~f...: ' ,.-
discussion of the nature' -of language, it is perhaps apposite to,note
.'£ - ,.
thaJ":a nineteenth and early twentieth centurY renewal of interest

in l<fuguage in t~e West was influenced by scholars such as von

7 8 . 9
Humbol!lt, Ma;x MUller, and Cassirer" all of whom gave considerable

,attention to Indian language and religion. - The analytical psychology

'5
W. M.' Urban, Language and Reality. London: George Allen,
, & Unwin Ltd., 1939, p. 21.

6
Ibid., p. 22.

7
~ee, for example, Chapter 13, "The Word Unit: The Incor-'
porative'Capacityof Language" in Wilhelm, von Humboldt's Linguistic
Va?lability and Intellectual Development, trans. by G. C. Buck and
F. A. Raven. Florida;: University of Miami Press, 1971 (originally
published in Ge,rman in 1836).

8K• M. Max MUller, The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy.

London: Longmans, Green imd Co" 1899, ,and Lectures on the Science
of Language. Delhi: Munski Ram Mandhar Lal (1861), reprint ,1965.

9 ' "'
, E~ Cassirer,
,Language and Myth. New York: Dover Pub. Inc.,
English trans. by S. Langer published in 1946. This work, which
evidences considerable ~fluence f~m the Indian concept of speech
(vSk), formed the basis ~ of the thinking upon which his
Philosophy of Symbolic Forms dep'tllds. "(See .·~Translator's Preface",
vii ff.) - ,

,
 , -
'\

of, Carl Jung also ackn-owle~~es

, a conSiderable' influence from Indian
, \
ideas as to the inhe'r~t power and' meaning of various visual and
, 10
linguistic symbols.- ,However, as will, be 'seen in Part Two of this

thesis, Jung's concepts of "archetype" and, "symbol'

, - formati_on" may,

"ell involve so:ne distinctively Wes,tern differences .fr~m the

, ,

,traditional Indian analysis·';f the,psychological nature of thought.

Althou~ Jung seems to be the only major figure in Western psychology

•
-~-
who hils been .serlously- __influenced by
~ .
Eastern thought, the theory
---:.-=-:- . _ 6
and experimental evidence of a recent We5tern study by Werner and
·1. .
Kaplan on the psychological processes of,lWnguageseems~tohave

some common ground with the problems encountered in the classical

. 11
Indian analysis ,of language. "

In India, the .evaluation of ,language as a means of valid

knowledge (sabda prama';i) h~ from the earliest debates' to recent

discussion remained 'a key topic in traditional Indian philosophy

" ~
and,psychology. And within the Indian context, the'Spho;a theory,

, - -
.
as first systematized by Bhartrhari and as later defended by Mandana
. ..
Misra, has remained one of ' the pivotal points in ,the debates between

" 10 See, for example, C. G.' Jung, PsyChe and Symbol.

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New

, ;''': liSee, for example, 'Werner and Kaplan's concepts pI the

1'ri' :li1herent
,,,;!J'.' ,". .
expressiveness of obj~cts and uttered sounds (phonemes) as
!,';' ,a necessary basis, for, the, formation of words. Heinz Werner and
';~\.Bemard Kaplan, Symbol Formation. New, York: John Wiley and Sons,
.·'~1963; pp. 19-22. .,.~~
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,