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EJTHR 2017; 8(1):26-37

Research Article

Christina K. Dimitriou

From theory to practice of ecotourism: major


obstacles that stand in the way and best practices
that lead to success

https://doi.org/10.1515/ejthr-2017-0004
received 10 May, 2016; accepted 28 December, 2016
1 Introduction
Tourism and the environment are closely linked together.
Abstract: Ecotourism has been described as the ideal kind
The environment is a key resource, and consequently its
of tourism, as it aims to conserve the natural, cultural and
conservation and management are vital both to the future
other tourist resources for continuous use for future gen-
of the tourism industry and to the society as a whole’
erations whilst still bringing benefits to the present soci-
(Green, Hunter & Moore, 1990, p. 11). In addition, it is nec-
eties. Theoretically, it sounds so promising and attractive,
essary to always remember that the physical (natural and
but when it comes to its actual implementation, signifi-
man-made) environment provides many of the attractions
cant constraints bar the way to success. Various coun-
for tourists and tourism itself can create positive as well as
tries that attempted to foster sustainable development in
negative impacts. A lesson learned through the years, and
their communities, either partially achieved their goals or
sadly the hard way, is that even though tourism may be
their implementation totally lapsed. These fruitless efforts
able to generate great opportunities and wealth for devel-
clearly reflect the huge gap that still exists between the
oped as well as developing countries across the world, it
theory and practice of ecotourism. The purpose of this
also has a price: the potential to damage and destroy the
paper is to fill this gap that seems to have been growing in
very resources on which it depends, if not planned and
recent years by explaining what has been done wrong and
considered carefully. The uncontrolled expansion of mass
what specific policies and procedures could help bring a
tourism that mostly characterised the 1960s clearly proved
positive change. This paper aims to move from theory to
how true this is and obliged researchers, tourism experts
practice and concentrate on how the implementation of
and others to re-evaluate the international tourism devel-
ecotourism can be achieved properly and lead to success.
opment and gain great environmental concern over the
The key factors responsible for failure are addressed, so
tourism’s growth. Nowadays, the promotion of a more
they can be avoided and mistakes of the past will not be
sustainable and eco-friendly approach and the need to
repeated. It also serves as a guide to more effective strat-
develop responsible tourism policies have become the top
egies of promoting ecotourism successfully around the
priority of the tourist industry and the local governments.
world.
As Wheeller (1996) made clear, ‘the tourism product is the
environment, tourism depends on the environment for its
Keywords: Ecotourism; Sustainable development;
continuing success; therefore it is in tourism’s interest to
Protected areas; Authenticity; Carrying capacity
preserve and enhance the environment’ (p. 15).
One of the main names that are used to describe this
more responsible, ‘greener’ form of tourism was ecotour-
ism. It must be noted, though, that it is a mistake to inter-
pret ecotourism only in terms of preserving sensitive and
vulnerable ecosystems or natural habitats that are threat-
*Corresponding author: Christina K. Dimitriou, State University of ened of serious damage. Ecotourism also embraces the
New York (SUNY) at Plattsburgh, Hotel, Restaurant and Tourism Ma- protection of human cultures that can be totally destroyed
nagement Programme, 101 Broad Street - Sibley 403 H, Plattsburgh, or become inauthentic and are sensitive as well. As Sir
NY 12901 USA, Tel: 001-518-564-3182 Fax: 001-518-564-3263 E-mail:
Cripsin Tickell (Cater & Lowman, 1994) ascertained, ‘The
christina.dimitriou@plattsburgh.edu

Open Access. © 2017 Christina K. Dimitriou published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non-
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sensitivity of human cultures is often forgotten. In some forms of tourism, or whether idealism should dominate
places the vestigial remains of old cultures have been put whereby coexistence of tourists’ needs and small scale
at risk by our enthusiasm for them. At Lascaux in France development is one means of dealing with the conflicts’
the Magdalenian cave paintings of 13,000 to 14,000 years (p. 33). Things get more complicated when the majority of
ago have become gravely contaminated as a result of vis- research revolves around developed countries and devel-
itors, in particular their breadth and moisture. In Egypt oping countries, particularly Africa and Central and South
ancient sites are being destroyed by the constant pound- America, are ignored or under-represented (Lu & Nepal
ing of visitors’ feet’ (p. ix). The economy of New Zealand 2009). This is so unfair, as the emphasis should be placed
is based on tourism which is a key source of employment. on both the destinations that have been damaged as well
However, the erosion and consumption of fossil fuels, as those that are still virgin, unspoiled and untouched.
as well as the pollution and waste created by tourism, The purpose of this paper is to examine where the gap
have severely threatened the country’s natural resources lies between ecotourism’s theory and practice and how it
and forced people to consider ecotourism as the antidote could be bridged. The goal is to show how the theoretical
(Freeman, 2014). Zambia also relies heavily on tourism approach and conceptual framework of ecotourism can be
as one of its main sources of economic growth (Thapa, linked to its successful implementation and explain those
2013). The increased numbers of international tourists factors that may lead to failure. In order to achieve that,
who are attracted to the country’s parks, protected areas the paper is divided in three sections: The first section
and other wildlife-based destinations have created the covers the theoretical part where the definitions and the
need for visitor management and the implementation of concept of ecotourism are addressed. The second section
ecotourism. Carreiro (2014) described the damage that focuses on the ineffective practice and implementation
uncontrolled tourism caused to India and especially to of ecotourism where an attempt is made to identify and
Goa and expressed the need for ecotourism that respects explain the major obstacles that block the path to success.
local cultures, includes and involves the local people in The third section presents best practices that can posi-
the tourism process and offers long-term sustainability tively contribute to sustainability in tourism and create a
and conservation. better future for this industry.
Taking into consideration the current situation and
the challenges that many tourist destinations face today,
it is truly remarkable to note that this critical issue of the
damage and deterioration of the natural resources of this 2 Ecotourism: the theory
planet – which is still so intensely recognised – has been
stated ages ago. The Greek philosopher, Plato, ‘in Critias
2.1 Defining ecotourism
written some 2.400 years ago, described massive defor-
estation and soil erosion stemming largely from agricul-
Ecotourism is one of the most debated subjects over the
tural pursuits on the Mediterranean island of Attica. He
recent years. Plenty of comments, different ideas, opin-
concluded: …just as happens in small islands, what now
ions and approaches have been written and expressed
remains compared with what then existed is like the skel-
about ecotourism, which clearly show that tourism experts
eton of a sick man, all the fat and soft earth having been
and researchers still haven’t managed to reach a common
wasted away, and only the bare framework of the land
ground and there is much confusion over its terminology
being left’ (as cited in Harris & Leiper, 1995, p. xviii).
and concepts (Dimitriou, 2000). Tourism literature offers
Ecotourism could be described as the ideal kind of
a variety of terms to describe this type of tourism: ‘small
tourism that harmonises its activities with what is best
scale’, ‘appropriate’, ‘alternative’, ‘controlled’, ‘ecotour-
for the environment whilst simultaneously building a
ism’, ‘green’, ‘nature’, ‘soft’, ‘responsible’, ‘environmen-
solid basis for long-term growth. Its principles sound very
tally sensitive’, ‘sustainable’ and so on. According to
promising with great potential. Theoretically, it consists
Godfrey (1998), most of this confusion stems from ‘the
of the perfect tourism development, small scale, steady
pre-occupation of some to avoid the mass tourism label,
and controlled, but there are doubts to what extent it can
which functions in this context as a repulsive point of ref-
become a realistic tourism development and can be imple-
erence’ (pp. 213–214) and use instead a selection of words
mented successfully. As Gilbert, Penda and Friel (1994)
and synonyms that would imply how different, milder and
contended, ‘the question is therefore one of whether
better ecotourism is compared to mass tourism.
realism should prevail in terms of acceptance that there
will always be conflicts of cost and benefit related to all

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When it comes to defining ecotourism, a number of developments, or attractions for tourists which are set
different definitions have been used. Lindberg, Enriquez in and organized by villages and communities’ (Smith &
and Sproule (1996) not only recognised the lack of a Eadington, 1992, p. 52). Third, local people are involved
widely accepted definition of ecotourism, but also in and most of the benefits will flow to them without flowing
their effort to explain the meaning of ecotourism added away to other places or abroad in the form of leakages.
that ‘many experts involved in the ecotourism field assess Fourth, ecotourism meets ‘the needs rather than demands’
that tourism should satisfy conservation and develop- (Romeril, 1994, p. 28). The final theme is to promote cul-
ment objectives in order to be considered ecotourism’ tural sustainability. Ecotourism development respects
(p. 543). Orams (1995) defined ecotourism as ‘tourism and conserves the culture of the host community without
which is based on the natural environment and seeks to causing any damage or change. The element of authentic-
minimize its negative impact on that environment’ (p. 5). ity is strongly emphasised.
Björk (2000) in his effort to clarify any misconceptions However, one thing that needs to be highlighted, at
and misuses of this kind of tourism pointed out that ‘eco- this stage, is that some people just do not seem to worry
tourism is not farm tourism, nature tourism or adventure so much about finding the exact definition of ecotourism
tourism, but a unique tourism form that has become very but draw attention instead to other more crucial aspects
popular due to the greening of markets, increasing knowl- of this ‘green’ form of tourism. For example, Gilbert,
edge of the fragility of the environment, better informed Pend and Friel (1994) contended that no matter how it is
managers, and the recognition that there is a close rela- called, the main issue is that it consists of a ‘more benign
tionship between good ecology and good economy’ (p. form of tourism or even one with positive benefits’ (p. 3).
189). Krippendorf (1987) used the term alternative tourism Furthermore, Romeril (1994) argued: ‘what does it matter
and provided a very detailed description regarding what if the definition is not strictly appropriate if the activity is
it entails. More specifically, he supported that ‘the term environmentally sensitive and sound? Surely it is the phi-
is most often used for traveling in or to, the Third World, losophy and not the semantics, that is important’ (p. 25).
but sometimes it is applied to other countries. The guiding
principle of alternative tourists is to put as much distance
as possible between themselves and mass tourism. They 2.2 The concept of ecotourism
try to avoid the beaten track, they want to do things which
will bring them a sense of adventure and help them to Even though ‘the concept of ecotourism came into vogue
forget civilization for a while. Alternative tourists try to in the late 1980’s’ (Wild, 1994, p. 12), it is surprising that
establish more contact with the local population, they it is still not clear what exactly this kind of tourism is all
try to do without the tourist infrastructure and they use about. As Björk (2000) stated, ‘what kind of areas ecotour-
the same accommodation and transport facilities as the ism incorporates is not always obvious in the literature’
natives. They also want to get more information before (p. 189). Furthermore, Bottrill and Pearce’s (1995) remark
and during their holiday. They travel alone or in small that ‘increasing usage of the term ecotourism has done
groups’ (Krippendorf, 1987, p. 37). Smith and Eadington little to clarify the concept’ (p. 45) expresses accurately
(1992) noted that ‘alternative tourism is broadly defined the current situation, even after all these years. Orams
as forms of tourism that are consistent with natural, social (1995) supported that the increased number of defini-
and community values and which allow both hosts and tions of ecotourism signals the fact that it means different
guests to enjoy and worthwhile interaction and shared things to different people. Järviluoma (1992) approached
experiences’ (p. 3). In recent years, further attempts to ecotourism from the perspective that it is ‘small scale
define ecotourism ‘have centered on conservation, educa- developed by local people and based on local nature and
tion, ethics, sustainability, impacts and local benefits as culture’ (p. 118) and stressed the importance of respect-
the main variables’ (Chiutsi, Mukoroverwa, Karigambe & ing the ‘environmental and social carrying capacity’ of
Mudzengi, 2011, p. 14). a tourist destination. Others (Butler 1992; Weaver, 1995)
In this paper, the term ‘ecotourism’ is interpreted as viewed ecotourism as anything other than mass tourism
the type of tourism that includes the following central or even the alternative to mass tourism. There were also
themes: First, ecotourism develops in a way that will not those (Jefferson, 1995) who examined ecotourism through
damage the environment, physical and general; avoids a political perspective and contended that its develop-
the negative effects that large-scale tourism has caused; ment ‘must be politically acceptable’ and ‘socially respon-
and carefully manages the resources so that they are avail- sible and environmentally sound’ (p. 104).
able for future generations. Second, it consists of ‘smaller

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In a more general sense, one could argue that eco- community tourism development (CTD) with consider-
tourism has been promoted as an idea and philosophy ation of the entire spectrum of economic, social, cul-
that involves responsible travel to natural areas, con- tural, natural, technological and political environments’
serves the environment and implies thought and concern. (p. 1277).
Nevertheless, this review of the variety of meanings and ‘The other key consideration to community involve-
concepts given to ecotourism implies that the debate over ment in ecotourism is the claim that local residents
what this type of tourism really is, continues. However, provide authenticity and value to the ecotourism experi-
this paper supports that ecotourism’s concept is based on ence with their deep and privileged knowledge about their
the widespread and growing interest in the natural envi- culture and overall tourism resource base in the destina-
ronment and the importance of conserving and protect- tion area’ (Chiutsi et al., p. 17).
ing it in any possible way from detrimental impacts and According to James R. Butler (as cited in Scace, 1993,
deterioration. p. 65), the following eight descriptive characteristics are
consistent with an ecotourism experience:
1. It must be consistent with a positive environmental
2.3 Principles and goals of ecotourism ethic, fostering preferred behaviour.
2. It does not denigrate the resource. There is no erosion
Ecotourism has been presented as a more caring, softer of resource integrity.
and greener form of tourism. Its primary goal is to con- 3. It concentrates on intrinsic rather than extrinsic
serve an area’s cultural heritage, protect and enhance values.
the environment as well as focus on the socio-economic 4. It is biocentric rather than homocentric in philoso-
sustainability of a tourist destination. Emphasis is given phy, in that an ecotourist accepts nature largely in its
on maintaining the unique sense of historic, cultural and terms, rather than significantly transforming the envi-
community identity of each place. Archer and Cooper’s ronment for personal convenience.
(1994) described ecotourism as the kind of tourism that 5. Ecotourism must benefit the resource. The environ-
‘demands a long-term view of economic activity, ques- ment must experience a net benefit from the activity,
tions the imperative of continued economic growth, and although there are often spin-offs of social, economic,
endures that consumption of tourism does not exceed political or scientific benefits.
the ability of the host destination to provide for future 6. It is a first-hand experience with the natural
tourists’ (p. 87). Ecotourism aims to mitigate the negative environment.
impacts associated with tourism development through 7. There is an ecotourism, an expectation of gratifica-
thoughtful policy-making and planning, but above all, it tion measured in appreciation and education, not in
requires change in tourists’ attitude and growing aware- thrill-seeking or physical achievement. These latter
ness on how to achieve ecotourism development. In addi- elements are consistent with adventure tourism, the
tion, ecotourism aspires to ‘the conservation of the pro- other division of natural environment (wildland)
ductive basis of the physical environment by preserving tourism.
the integrity of the biota and ecological processes, main- 8. There are high cognitive (informational) and effective
taining diversity, and producing tourism commodities (emotional) dimensions to the experience, requiring
without degrading other values’ (Hall & Wouter 1994, p. a high level of preparation from both leaders and
369). Most significantly, though, one of the main objec- participants.
tives of ecotourism development is ‘to reduce the poverty
of the world’s poor by providing lasting and secure liveli- When it comes to the principles that should underlie the
hoods, which entails minimizing resource depletion, cul- concept of ecotourism, Wight (as cited in Gunn, 1994, p.
tural disruption and social instability…it places emphasis 98) presented the following:
on the host population’s economy society and culture’ 1. It should not degrade the resource and should be
(Curry & Morvaridi, 1992). In that respect, the local com- developed in an environmentally sensitive manner.
munity plays a key role and acts as the main ingredient 2. It should provide first-hand, participatory and enlight-
that can lead to success. ening experience.
Choi and Sirakaya (2006) noted that ‘sustainable 3. It should involve education amongst all parties – local
tourism policies should provide workable definitions, communities, government, non-government organ-
principles, implementation strategies, action plans and isations, industry and tourists (before, during and
a monitoring system of sustainable development for after the trip).

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30   Christina K. Dimitriou

4. It should incorporate all party recognition of core variations (eco-vacation, eco-tour, eco-adventure, eco-
values related to the intrinsic values of the resource. cruise, etc.) were introduced in tourism offers operators
5. It should involve acceptance of the resource on its own only as simple words, tricks to attract a wide range of tour-
terms and in recognition of its limits, which involves ists, or to enter and to benefit from the special natural and
supply-oriented management. cultural areas’ (Cheia, 2013, p. 59).
6. It should promote understanding and involve part- ‘Tourism development typically benefits the middles
nerships between many players, which could include classes, as opposed to the poor, with the latter most
government, non-governmental organisations, indus- affected by the negative impacts of tourism’ (Cohen &
try scientists and locals (both before development Cohen, 2012, p. 2187). However, Wheeller (1992b) sup-
and during operation). ported that for educated tourists, ‘it is immediately
7. It should promote moral and ethical responsibilities appealing for it conveniently appeases any guilt while
and behaviour by all players. simultaneously providing the increased holiday options
8. It should provide long-term benefits: to the resource, and experience desired’ (p. 141).
the local community and industry (benefits may be
conservation, scientific, social, cultural or economic).
3.2 Major obstacles that block the path to
success

3 From theory to practice: Theoretically, ecotourism is the ideal kind of tourism that

major obstacles and ineffective sounds promising and attractive. As many people (Pigram
1990; Wheeller 1991; Wheeller1992b; Buckley 2009)
practices in the implementation of strongly argued, there is a huge gap between the theory of

ecotourism ecotourism and its actual implementation. There are great


difficulties in trying to translate it into practice as signifi-
cant constraints bar the way to success.
3.1 Problems with ecotourism The first major difficulty depends on the fact that
tourism development takes place in a diverse range of
Ecotourism is amongst those few topics offered in the environments in many different social and political con-
tourism literature that have been debated, discussed and texts (Archer & Cooper, 1994; Shaw & Williams, 1992).
researched on a theoretical level, but hasn’t managed to Each country or region is unique with particular charac-
advance much on the application and implementation teristics, so development approaches must be adapted in
level (Cohen & Cohen 2012; Walker & Moscardo, 2014). accordance to each specific destination. It should be high-
Despite the amount of articles and theories that have lighted that ‘some habitats we know are significantly more
been written on ecotourism, in terms of figuring out the fragile than others and require detailed knowledge to min-
successful implementation of ecotourism and mastering imize impacts’ (Gauthier, 1993, p. 106). Furthermore, De
the art of practicing what has been preached are both Kadt’s (1992) statement that ‘not all policies have identi-
still at an early stage. This is not at all surprising when cal implications for implementation’ (p. 66) couldn’t be
taking into consideration the confusion that exists in eco- more true, contemporary and accurate when it comes to
tourism’s definition, concepts and principles and coupled the issue of explaining why there are barriers in applying
with the fact that it has been misused and misinterpreted ecotourism successfully in different areas and regions. In
so poorly for several decades (Björk, 2000, Wall, 1997) on other words, it is critical to understand that what works in
a practical level. one place does not mean that it will also work in another,
Wheeller (1991; 1992a; 1992b; 1993a; 1993b; 1996) so extra attention should be given on each destination’s
has been one of the foremost questioners of ecotourism particularities. Lu and Nepal (2009) stressed how crucial
who has seriously considered and carefully examined its this principle is, especially in the case of the developing
concept and development at a deep level, bringing into countries ‘where culture, social norms and political con-
surface elements that encourage further research. He was texts are very different than they are in the developed
one of the first to address the issue that regarding eco- world’ (p. 14).
tourism, things may not always be as nice and good as Another important obstacle stems from the concept
they seem, as hidden dangers and traps that cannot be of visitor management that always comes up in any con-
easily seen may exist. ‘Often, however, this term and its versations evolving around ecotourism and sustainable

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policies. Tourism experts and professionals know how Jackson & Van der Straaten, 1996, p. 59). The major chal-
challenging and hard it can be to control the number of lenge in this case is that it is almost impossible for all these
tourists who will visit a specific tourist destination. The parties to cooperate and achieve an integrated approach
main problem with ecotourists is that they are attracted in order to tackle regional problems and foster ecotour-
to ‘out-of-the-way areas which often cannot sustain inten- ism because of their conflicting interests. In fact, this
sive human activities’ (Ioannides, 1995, p. 585). Therefore, can generate more implications such as local residents’
fragile destinations with very limited capacity suffer from protestation, for example, some villagers in the Akamas
heavy visitor pressure and eventually get destroyed. region ‘threatened that if the government proceeds with
An additional key obstacle that is closely linked to the its environmental conservation/sustainable tourism they
previous one is how to identify and agree upon capacity may resort to extreme measures such as setting fire to the
levels that will determine the number of tourists that a national forest or destroying the turtle nesting grounds’
tourist destination can withstand. This is extremely dif- (Ioannides, 1995, p. 590). This form of tourism should
ficult and requires careful attention on behalf of tourism support economically viable and long-lasting operations
planners. Butler (1993) in his effort to approach this obsta- with economic benefits appropriately distributed to all
cle noted: ‘it is possible to set limits to change and rates of stakeholders and promote stable employment and the
change, but the problem with setting limits is that people possibility of benefits and social services for hosting com-
have different views on what limits are available’ (p. 140). munities, contributing to poverty reduction. (Musarò, p.
An even more challenging obstacle is that whilst eco- 102) However, as Timothy (1998) supported, ‘there is a sig-
tourism may increase local involvement in order to gen- nificant lack of research on tourism planning in develop-
erate additional income for the communities, there are ing countries, even though it is clear that planning and
still many powerful transnational companies that control the political environments in which planning occurs are
ecotourist flows. Therefore, the destination manages to very different from those in developed, Western societies’
get only a small proportion of the income generated by (p.66). What is even more interesting is that Timothy’s
tourism. Indeed, Murphy (1985) was ahead of his time (1998) study found that developing countries suffer from a
when he argued that there are scarce good models of com- lack of cooperative tourism planning because of socio-po-
munity participation and planning in tourism. litical factors.
Pigram (1992) identified a further obstacle that stands Additionally, in order to put in practice ecotourism
in the way to success by warning that ‘implementation is policies, it is necessary to invest money in infrastructure.
likely to lapse or be only partial without a positive response However, Lane (1994) argued that funding can be slow
from the community affected in support of change’ (p. and a very difficult task. Indeed, identifying sources of
85). Sometimes, local communities themselves oppose to funding and getting them to support any kind of tourism
sustainable development and the implementation of eco- project, not just environmentally-friendly and sustain-
tourism. Butler (1992) explained that the preferences of able ones, has been and will always remain a challenge
local communities in some cases do not match the goals for every nation, destination or region, especially during
of alternative tourism proponents. Other times, local com- tough economic times. Apart from the financial aspect,
munities do not even have the chance to participate in the though, the issue of authenticity also comes into play and
decision processes because of the fact that their visions raises critical concerns. How can a destination preserve
and opinions are ignored. The Akamas case in Cyprus is and protect its local culture, costumes and other folklore
a characteristic example, as the tourism planners were aspects. To what extent the temptation to transform local
reluctant to listen to the hosts’ point of view. They thought traditions to foreign-friendly acceptable practices can be
that it would be better not to involve them in their plan avoided? What about authenticity? According to Cohen
‘fearing it would stir up trouble among interest groups’ and Cohen (2012), ‘the rapidly expanding non-Western,
(Ioannides, 1995, p. 590). particularly Asian, tourism was from the outset driven
The many different interest groups of stakeholders by other motives than a quest for authenticity’ (p. 2179).
involved in ecotourism management consist of another Indeed, this is a trap that many destinations can easily fall
crucial barrier. ‘These include government, individual into. Violating this core principle of ecotourism can back-
enterprises, “green” and non-“green” consumers and good fire and the consequences can be much more detrimen-
practice groups and community-based groups. Without tal when it extends and covers a whole continent rather
an understanding of the views of such stakeholders, it will than just a small local area or region. Xu, Cui, Sofield and
be difficult to consult successfully and to develop effective Li’s (2014) study on ecotourism in protected areas in China
partnerships with all those involved’ (Bramwell, Henry, discussed how the strategy of imposing Western standard

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32   Christina K. Dimitriou

ecotourism practices is quite risky, as it can bring the expect education on its own to work miracles and manage
opposite results across the country. This paper agrees fully to convert everybody towards a more environmental-
with Musarò’s (2015) statement that ecotourism ‘should ly-friendly attitude. Even if the majority of tourists become
respect the socio-cultural authenticity of host communi- educated, there is no guarantee that they will ever apply
ties, preserving their typical building structures, their cul- what they will have learnt. Education might increase
tural heritage and traditional values, and cooperating for environmental awareness, but it still cannot solve the
better intercultural understanding’ (p. 102) and contends problem’ (p. 360). Cater (1994) argued that a great deal
that countries that ignore this key principle will continue of eco-friendly tourists who visit a tourist destination for
to fail in their efforts to become sustainable. a few days and may never return to it adopt a careless atti-
During the 1990s when tourism experts were trying tude towards the use of resources without considering
to move away from mass tourism and figure out how to the long-term repercussions of their activities. It is hardly
turn to a more environmentally-friendly form of tourism, convincing that ecotourists will ever care for anything
Hunter (1995) argued that ecotourism could become ‘a more than the improvement of their image, their own
vital mechanism for environmental education, the protec- pleasure and satisfaction. Wheeller (1993a, 1993b) noted
tion of ecologically valuable habitats and job creation and that ecotourism should be read as egotourism. He based
economic development in many areas around the world’ his philosophy on the idea that people do not really care
(p. 83). However, so far this has proven to be one of the so much neither for the preservation of the endangered
major challenges that stand in the way to success. To suc- environments nor for what the future generations will be
cessfully foster ecotourism, destinations need specially able to see. He claimed that what they are really after is to
trained, highly skilled staff in order to achieve both sus- massage their egos and present the better possible image
tainable development and management. That’s all good of themselves. There is always the risk that their immedi-
in theory but when it comes to the actual implementation, ate personal gains will always dominate their choices and
key concerns that still pose a problem and have yet to be actions and it could be very unlikely that ecotourism will
answered arise. These include the following: Can ecotour- manage to change that. Apart from raising the tourists’
ism achieve to create enlightened and critical consumers? awareness, though, it is equally important to inform and
Who will train the tourists? Who will train the trainers, the educate owners, managers, supervisors, employees and
rangers and the tour guides and how they will be trained? residents as well which makes it even more complicated
Moreover, Wheeller (1991) raised further questions such and difficult to achieve.
as who will pay and on what time span the education Despite other barriers, there are also suspicions that
process will start showing its positive effects. Surprisingly the tourist industry’s shift towards a more environmen-
enough, so many years later, as Buckley (2009) noted, tally friendly form of ecotourism may only be a market-
there still is a lack of ‘any controlled longitudinal study to ing ploy. According to Prosser (1994), ‘tour operators are
test whether clients of commercial ecotours change their reaching to the changing demands, attitudes and expecta-
post-trip lifestyles or political activities so as to reduce tions among customers by marketing their green creden-
environmental impacts or enhance conservation’ (p. 656). tials’ (p. 35). Scace (1993) mentioned that suppliers apply
Careful exploration of this topic in future research would the eco label as merely a marketing tool to create tourist
significantly help the tourist industry gain a better under- packages such as trips to fragile areas that do not include
standing of where it should place its focus and emphasis any ecotourism principles, standards or criteria. Similarly,
regarding this issue. Wight (1993) noted that ‘green’ sells. In fact, she argued
Walker and Moscardo (2014) noted that further that terms prefixed with ‘eco’ such as ecosafari, ecotravel
research is needed on how to train tour guides to be able and so on give significant rise to interest and sales even
to apply the learning mechanisms of ‘mindfulness, reflec- if sometimes the product sold is totally unrelated to eco-
tion and personal insight and develop related perfor- tourism. Taking into consideration the countless travel
mance indicators’ (p. 1191). agencies and other tourist organisations that went down
There are also issues regarding the effectiveness of that path throughout all these years, it is no wonder that
training. Can training bring the desired results? Does not much progress has occurred. In addition, a major
training have the power to change tourist’s behaviours or question arises: How can change take place and how can
will it simply prove to be a waste of time? Wheeller (1991) obstacles be overcome when the actual tourist representa-
contended that ‘the notion of educating the tourist/trav- tives themselves do not genuinely care for the promotion
eller in destination awareness is surely idealistic’ (p.92). of ecotourism and are far more concerned about satisfying
Bramwell (1990) stated that ‘it is foolishly credulous to their own needs and interests?

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Finally, on theoretical level, ‘information and educa- are actually followed. In addition, governments must
tion from local or central government and tourism agen- be willing and prepared to invest any amount of money
cies can make the local public, tourists and companies needed to cover potential expenses as well as creat-
more aware of the environmental problems associated ing organisations or associations that will help promote
with tourism, and their role in generating and alleviat- the desired goals. As far as the latter is concerned, the
ing problems’ (Hunter 1995, p. 87). However, in practice, Ecotourism Association of Australia (EAA), which was
this is not so easy to achieve. How can all these people established in 1992, is a great example, as it aims to
be educated and persuaded to start acting in a ‘greener’ ‘promote ecotourism, develop ethics and standards for
way and realise the damage they themselves create? As ecotourism, promote understanding, appreciation and
far as tourists are concerned, Butler (1993) stated: ‘I don’t conservation of the natural and cultural environments
think you can convert everybody to sustainable tourism visited, and facilitate interaction between tourists, host
– some people for good reasons of their own like to have communities, the tourism industry, government and con-
a sun, sand and surf holiday’ (p. 40). This paper argues servation groups’ (Weiler, 1995, p. 64).
that even if tourism planners find the right mechanisms It is important to understand that simply introducing
or techniques and put them into action in order to educate guidelines for ecotourists is still not enough. There must
people, there will always be some ‘narrow-minded’ ones be constant and careful control in order to ensure that the
or others who will object and refuse to adapt themselves rules are followed. Discipline should also be enforced and
to the new green environment. actions should be taken against those who refuse to abide
All these obstacles and barriers should be taken into by them. Additionally, local authorities must support and
careful consideration and not be ignored. In trying to positively respond to such national governmental initia-
implement ecotourism and focus on approaches to sus- tives. In turn, national governments ought to support and
tainable tourism management, some ways must be found promote policies proposed by international governmen-
so as to discover solutions for minimising the difficul- tal and non-governmental organisations. Obviously, this
ties. Efficient tourism planning frameworks and the tools presumes well-established national and international net-
to implement environmental management are not only working channels to support such an organised campaign
required but also needed now more than ever. in tourist development.
Another proposal that this paper offers refers to
tourism planners, experts and decision-makers, as they
play a major role in the sustainable management practice.
4 Best practices in the implementa- The lesson learned from various unsuccessful attempts

tion of ecotourism to implement ecotourism is based on the fact that frivo-


lous reckless plans lead to undesirable effects. In order
to avoid that, there is a strong need for plans to include
Given the complexity of the many parties involved in eco-
clear priorities on their sustainable policy practice, which
tourism, it becomes apparent that one member individu-
are prepared in a way that strives to increase in the best
ally cannot bring change. Tourism will never become envi-
way possible the tourism experts’ knowledge over the des-
ronmentally sustainable if there is a lack of acceptance
tinations the plans are targeted. A thorough and careful
and cooperation between the various constituencies.
examination of the potential repercussions of the actions
Above all, this paper supports that the tourist industry
of these plans should also be addressed.
itself should work closely with environmental organisa-
Developing countries have struggled a lot to gain their
tions towards ‘green’ and eco-friendly policy formulations
own share of ecotourists and promote sustainable tourism
when it will finally realise that it is directly affected and
development across their regions, especially many of them
the preservation of environmental quality is an economic
rely heavily on tourism for economic survival and growth.
investment with significant profits involved.
In this case, the key is to get all the players involved to
There is also a dire need for strong government inter-
understand the role they are playing, take ownership of
vention. It would be foolish to expect tourists to contrib-
their responsibilities and stay motivated towards becom-
ute in the promotion of ecotourism by taking initiatives of
ing ‘greener’ for it is only then that policies will ‘eventu-
their own. Therefore, regulation is the primary concern
ally emerge that reflect the needs and interests of all con-
that governments should be after. Strict measures should
cerned’ (Hawkins, 1994, p. 272). The first step is to increase
be taken on all the fragile areas and codes of practice and
awareness and involve all parties in the tourism process
ethics should not only be set but also ensure that they
through collective decision-making and through getting

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34   Christina K. Dimitriou

people to understand how they can benefit overall and in small republic took the following restrictive measures to
the long term from such an initiative. The most difficult promote ecotourism: ‘Designating nearly half the island
part, though, would be to encourage parties to be more as national park. Putting a ceiling on the number of beds
concerned for the destination’s and the community’s on the three largest islands. Forbidding any hotel to be
interests instead of focusing on their own personal inter- built higher than a palm tree. Confining motorized water
est and short-term personal gains. This paper suggests sports to just a few beaches. Encouraging tourists to travel
that careful consideration of the needs of each region and by bicycle or ox-cart to their hotel. Forbidding motorcycles
how grouped together they can all be addressed to the and camping. Banning land sales to foreigners. Keeping
country as a whole is required, as it would help countries three of the islands as bird sanctuaries, to which visits are
to see the big picture by putting all the pieces together. strictly rationed’ (p. 28). Todd and Williams (1996) demon-
Through the years, many countries began to realise the strated how an Environmental Management Systems
great urgency to move towards a more sustainable form of model offers a solid management foundation through
tourism, safeguard their environment and develop their which sustainability objectives can be attained. Even
damaged or fragile areas in every way they could. In the though their study was focused on American ski areas,
1990s, several countries took the initiative to implement their results showed that they could also be successfully
ecotourism practices and become ‘greener’. For example, applied to other tourism businesses.
Los Tuxtlas in Veracruz promoted a strategy that focused A number of further efforts and attempts to promote
on ‘the region as a whole consolidating diverse activities ecotourism successfully have also occurred in recent
involving areas of environment, health, sports, cultural years. Georgiev (2010) addressed the issue of the nega-
events and even aesthetics’ (MacKinnon, 1995, p. 46), sup- tive impact of uncontrolled tourism in Bulgaria and the
porting that when they are structured and planned care- need to turn to ecotourism in order to remedy what has
fully, they encourage tourists to extent their length of stay. been destroyed as well as protect the fragile virgin areas
The purpose was to create a regional image that portrayed that are still left untouched. In order to achieve that goal,
tourists as guests and communities as hosts and estab- the country put together a political outline that included
lished a solid basis for social integration and development. government rules and regulations, environmental and for-
The government of Bhutan, which is located in the Eastern estry policies, entrepreneurship initiatives, local growth
Himalayan Mountains of Asia followed a strong policy to and development, where stakeholders of ecotourism
control tourism and its undesirable impacts by limiting were strongly represented by local authorities, non-gov-
the tourist arrivals. This policy required that all tourists ernment organisations, investors and so on. During the
come on package tours and obtain visas before arrival. period 2009–2013, there was also the National Strategy
This way, the government was able to monitor the travel for sustainable tourism in Bulgaria which set ‘the devel-
movement of all tourists (Inskeep, 1994). In Maldives, opment framework in the field of tourism together with
the local government established carrying capacity stan- the priorities for sustainable development of the sector’
dards for each resort island. In addition, the government (p. 337). Furthermore, all the fragile Bulgarian regions
applied several measures in order to protect the environ- are guided and operated by a specific network of nature
ment, such as controls of the marine ecology, controls on protection areas in the territory of the European Union,
the heights of buildings and controls on turtle products, which is called NATURA 2000. Sandu’s (2014) study com-
as far as the socio-cultural and economic considerations pared Brussels to Brasov counties to show the importance
were concerned; several policies, rules and regulations of implementation of responsible and well-planned eco-
were set so as to control tourists’ actions. During the tourism practices. The former is a mature tourist destina-
1990s, Maldives were amongst the first countries to set a tion that follows the EU laws and regulations regarding
good example of a destination that tried to retain the local sustainability, whereas the latter is a destination that is
codes and customs (in their case, the Islamic) and chose to now developing and would have a lot to benefit from if it
hire Maldivians as employees in their resorts rather than followed the steps of Brussels and use it as an example.
foreigners, and their Ministry of Tourism put forward a Brussels have been so successful in their implementation
public education programme to inform all residents about of ecotourism that it has made a big difference and helped
tourism. During the same time, Seychelles, in their efforts significantly both the area as well as the population. The
to deal with the awful transformation from an unspoiled environmental resources are well preserved, and socio-cul-
paradise to a destination suffering from serious cultural tural impacts are also carefully evaluated and protected.
and environmental impacts, exercised close control over More specifically, the implemented projects offered dis-
tourism. Croall (1995) noted that the government of this abled people a much better quality of life, whereas Brasov

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 From theory to practice of ecotourism...    35

counties showed how significant gender equality at work of tourist activities, though, has caused serious costs and
on a social level, as it brings balance and creates healthy ‘illnesses’, apart from the benefits and blessings it has
societies. Demonja and Gredičak’s (2014) study in Croatia brought. The effects of tourism development, especially
explained the country’s efforts to encourage cultural tour- on the environment, primarily due to the sheer volume of
ism-sustainable development as well as how Croatia could tourists and their heavy concentration in one particular
be benefited in every level – regional and national. These area of a country or region have caused serious to almost
benefits include the following: ‘Tourist valorization of cul- irreparable damage. Global climate change, ozone loss,
tural heritage increases the number of visitors to cultural erosion of soils and beaches, deforestation, disappear-
institutions, creates new revenue sources and alternative ing species, air, noise, water pollution and toxic waste are
sources of funding. Financing sources open opportunities only some of the main detrimental impacts that the irre-
to find new partners for the implementation of marketing sponsible and uncontrolled mass tourism has spread on
activities’ (p. 177). Carreiro (2014) suggested three ways to the destinations it touched.
promote ecotourism in India: (a) village home stays, (b) Ecotourism was built on the hope that it will tackle
wildlife ecotourism and (c) tribal tourism. Koščak, Colarič- the problems of mass tourism, minimise the conflicts
Jakše and Veljković (2014) discussed the multi-stakeholder between tourism and the environment, diminish the
approach, which proved to be really effective in the imple- impacts on the environment (physical and general) and
mentation of sustainable practices is Sloavania. They prevent tourism development from relying only on the
also presented a case study on ‘Heritage trails through short- and intermediate-term economic criteria, as it was
Dolenjska and Bela krajina in South East Slovenia’, which happening in the past. Ecotourism’s birth was based on
‘was a huge organizational and professional undertaking, ensuring that resources are wisely managed today so that
supported on all levels by tourism, political and economic they are available for future generations.
stakeholders and having wide social support, therefore The ideas presented in this paper comprise the basic
positively implemented and in some way still alive today. framework that could move the tourist industry closer to
Despite the fact, that the partnership for development no an eco-friendly model. It is hard to deny that the obsta-
longer exists, tourism products, which emerged through cles are still there and will not easily go away. It will take
this project, are still well marketed’ (p. 199). a long time and plenty of hard work and commitment to
These are only few indicative examples of the many this goal before ecotourism overcomes its serious difficul-
attempts on behalf of tourism governments and organi- ties and sets on a path to success not only on a regional or
zations throughout the world to safeguard and preserve national level, but globally as well. It is crucial to know,
the natural resources and foster ecotourism. It could be though, that ecotourism can actually become a reality and
supported that they serve as a ray of hope that shows that has the ability to be implemented effectively. Successful
the theories and principles of ecotourism can actually practices on behalf of some governments proudly prove
be implemented successfully, if planned carefully. These that. However, it must be recognised that this is not a one-
examples could also become a source of inspiration to time thing, but a continuous fight which requires rigorous
other destinations to follow their steps and the example and collective efforts of all the parties involved. Better
they have set. It may be a slow progress, but all these ini- planning, learning from past mistakes, closer monitoring
tiatives teach the tourist industry and its professionals and evaluation of results are key ingredients to success
helpful lessons on what works on different settings, what and strong indicators that this is the right path to follow. If
practices are most effective and how to proceed. These the tourist industry changes its rigid economic goals and
may still be baby steps, but they do indicate that the attitude, shapes up and does not underestimate the value
industry is moving in the right direction and can actually and significant contribution of the baby steps taken, it
bring a positive change. will gradually become quite ‘greener’, more environmen-
tally friendly and ecotourism-sound. Indeed, this is not as
important in the short term as much as it is in the long
term, as it not only applies what the concept of ecotour-
5 Conclusion ism dictates, but also creates a better future for the gener-
ations to come.
Tourism is a major industry and its growth as a social
phenomenon has been significant. The rapid expansion

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36   Christina K. Dimitriou

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