Mathematics

II

Pradeep
Boggarapu

Elementary
functions,
exponential
function

Logarithm
Mathematics II
function

Logarithm
identities
Pradeep Boggarapu
Complex
Exponents

Trigonometric Department of Mathematics, BITS-Pilani K. K. Birla Goa Campus

functions

Hyperbolic
functions
 Elementary functions, exponential function

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
In this section we will look at the complex exponential again.
Boggarapu
Definition
Elementary
functions,
exponential
function

Logarithm e x+iy = e x e iy = e x cos y + ie x sin y

function

Logarithm
identities

Complex
Note that if y = 0 then this definition reduces to the real
Exponents

Trigonometric
exponential.
functions

Hyperbolic
functions
 Elementary properties

Mathematics
II

Pradeep Additive Property

Boggarapu

Elementary

e z1 +z2 = e z1 e z2 .
functions,
exponential
function

Logarithm
function

Logarithm
identities
If we take z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 then we have
Complex
Exponents e z1 +z2 = e x1 +x2 +i(y1 +y2 ) which is by definition e x1 +x2 e i(y1 +y2 )
Trigonometric
functions

Hyperbolic
Now we know that e iy1 e iy2 = e i(y1 +y2 ) thus we have
functions
e z1 +z2 = e x1 e iy1 e x2 e iy2 = e x1 +iy1 e x2 +iy2 = e z1 e z2 .
Mathematics
e z1
II A consequence of this is: e z1 −z2 e z2 = e z1 thus e z1 −z2 = e z2 .
Pradeep
Boggarapu
Also note that e z is never equal to zero since |e z | = e x 6= 0.
Thus e −z = e1z .
Elementary
functions,
exponential
function

Logarithm Another point to note that the complex exponential is periodic

function

Logarithm with a period of 2πi, since e z+2πi = e z .

identities

Complex The argument of e z is y + 2nπ where (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .)

Exponents

Trigonometric
functions

Hyperbolic
functions
Mathematics
II

Pradeep
Derivative
Boggarapu
de z
e z is an entire function and dz = ez .
Elementary
functions,
exponential
function

Logarithm
We proved that e z is an entire function by using CR equations
function

Logarithm
and continuity of partial derivatives of Re e z and Im e z .
identities

Complex Let us write down the derivative now,

Exponents

Trigonometric
de z
functions
= ux + ivx = e x cos y + ie x sin y = e z
Hyperbolic
functions
dz
 Example

Mathematics √
II

Pradeep
Example. Find all values of z such that e z = 1 + 3i
Boggarapu √
Elementary
Solution Let us say e z √= 1 + 3i taking absolute value of the
functions,
exponential
both sides we get e x = 4 = 2 , thus x = ln(2).
function
√
Logarithm
function
Now the we have e x cos y = √ 1 and e x
sin y = 3
1 3
Logarithm
identities
or cos y = 2 and 2 sin y = 2
π
Complex
Exponents this gives us y = 3 + 2πn, where n = 0, ±1, ±2 . . .
Trigonometric
functions
So z = ln(2) + iy and y = (2n + 31 )π, where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
Hyperbolic
functions
 Questions

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
1 Show that e iy1 e iy2 = e i(y1 +y2 )
Boggarapu

Elementary
2 Show that (e z )n = e nz for a natural number n.
functions,
exponential
function
3 Find all the complex numbers z such that (a) e z = −5 (b)
Logarithm
function e 2z−1 = 1.
Logarithm
identities

Complex 4 Show that the real part of e 1/z is harmonic everywhere

Exponents

Trigonometric
except at the origin.
functions

Hyperbolic
functions
 Logarithm function

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
Similar to the real logarithm function we would like to define a
Boggarapu
complex logarithm.
Elementary
functions,
exponential
A straightforward generalization yields if e z = w we say z is a
function

Logarithm
logarithm of w .
function

Logarithm
identities
Unfortunately this does not define a function in the complex case
Complex as the periodicity of e z means there are infinitely many values z
Exponents

Trigonometric such that e z = w (or none at all ).

functions

Hyperbolic
functions
With the multiple valued function we still could solve many a
mathematical problems.
 Logarithm function

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
Let us look the equation e z = w , when w 6= 0.
Boggarapu

Elementary
Taking the absolute values of both the sides we get e x = |w |
functions,
exponential
thus x = ln(|w |),
function

Logarithm
function
and looking at the argument of both sides we get
Logarithm
identities
y = Arg (w ) + 2πn where n ∈ Z ( Z is the set of integers).
Complex
Exponents So the logarithm of w is ln(|w |) + (Arg (w ) + 2πn)i, n ∈ Z. This
Trigonometric
functions will be the definition of the multiple valued logarithm of a
Hyperbolic
functions
complex number.
 Example

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
Definition
Boggarapu

Elementary
log z = ln |z| + i arg z where arg z is the set of arguments of z,
functions,
exponential namely Arg (z) + 2πni where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
function

Logarithm
function

Logarithm
Example. Find log i. and log(−5)
identities

Complex
Exponents
Solution. The principal argument of i is π2 so the required
Trigonometric logarithm is ln |i| + ( π2 + 2πn)i, n ∈ Z. Or log i = ( 21 + 2n)πi for
functions

Hyperbolic
n ∈ Z. For the other one the required logarithm is
functions
log | − 5| + arg (−5) and since Arg (−5) = π we have
log(−5) = ln 5 + (2n + 1)πi where n ∈ Z.
 Branches

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
Since the complex logarithm is a multiple valued function,
Boggarapu
studying this function is difficult task.
Elementary
functions, We prefer to attach a single valued well defined function to
exponential
function logarithm. The process of doing that is called choosing a branch.
Logarithm
function

Logarithm
identities

Complex
Exponents

Trigonometric
functions

Hyperbolic
functions
 Branches

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
Recall the logarithm log z = ln |z| + θi where
Boggarapu
θ = Arg (z) + 2πn, n ∈ Z.
Elementary
functions,
exponential
If we let α ∈ R and restrict θ in the interval α < θ < α + 2π,
function

Logarithm
then the function fα (z) = log z = ln r + iθ where
function

Logarithm
r > 0, r = |z|, α < θ < α + 2π becomes a single valued function
identities
in the complex plain minus the ray θ = α.
Complex
Exponents

Trigonometric Note that it is not possible to define the function on the ray
functions

Hyperbolic
θ = α, since the limit of fα (z) as θ approaches a point on the
functions
ray does not exist, hence any definition at the point on the ray
will make the function discontinuous.
Mathematics
II In the polar coordinates the above branch could be written as
Pradeep
Boggarapu u(r , θ) = ln r and v (r , θ) = θ, so ur = 1/r , uθ = 0, vr = 0, vθ = 1
Elementary
functions,
so it satisfies the CR equations in polar form ( recall
exponential
function rur = vθ , uθ = −rvr ) so the derivative is :
Logarithm
function d 1 1
Logarithm log z = e −iθ (ur + ivr ) = e −iθ (1/r + i0) = iθ =
identities dz re z
Complex
Exponents
Where |z| > 0, α < argz < α + 2π.
Trigonometric
functions

Hyperbolic
A branch F of a multiple-valued function f is any single valued
functions
function that is analytic on some domain D and at each point z
of D the value F (z) is one of the values of f (z).
Mathematics
II With the above definition in mind note that for each α ∈ R we
Pradeep
Boggarapu have a branch of the multiple valued log z. The branch
Elementary
functions,
Logz = ln r + i θ where z = re iθ , −π < θ < π is called the
exponential
function principal branch.
Logarithm
function A branch cut is a portion of a line or curve that is introduced in
Logarithm
identities order to define a branch F of a multiple-valued function f . Here
Complex
Exponents
the origin and the ray θ = α make up a branch cut for the
Trigonometric
functions
branch fα of the logarithmic function. Any point that is common
Hyperbolic
functions
to all the branch cuts of a multiple-valued function is called a
branch point of the function. Here the origin is a branch point of
logarithmic function.
Mathematics
II Example. Show that Log(1 + i)2 = 2Log (1 + i) but
Pradeep
Boggarapu Log (−1 + i)2 6= 2Log (−1 + i).
Elementary
functions, Solution. Log(1 + i)2 = Log(2i) = ln 2 + iArg (2i) = ln 2 + i π2 .
exponential √
function

Logarithm
Now Log(1 + i) = ln |i| + Arg (1 + i)i which is ln 2 + π4 i so it is
function
clear that Log(1 + i)2 = 2Log(1 + i)
Logarithm
identities

Complex For the other one Log(−1 + i)2 = Log(1√− 2i − 1) = Log(−2i)

Exponents

Trigonometric
which is ln 2 − π2 i and Log(−1 + i) is ln 2 + 3π
4 i so
functions 3π
Hyperbolic
2Log(−1 + i) = ln 2 + 2 i which is clearly different from
functions
Log(−1 + i)2 .
Mathematics
II Example. Show that log(i2 ) = 2 log i, when
Pradeep
Boggarapu  π 9π 
Elementary log z = ln r + iθ, r > 0, < θ <
functions,
exponential
4 4
function

Logarithm
function
Solution. From the restriction of θ, we have
Logarithm
identities
log(i2 ) = ln | − 1| + i arg (−1) = iπ.
Complex
Exponents
Similarly we have 2 log i = i π.
Trigonometric
functions

Hyperbolic
functions
 Logarithm identities

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
In the section we will look at a few logarithmic identities.
Boggarapu

Elementary
log(z1 z2 ) = log z1 + log z2
functions,
exponential
function
The above identity should be treated as identity of sets, since
Logarithm
function
the both the sides are multiple-valued functions.
Logarithm
identities log z = ln |z| + iarg (z), now recall that
Complex
Exponents arg (z1 z2 ) = arg (z1 ) + arg (z2 ) so we have the required identity.
Trigonometric
 
functions
Similarly we have log zz12 = log z1 − log z2 when z1 , z2 are
Hyperbolic
functions
nonzero complex numbers.
Mathematics
II We also have the identity
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Elementary
z n = e n log z for n ∈ Z.
functions,
exponential
function And
Logarithm 1 log z
function zn = e n

Logarithm
identities
when n is a nonzero integer.
Complex
Exponents

Trigonometric
Proof of these are easy and left as homework for the reader.
functions
i log z
Hyperbolic
functions z 1/n = |z|1/n e n [Arg(z)+2kπ] = e n , (k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1)
 Complex Exponents

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
We can use the logarithm to define complex exponents that is z c
Boggarapu
where c is a complex number. Let us define for a non-zero z,
Elementary

z c = e c log z = e c[ln |z|+i(Arg(z)+2nπ)] , (n ∈ Z).

functions,
exponential
function

Logarithm
function
Since we have a multiple valued log in the definition we have
Logarithm
identities multiple valued exponents in general.
Complex
Exponents

Trigonometric
When we take the principal value of the log in the above we call
functions
the resulting value to be the principal value of the exponent.
Hyperbolic
functions
 Problems

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
Example. Find the complex exponents ii and (1 − i)4i .
Boggarapu

Elementary
Solution ii = e i log i , now log i = ln |i| + ( 12 + 2n)πi or ( 21 + 2n)πi.
1 1
functions,
exponential So the complex exponents are e i×( 2 +2n)πi = e −( 2 +2n)π , (n ∈ Z).
function

Logarithm
function For the principal part we have to take Logi = π2 i and hence the
π π
Logarithm
identities
principal part of the exponent ii is e i 2 i = e − 2 .
Complex
Exponents For the other one,√ we have e 4i log(1−i) and
Trigonometric
functions log(1√− i) = ln 2 + (− π4 + 2nπ)i so the exponent is
π
Hyperbolic
functions e 4i(ln 2+(− 4 +2nπ)i , (n ∈ Z) and the principal part is e π+2 ln 2i
Mathematics
II In this section we will learn about the complex trigonometric
Pradeep
Boggarapu functions.
Elementary
functions,
exponential e iz − e −iz e iz + e −iz
function sin z = and cos z =
Logarithm
function
2i 2
Logarithm
identities

Complex
One can motivate the above definitions from Euler’s identity,
Exponents
e ix = cos x + i sin x and e −ix = cos x − i sin x so we can add and
Trigonometric
functions subtract to get formulas for sin x and cos x in terms of
Hyperbolic
functions exponentials involving complex numbers. So it is natural to
extend that definition.
 Differentiability of Trigonometric functions

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
Note that since the exponential is differentiable the sin z and
Boggarapu
cos z as we defined above are differentiable. And the derivatives
Elementary
functions,
can easily be seen to follow:
exponential
function
d
Logarithm
function sin z = cos z
Logarithm
dz
identities

Complex
Exponents
and
Trigonometric
d
functions
cos z = − sin z
Hyperbolic
functions
dz
 Properties of Trigonometric functions

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
Another similarity from the real functions is that sin z is an odd
Boggarapu
function that is sin(−z) = − sin z and cos z is an even function,
Elementary
functions,
that is cos(−z) = cos z. And also we get e iz = cos z + i sin z.
exponential
function

Logarithm sin2 z + cos2 z = 1.

function

Logarithm
identities And these functions are periodic with period 2π. Many of the
Complex
Exponents trigonometric identities from the real functions carry over to the
Trigonometric
functions complex case. One is advised to work out these for the complex
Hyperbolic
functions
numbers.
 Some Trigonometric Identities

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
1 sin(z1 + z2 ) = sin z1 cos z2 + cos z1 sin z2 .
Boggarapu

Elementary
2 cos(z1 + z2 ) = cos z1 cos z2 − sin z1 sin z2 .
functions,
exponential
function
3 sin(z + π2 ) = cos z
Logarithm
function

Logarithm 4 sin(z − π2 ) = − cos z

identities

Complex
Exponents

Trigonometric
functions

Hyperbolic
functions
 Some more identities

Mathematics
x −x
II

Pradeep
Using the real hyperbolic functions namely sinh x = e −e 2 and
x −x
Boggarapu
cosh x = e +e2 one can write the following identities for
Elementary
functions, z = x + iy :
exponential
function

Logarithm
function sin z = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y
Logarithm
identities

Complex
Exponents
and
Trigonometric
functions cos z = cos x cos hy − i sin x sinh y
Hyperbolic
functions

These hold because sin(iy ) = i sinh y and cos(iy ) = cosh y .

 Boundedness and zeros of Trigonometric Functions

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
One difference between the real and the complex sin, cos
Boggarapu
functions is that these functions are no longer bounded! One can
Elementary
functions,
use the identities of the previous frame to show that
| sin z|2 = sin2 x + sinh2 y and as sinh2 y is not bounded ( tends
exponential
function

Logarithm
function to ∞ as y → ∞). sin z is not bounded. Similarly one shows that
Logarithm
identities cos z is not bounded.
Complex
Exponents The zeros of sin z are obtained from
|sinz|2 = 0 = sin2 x + sinh2 y which means sin x = 0 and y = 0,
Trigonometric
functions

Hyperbolic
functions so the roots are z = nπ fro n ∈ Z. In a similar manner one
shows that cos z = 0 if and only if z = π2 + nπ where n ∈ Z.
Mathematics
II One uses the sin z and cos z to construct the functions
Pradeep
Boggarapu tan z, sec z, csc z and one can obtain several properties of these.
Elementary
functions,
Note that these functions are analytic except where these are not
exponential
function defined. Such as tan z is analytic except at the singularities
Logarithm
function
z = π2 + nπ, n = 0, ±1 ± 2, . . .
Logarithm
identities

Complex
Exponents

Trigonometric
functions

Hyperbolic
functions
 Examples

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
Example. Find the values sin(i), cos(1 + i)
Boggarapu
i2 −i2 −1
Elementary
Solution. sin(i) = e −e2i = e 2i−e . Using the hyperbolic
functions, −1
exponential
function
functions we get sin(i) = i sinh y = i e−e2 And similarly one
−1+i 1−i
Logarithm
function
computes cos(1 + i) = e 2+e .
Logarithm
identities

Complex
Exponents

Trigonometric
functions

Hyperbolic
functions
 Questions

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
1 Use the reflection principle to show that sin z = sin z
Boggarapu

Elementary
2 Show that sin z is nowhere analytic.
functions,
exponential
function
3 Find sin(1 + 2i).
Logarithm
function

Logarithm
identities

Complex
Exponents

Trigonometric
functions

Hyperbolic
functions
Mathematics
II Similar to the real hyperbolic functions we define the complex
Pradeep
Boggarapu hyperbolic functions as:
Elementary
functions,
exponential e z − e −z
function sinh z =
Logarithm 2
function

Logarithm
identities
and
Complex
Exponents e z + e −z
cosh z =
Trigonometric
functions 2
Hyperbolic
functions
One can check the following identities:
Mathematics
d
II 1
dz sinh z = cosh z
Pradeep
Boggarapu
d
Elementary
2
dz cosh z = sinh z
functions,
exponential
function 3 −i sinh(iz) = sin z
Logarithm
function

Logarithm
4 cosh(iz) = cos z
identities

Complex
Exponents 5 sinh(−z) = − sinh z
Trigonometric
functions

Hyperbolic
6 cosh(−z) = cosh z
functions

7 cosh2 − sinh2 = 1
 Examples

Mathematics
II

Pradeep
Example. Find all roots of the equation (a) sin z = cosh 4; (b)
Boggarapu
cosh z = −2.
Elementary
functions,
exponential
function

Logarithm
function

Logarithm
identities

Complex
Exponents

Trigonometric
functions

Hyperbolic
functions