In our world today, systems play a very vital role in our lives, in the society we

live in and in almost everything we do. Systems are defined as a set of detailed
methods, procedures and routines created to carry out a specific activity, perform
a duty, or solve a problem. It is an organised, purposeful structure that consists of
interrelated and interdependent elements such as components, entities, factors,
members and parts. These elements continually influence one another directly or
indirectly in order to maintain its existence and achieve its goal.

So for this week, we’re going to discuss one of the systems that are being used
and implemented in our society, the traffic light system. And as we go on, we’re
also going to discuss in this article the different types of traffic lights that are
currently being used today.
Types of Traffic Lights
Traffic lights are signalling devices positioned at road or junction intersections,
pedestrian crossings, and other locations and applications to control the
competing flow of traffic. They are installed in almost all of the cities around the
world. They assign the right of way to road users by using three standard light
colours (red, amber and green), and are usually placed and used at busy
intersections to more evenly allocate delay for various users. These three standard
colours in traffic lights indicate a specific command. The green light indicates
“Go” and it is safe to proceed in the direction denoted. The red light indicates
“Stop”, and the amber light indicates “Caution”, either because lights are about to
turn green or because lights are about to turn red. Like all other systems, traffic
lights have inputs, outputs and feedback mechanisms to maintain an internal
steady-state despite a changing external environment. They are also classified
into different types namely the incandescent/halogen-based traffic lights, LED
traffic lights, Wig Wag Traffic Light System, and Walking Man Traffic Lights.

Incandescent/Halogen-based Traffic Lights – This traffic light is the traditional

type which uses incandescent or halogen bulbs. Many people eventually switched
from this type of traffic light to another such as LED-based traffic lights because
of its low efficiency light output and a single point of failure or filament burnout.
LED Traffic Lights – This type of traffic light lamps are using light-emitting
diodes as an alternative to the traditional incandescent or halogen light bulbs.
LED traffic lights are composed of an array of LED bulbs arranged in diverse
patterns, unlike the incandescent-based traffic lights which use a single large
bulb. These multiple LED bulbs when viewed from a distance, appears as a
continuous light source. Most consumers prefer this type of traffic light because
of its numerous advantages such as greater energy efficiency, capability to be
solar-powered, much longer lifetime between replacements, bulbs will still
operate even if some of the LED bulbs in the array fail, brighter illumination with
better contrast against direct sunlight, capability to display multiple colours and
patterns from the same lamp, and much faster switching. Instead of sudden burn-
out like incandescent-based lights, LEDs start to gradually dim when they wear
out which indicates the need for replacement.
Wig Wag Traffic Light – Wig Wag Traffic Lights are more noticeable than
simple traffic lights. They are generally used at level and bridge crossings, and
emergency services station such as fire/ambulance stations where there is a need
to stop ordinary traffic flow in order to enable emergency vehicles to exit the
station. They can also be easily incorporated into a Traffic Management System
to control a facility or site. They are also extremely useful especially in factories
where the clutter of other signs may get a red traffic light goes unnoticed and in
instances where there may be a need to stop all traffic while a vehicle needs to
emerge or reverse out of a blind spot.
Walking Man Traffic Lights – Walking Man Traffic Lights are usually LED
based indicators used for pedestrian flow at traffic management stations. A steady
“standing man” or “don’t walk” signal is an indication that a pedestrian cannot
enter the street in that signal’s direction, while a steady “walking man” or “walk
signal” indicates that pedestrians can start crossing the street toward that signal.
As we look at our society today, busy people are going to and fro almost every
hour of the day. Imagine what cities would look like if traffic light systems didn’t
exist. Perhaps chaos and confusion may arise on our streets. Even if a traffic
enforcer is present, the timing of every stop and go will not be as easy as it
seems, as everyone is subject to fatigue, confusion and errors.

History

A traffic light in Stockholm in 1953.

Before traffic lights, traffic police controlled the flow of traffic. A well-
documented example is that on London Bridge in 1722. Three men were given
the task of directing traffic coming in and out of either London or Southwark.
Each officer would help direct traffic coming out of Southwark into London and
he made sure all traffic stayed on the west end of the bridge. A second officer
would direct traffic on the east end of the bridge to control the flow of people
leaving London and going into Southwark.

On 9 December 1868, the first non-electric gas-lit traffic lights were installed
outside the Houses of Parliament in London to control the traffic in Bridge Street,
Great George Street, and Parliament Street. They were proposed by the railway
engineer J. P. Knight of Nottingham who had adapted this idea from his design of
railway signalling systems and constructed by the railway signal engineers
of Saxby & Farmer. The main reason for the traffic light was that there was an
overflow of horse-drawn traffic over Westminster Bridge which forced thousands
of pedestrians to walk next to the Houses of Parliament. The design combined
three semaphore arms with red and green gas lamps for night-time use, on a
pillar, operated by a police constable. The gas lantern was manually turned by a
traffic police officer with a lever at its base so that the appropriate light faced
traffic. The signal was 22 feet (6.7 m) high. The light was called the semaphore
and had arms that would extend horizontally that commanded drivers to "Stop"
and then the arms would lower to a 45 degrees angle to tell drivers to proceed
with "Caution". At night a red light would command "Stop" and a green light
would mean use "Caution".

Although it was said to be successful at controlling traffic, its operational life was
brief. It exploded on 2 January 1869 as a result of a leak in one of the gas lines
underneath the pavement and injured the policeman who was operating it.

In the first two decades of the 20th century, semaphore traffic signals like the one
in London were in use all over the United States with each state having its own
design of the device. One example was from Toledo, Ohio in 1908. The words
"Stop" and "Go" were in white on a green background and the lights had red and
green lenses illuminated by kerosene lamps for night travelers and the arms were
8 feet (2.4 m) above ground. It was controlled by a traffic officer who would
blow a whistle before changing the commands on this signal to help alert
travelers of the change. The design was also used in Philadelphia and
Detroit. The example in Ohio was the first time America tried to use a more
visible form of traffic control that evolved the use of semaphore. The device that
was used in Ohio was designed based on the use of railroad signals.

In 1912, a traffic control device was placed on top a tower in Paris at the Rue
Montmartre and Grande Boulevard. This tower signal was manned by a police
woman and she operated a revolving four-sided metal box on top of a glass
showcase where the word "Stop" was painted in red and the word "Go" painted in
white.

An electric traffic light was developed in 1912 by Lester Wire, a policeman

in Salt Lake City, Utah, who also used red-green lights. On 5 August 1914, the
American Traffic Signal Company installed a traffic signal system on the corner
of East 105th Street and Euclid Avenue in Cleveland, Ohio. It had two colours,
red and green, and a buzzer, based on the design of James Hoge, to provide a
warning for colour changes. The design by James Hoge allowed police and fire
stations to control the signals in case of emergency. The first four-way, three-
colour traffic light was created by police officer William
Potts in Detroit, Michigan in 1920.[17] Ashville, Ohio claims to be the home of the
oldest working traffic light in the United States, used at an intersection of public
roads from 1932 to 1982 when it was moved to a local museum. Many pictures of
historical traffic lights appear at a Traffic Signal Trivia page.

The tower was the first innovation that used the three-coloured traffic signal and
appeared first in the City of Detroit, where the first three-coloured traffic light
was built at the intersection of Michigan and Woodward Avenues in 1920. The
man behind this three-colour traffic light was police officer William Potts of
Detroit. He was concerned about how police officers at four different lights
signals could not change their lights all at the same time. The answer was a third
light that was coloured amber, which was the same colour used on the
railroad. Potts also placed a timer with the light to help coordinate a four-way set
of lights in the city. The traffic tower soon used twelve floodlights to control
traffic and the reason for a tower in the first place was that at the time the
intersection was one of the busiest in the world, with over 20,000 vehicles daily.

Los Angeles installed its first automated traffic signals in October 1920 at five
locations on Broadway. These early signals, manufactured by the Acme Traffic
Signal Co., paired "Stop" and "Go" semaphore arms with small red and green
lights. Bells played the role of today's amber or yellow lights, ringing when the
flags changed—a process that took five seconds. By 1923 the city had installed
31 Acme traffic control devices. The Acme semaphore traffic lights were often
used in Warner Bros. Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodiescartoons for comedic
effect due to their loud bell.

The first interconnected traffic signal system was installed in Salt Lake City in
1917, with six connected intersections controlled simultaneously from a manual
switch. Automatic control of interconnected traffic lights was introduced March
1922 in Houston, Texas.

In 1922 traffic towers were beginning to be controlled by automatic timers. The

first company to add timers in traffic lights was Crouse Hinds. They built railroad
signals and were the first company to place timers in traffic lights in Houston,
which was their home city. The main advantage for the use of the timer was that
it saved cities money by replacing traffic officers. The city of New York was able
to reassign all but 500 of its 6,000 officers working on the traffic squad; this
saved the city $12,500,000.

After witnessing an accident between an automobile and a horse-drawn carriage,

African American inventor, Garrett Morgan, filed a U.S. patent for a traffic
signal. was granted on 20 November 1923 for Morgan's three-position traffic
signal.

The first traffic lights in Britain were deployed in Piccadilly Circus in

1926. Wolverhampton was the first British town to introduce automated traffic
lights in 1927 in Princes Square at the junction of Lichfield Street and Princess
Street.

Melbourne was the first city in Australia to install traffic lights in 1928 on the
intersection of Collins and Swanston Street.

The twelve-light system did not become available until 1928 and another feature
of the light system was that hoods were placed over the light and each lens was
sand-blasted to increase daytime visibility.

Both the tower and semaphores were phased out by 1930. Towers were too big
and obstructed traffic; semaphores were too small and drivers could not see them
at night.

The first traffic light in South India was installed at Egmore Junction, Chennai in
1953. The city of Bangalore installed its first traffic light at Corporation Circle in
1963.
The control of traffic lights made a big turn with the rise of computers in
America in the 1950s. Thanks to computers, the changing of lights made Crosby's
flow even quicker thanks to computerized detection. A pressure plate was placed
at intersections so once a car was on the plate computers would know that a car
was waiting at the red light. Some of this detection included knowing the number
of waiting cars against the red light and the length of time waited by the first
vehicle at the red. One of the best historical examples of computerized control of
lights was in Denver in 1952. One computer took control of 120 lights with six
pressure-sensitive detectors measuring inbound and outbound traffic. The system
was in place at the central business district, where the most traffic was between
the downtown area and the north and northeastern parts of the city. The control
room that housed the computer in charge of the system was in the basement of
the City and County Building. As computers started to evolve, traffic light
control also improved and became easier. In 1967, the city of Toronto was the
first to use more advanced computers that were better at vehicle
detection. Thanks to the new and better computers traffic flow moved even
quicker than with the use of the tower. The computers maintained control over
159 signals in the cities through telephone lines. People praised the computers for
their detection abilities. Thanks to detection computers could change the length
of the green light based on the volume of waiting cars. The rise of computers is
the model of traffic control which is now used in the 21st century.

Countdown timers on traffic lights were introduced in the 1990s. Timers are
useful for pedestrians, to plan whether there is enough time to cross the
intersection before the end of the walk phase, and for drivers, to know the amount
of time before the light turns green. In the United States, timers for vehicle traffic
are prohibited, but pedestrian timers are now required on new or upgraded signals
on wider roadways.

Single aspects

The simplest traffic light comprises either a single or a pair of coloured aspects
that warns any user of the shared right of way of a possible conflict or danger.

Flashing red: treated as a stop sign. This can also signal the road is closed. In
France and the United Kingdom, flashing red mandates absolute stop, at the
crossing of a railway line, an airport strip, or a swing bridge.

Flashing yellow: caution, crossing or road hazard ahead.

Flashing green: varies among jurisdiction. Flashing green can give permission to
go straight as well as make a left turn in front of opposing traffic (which is
stopped by a steady red light), can indicate the end of a green cycle before the
light changes to a solid yellow, or (as in British Columbia, Canada, or Mexico
City, Mexico) indicates the intersection is a pedestrian crosswalk. In Greece,
flashing green lights cannot be found. Instead, dual flashing orange lights are
used.

TRAFFIC TOWER

A traffic tower is a permanent raised structure providing a clearer view of traffic

conditions than can be had from street level and protection for the traffic
controller from the hazards of moving vehicles.
Some traffic towers are fitted with manually operated lights and/or signals. Other
traffic towers rely on handsignals to direct traffic. In some cases, traffic towers
offer a central control location for lights at more than one intersection.

Many traffic towers have been replaced by automated traffic lights. Many
remaining traffic towers are significant landmarks and have been retained or
moved to other locations as historic structures.

Need for work

As Traffic congestion is a condition on road networks that occurs as use increases, and is
characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queueing. When
traffic demand is great enough that the interaction between vehicles slows the speed of the
traffic stream, this results in some congestion. As demand approaches the capacity of a road (or
of the intersections along the road), extreme traffic congestion sets in. Traffic congestion
occurs when a volume of traffic or modal split generates demand for space greater than the
available road capacity; this point is commonly termed saturation.

There are a number of specific circumstances which cause or aggravate congestion; most of
them reduce the capacity of a road at a given point or over a certain length, or increase the
number of vehicles required for a given volume of people or goods. The existing methods for
traffic management, surveillance and control are not adequately efficient in terms of
performance, cost, maintenance [1]. Avoiding traffic jams is both beneficiary for environment
and economy.

There are several models for traffic stimulation. The existing methods for traffic management,
surveillance and control are not adequately efficient in terms of the performance, cost, and the
effort needed for maintenance and support. Many techniques have been used including, above
ground sensors like video image processing, microwave radar, laser radar, passive infrared,
ultrasonic, and passive acous- tic array. However, these systems have a high equipment cost
and their accuracy depends on environment conditions . Another widely-used technique in
conventional traffic surveillance systems is based on intrusive and non-intrusive sensors with
inductive loop detectors, micro-loop probes, and pneumatic road tubes in addition to video
cameras for the efficient management of public roads[2].

This project work focus on optimization of traffic light. In this system IR sensors are used to
measure the density of the vehicles which are fixed within a fixed distance. All the sensors are
interfaced with the microcontroller which in turn controls the traffic signal system according to
the density detected by the sensors.

II. Effects of Traffic Congestion

We know traffic these days on roads is increasing day by day on roads which led to traffic
congestion. Many times traffic light can also cause delay which led to delay causing in traffic
congestion this is common thing in metro cities . Traffic Blocked traffic also may interfere
with passage of

congestion has very negative effects some are as follows- emergeny High chance of
collisions due to tight spacing and

 Wear and tear of vehicles due to slow moving of

 Wastage of valuable time of people.

 Stressed and frustrated motorists.

constant stopping and going. Traffic.

 Proposed Design

Basically we are designing a model which will able to remove traffic due to red light
delays.For this we will be using sensors on each side at certain distance. Here we can use 2 or 3
sensors on each road. From sensors we can roughly calculate number of vehicles too.We can
also know the distance up to which queue of vehicles is there.Different cases of distance from
stopline upto traffic can be taken and different results can be taken.Delay is adjusted according
to length of traffic.

We are designing a Intelligent Traffic Light control system that will eradicate traffic
congestion and also make path for emergency and VIP vehicles at the same time not disturbing
the other vehicles on road. For this microcontroller has been used in this project and IR
transmitters and receivers.

These are the two most important hardware components in this project. Here basically we are
designing a small model so LED are used red, green and yellow LED’s. Project is has two parts
hardware part and software part. First step is to make circuit on proteus software and check
whether our circuit is correct or not. Then we can go for hardware part according to circuit. An
embedded system is developed which consists of a microcontroller, IR transmitter and
receiver, LED’s. This project is implemented by placing IR transmitters, receivers and LED’s
at the 4 way junction, the four paths are represented
 Implementation
According to transportation engineers, traffic lights can have both positive and
negative effects on traffic safety and traffic flow. The separation of conflicting
streams of traffic in time can reduce the chances of right-angle collisions. But
also the frequency of rear-end crashes can be increased by the installation of
traffic lights, and they can adversely affect the safety of bicycle and pedestrian
traffic. They can increase the traffic capacity at intersections, but can also result
in excessive traffic delay.[ Hans Monderman, the innovative Dutch traffic
engineer, and pioneer of shared space schemes, was sceptical of their role, and is
quoted as having said of them: "We only want traffic lights where they are useful
and I haven't found anywhere where they are useful yet."

Small vehicle safety

In some instances the stoplight traffic detector will not change the light for small
vehicles such as motorcycles, scooters and particularly bicycles, because the
induction loop sensor fails to detect the small vehicle. A vehicle with sufficient
mass of metal such as steel interacts with the sensor's magnetic field causing the
light to change at the appropriate time. Motorcycles and scooters have much less
mass than cars, resulting in a failure to detect the vehicle, while bicycles may not
even be constructed with metal. This situation most often occurs at the times of
day when other traffic is sparse as well as when the small vehicle is coming from
a direction that does not have a high volume of traffic. Most sensor traffic lights
are capable of detecting these vehicles, but are not properly adjusted or calibrated
initially, after road construction such as re-surfacing, or set too high in an attempt
to avoid false triggers.

Inoperative, defective, or non-cycling traffic lights

A light that fails to cycle may not meet the legal definition, often worded as any
device "by which traffic is alternately directed to stop and permitted to
proceed",[6 required for any citation to be upheld, and be considered "defective"
or "inoperative." This may occur when a signal is programmed to remain green
for the major street, but fails to detect and cycle for a vehicle crossing via a minor
street or using a dedicated turn lane. Some jurisdictions specify operators to
"bring the vehicle to a complete stop before entering the intersection and may
proceed with caution only when it is safe to do so," while others may construe
any action to force it to cycle as tampering.

"Dead Red" laws for motorcycles

In addition to implications of a device failing to meet the federal MUTCD

"Traffic Control Signal" definition, over 16 states in the United States have "dead
red" laws explicitly providing motorcyclists and sometimes bicyclists an
affirmative defense to proceed through a red light with caution after stopping
when the device which causes the light to change from red to green does not
activate.
This includes :-

• The development and implementation of new signal timing parameters

• Phasing sequences

• Improved control strategies

• The minimization of stops, delays, fuel consumption and air pollution emissions
and the maximization of progressive movement through a system

• Reconfiguration of a signal’s operation

• Minor roadway improvements

 Traffic Light Project

This project operates red, amber and green LEDs in the correct sequence for a
single UK traffic light. The time taken for the complete red - red & amber - green
- amber sequence can be varied from about 7s to about 2½ minutes by adjusting
the 1M preset. Some amber LEDs emit light that is almost red so you may prefer
to use a yellow LED. The 555 astable circuit provides clock pulses for the 4017
counter which has ten outputs (Q0 to Q9). Each output becomes high in turn as
the clock pulses are received. Appropriate outputs are combined with diodes to
supply the amber and green LEDs. The red LED is connected to the ÷10 output
which is high for the first 5 counts (Q0-Q4 high), this saves using 5 diodes for
red and simplifies the circuit.

Before automobiles were invented, horses were often used for transportation in
big cities. Since there were no traffic rules for pedestrians or horse carriages,
streets were often overcrowded, and movement of people and goods was
therefore inefficient and sometimes even dangerous. The problem was especially
serious at road intersections. One solution to this congestion problem was to use
police officers to control the flow of traffic, which is still used in some parts of
the world today. Another solution, which was first used in 1868, was to install a
traffic light with different colors that could be used to indicate when a vehicle can
“stop,” “caution - be prepared to stop,” or “go ahead”. What colors can be used in
a traffic light so that these three messages are communicated clearly to vehicles
as well as pedestrians? (Answer: red or amber, yellow, and green, respectively.)
The reason a traffic light needs to have a “stop and wait” - or a red light, is
because it allows pedestrians or through traffic to pass a street intersection safely
and efficiently on the green light, which means “go ahead”. Who can come up to
the board and draw a typical

intersection? (Have a student draw a diagram on the board.) How many traffic
lights for vehicles are needed for this intersection? (Answer: two sets of traffic
lights, one for each street.) Design of an effective traffic light system in a modern
city is a task of traffic engineers, and is an important undertaking. Traffic lights
need to be placed judiciously to result in the safest and fastest movement of
people and vehicles. Also important is the timing of traffic signals. For example,
a traffic signal in a quiet suburb may safely be designed to cycle relatively
quickly between red, yellow, and green, whereas a traffic signal at an intersection
in a city business district may require longer switching times to allow traffic and
pedestrians to move safely and avoid congestion. Until recently, traffic lights
contained bulky and powerful lamps, which used a lot of electrical power. In a
city with many thousands of such traffic lights, this meant the use of a lot of
energy and was therefore inefficient. To save energy, cities replaced lamps in
traffic lights with light emitting diodes (LEDs), which use very little energy. An
additional advantage of LEDs is longer service life. LEDs were first invented in
1920’s, and are electrical devices that can generate bright light while using very
little power. Cities that switched to LEDs were able to save a lot of energy and
have less impact on the environment. Today, we will be engineers tasked with
building a traffic light for vehicles with a number of specifications provided by a
local transportation agency. Specifications that we must meet are: the traffic light
is to have three lights (red, yellow, green), be able to shine red, yellow, and green
for a certain number of seconds each, and be able to repeat this sequence
indefinitely. We will use a device called a BS2 microcontroller to control the
traffic lights. For each individual light, we will use an LED. A diagram of an
LED together with the LEDs we will use is shown in Image 3. An LED is
represented as a triangle with a vertical bar. Notice that an LED has one wire
longer than the other. The shorter wire corresponds to the left side in the diagram
(the side connected to the vertical bar), and the longer wire corresponds to the
right side. Finally, in the diagram, two arrows pointing away from the LED
represent light.
In order to use an LED, we must connect it to a power source, which is usually a
battery. The proper way to connect an LED to a power source is through a device
called a resistor. A resistor limits the amount of current that can pass through it.
A helpful analogy is to think of a resistor as a pipe with electricity as water. A
wide pipe would correspond to a small resistor value (for example 10 Ohms)
while a narrow pipe would correspond to a large-valued resistor. In this activity,
we will be using a 470 Ohm resistor, shown in Image 4. Notice that in contrast to
the LED, we may connect a resistor without regard to direction.
We must use a resistor with the LED to make sure that the amount of current
provided to the LED is not so great that it damages the LED. Moreover, the diode
must be connected properly, with the vertical bar in the figure connected to the
“ground” terminal Vss. Another way to refer to “ground” is to use the minus sign,
“-”. We will be using the circuit illustrated in Figure 1. To make a traffic light in
which we don’t have to turn the LEDs on and off manually, we will program the
BS2 microcontroller to do it for us (see Image 5 with a BS2 installed on the
Board of Education). A BS2 is a small computer that can perform functions
programmed by engineers. This computer is a small circuit with pins for
connections. Some pins are used to provide power, while others are used to
program the BS2. Still other pins are used to connect the BS2 to various devices
like resistors, LEDs, or even motors and other computers, although in this
activity we will connect only LEDs and resistors. The pin labeled P0 in the figure
denotes pin 0 on the BS2.
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