Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Travelling Wave Behaviour of Fault Transients

High voltage surges are induced on power lines due to variety of reasons like
lightning, switching operations and faults. Surges can be shown to travel along the
overhead line at approximately the speed of light and will generate wide band signal
which covers the entire frequency range. The initial values of these surges depend on
the fault position, fault path resistance and instance of fault occurrence. They
propagate away from the fault point in both directions. In time domain, these signals
as they reach the end of the line or at a junction are partly reflected and partly
transmitted. Transmission and reflection coefficients at the junction or at the end will
depend on the line's characteristic impedance. In the frequency domain, the frequency
increases as the magnitude of the individual signal component decreases and the
traveling speed increases.

Surge propagation
direction . ,.
Junction

Line 1 Z, Line 2 Z,

Z - Characteristic impedance

Figure 3.1 Reflection and Transmission at a junction

Transmission Coefficient a =— —

Z2 ^x
Reflection Coefficient /? = — —
Z2 +

Surge propagation along the line can be analyzed using Bewley lattice diagram [15], It
represents the wave position and direction of motion of every incident, reflected and
transmitted wave on the system at every instant of time. It overcomes the difficulty of
keeping track of multiplicity of successive reflections at various junctions.

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For a known topology of power network, surge propagation due to faults can be
analyzed in digital computer based implementation using branch time tables which
serves same purpose of Bewley lattice diagram. This branch time table keeps track of
voltage/ current waveforms at each node continuously.

Substation end
Relay agent

i - Transit time

T= T,

T = 3t 2

T = 2x,+T,

Figure3.2 Bewley Lattice diagram showing surge propagation due to a fault at A.

3.2 Modal Decomposition of faulted signals

In three phase systems, faults of many different configurations can occur in

symmetrical or in asymmetrical in nature. Fault location procedures involve in
identification of correct fault configuration. So it is convenient to analyze the
transients in Modal domain.
For a three phase system, the relationship between phase and modal quantities is given
by,

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 [Vm] = [T][VP]
Where [VP] - Phase quantity matrix
[l^J - Modal quantity matrix
['T] - Modal transformation matrix.

Transformation matrix can be selected considering the characteristics of power

network. For non transposed multiphase lines, an eigen vector based matrix which is
frequency dependent would be preferred, for balanced or equally transposed
multiphase lines, a matrix can be easily chosen to one of the different real value
transformation matrices such as wedepohl, karrenbauer and Clarke transformation.
Clarke Transformation is used in this study assuming 132kV power line is well
balanced and transposed.

For the Clarke transformation [17], the relationship between modal and phase
quantities is given by,

\VA] 1 1 1 "
VB = [T] Va Where T = - 2 -1 -1
3
-0 V3 -V3J

VA VB Vc - Phase voltages
V0 - Ground mode component
Va - Aerial mode 1 (Mode a)
Vp - Aerial mode 2 (Mode P)

Each modal is represented with its own propagation constant y; and its surge
impedance Zcj. Assuming complete transposition, the surge impedance of each mode
can be shown to be;

Z c o = V(Zs + 2 Z m y ( Y s - 2Ym) = Jz0/Y0

Zca = Zcp = yJ(Zs-Zmy(Ys + Ym) =

Where Zci - ith mode surge impedance (i for 0, a, P).

Zs - Average sum of all conductor self impedance at any frequency.
Ys - Average sum of all conductor self admittance at any frequency.
Zm -Average sum of all conductor mutual impedance at any frequency.

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 Ym -Average sum of all conductor mutual admittance at any frequency.
Z0, Y0 - Zero sequence phase impedance and admittance respectively.
Z1, Yx - Positive sequence phase impedance and admittance respectively.
The modal propagation constants (y;) are similarly given in terms of phase sequence
impedances and admittances by;

Yo = VZoV0 Ya = Yp =

3.2.1 Appropriate mode selection according to fault type.

For Clarke transformation used, mode a is valid to deal with all type of faults except
the fault of B-C. In such a case it is appropriate to take fault distance of p modal. The
transients observed in ground mode components are sufficient only for the faults
involved with ground. Therefore either single component or combination of modal
components can be used to identify the fault type with the transients observed [7,8].
Since the procedure of selection of the suitable mode for fault categorization will
change with the transformation matrix selected, trial and error based approach is
followed to accommodate all types of faults.

3.3 Wavelet Transformation (WT)

A key part in fault transient based algorithms is the detection of transients and
extraction of their magnitude, time and frequency information. The Wavelet transform
[5,6] can be introduced as a robust method for analyzing electromagnetic transients
associated with power system faults and switching.

3.3.1 Continuous Wavelet Transformation (CWT)

In mathematical terms, the WT of a continuous signal X(t) is given by Ws (a, b)

(1)

Where a - scale parameter defining the support width of the wavelet

b - Translation parameter localizing the wavelet functions in the
time domain.
h(t) - mother wavelet (a window function of finite length).

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CWT is a correlation between a wavelet (mother wavelet) at different scales and the
signal with the frequency being used as a measure of similarity. It is computed by
changing the scale of the analysis window, shifting the window in time, multiplying
by signal and integrating over all times.

The analyzing function or the mother wavelet (h(t)) is short and oscillatory having
zero average and decay quickly at both ends. This restriction is to ensure that the
integral in (1) is finite and gives the name wavelet or 'small wave' to the transform.
Each element of the wavelet set is a translated and scaled version of the original
mother wavelet h(t). Any faint changes of signal can be observed in details by
zooming in with an appropriate scale level of wavelets and sampling rate of the signal.

3.3.2 Discrete Wavelet Transformation (DWT)

Computation of CWT requires a significant amount of computation time and

resources. Therefore DWT is introduced to provide sufficient information for both
analysis and synthesis of the original signal with a significant reduction in
computational time.

In DWT, a time-frequency representation of a digital/ sampled signal is obtained using

digital filtering techniques. The sample signal is passed through a series of high pass
filters to analyze high frequencies and passed through a series of low pass filters to
analyze the low frequencies. In mathematical terms, DWT of a sampled signal is
given by,

(2)

Where h(n) is the mother wavelet and scaling and translation parameters a and b in
(1) are functions of an integer parameter m, in such a way; a — a™ and b — b™. The
1 1
result is scaling by 1, n- , n^
— and translation by 0, n, 2n

The resolution of the signal which is a measure of the amount of detailed information
in the signal is changed by filtering operations, and the signal is changed by

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upsampling and down sampling operations or changing sampling rates. The equation
in (2) can be represented in a different format to show the similarity in between
general equation for finite impulse response for digital filters with the DWT as
follows.

DWT{m, n) = —L= V X(k)h* {a^mn - k)

JaV}^

Finite impulse response y ( n ) = x[k]h[n — k]

This suggests that h*(aQ m n — k) is the impulse response of a low pass digital filter

for a given transfer function. Then by selecting = 1 , 2- , -4 , -8 each dilation of

h(n) effectively halves the bandwidth of the transfer function.

The multi stage filter bank shown in figure 3.3 implements the DWT using low pass
mother wavelet h(n) and its high pass dual,g(n). Downsampling at the output of the
low pass filter h(n) effectively scales the wavelet by two for the next stage.

x[n]

Figure 3.3 DWT implementation using multistage filter bank

3.3.3 Wavelets for Power System Transient analysis

The analysis of electromagnetic transients associated with an abnormal condition in a

power system has always been fundamental to explaining and then correcting the
cause of the condition [6]. That is why well instrumented substations have transient
event recorders. Further the computational power of micro processor based numerical
relays is rapidly increasing; the method of transient information analysis is more
viable to find out the cause of that condition.

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 LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF MORATUWA, SRI LANKA
MGRATUWA

The wavefonns associated with fast electromagnetic transients are typically non-
periodic signals which contain both high frequency oscillations and localized impulses
superimposed on the power frequency and with its harmonics. These characteristics
make it difficult for conventional time domain analysis as well as for traditional
Fourier transform analysis because Fourier Transform does not give time frequency
representation. Fourier Transform assumes the signal to be analyzed is a periodic,
stationary one and wide-band signal requires more sampling and longer time periods
to maintain good resolution in the low frequencies. So it is desirable to apply a multi
resolution analysis based techniques for power transient analysis and hence Wavelet
Transform is the best method provided that a suitable mother wavelet is selected.

Therefore Wavelet Transform can be easily applied to many power system

applications including fault location, identification of power system disturbances and
phase selection [6, 12, 13].

The transient signals can be analyzed using Wavelet Transformation and it can capture
transient characteristics easily and decompose the sampled signal into set of
information in different time and frequency scales. While identifying the
characteristics frequency ranges for fault transients which propagate as traveling
waves, fault location or fault distance calculation can easily be done using a proper
algorithm.

3.3.4 Selection of Mother Wavelet for fault transient analysis

Wavelets are families of functions generated from one single function called mother
wavelet by means of scaling and translating operations. The difference between these
wavelets is mainly due to the different lengths of fitters that define the translating and
scaling functions.
The non redundant representation and perfect reconstruction of the original signal can
only be realized through compactly supported orthogonal wavelets. Those that are
frequently used for signal processing are Daubechies, Morlets, Coiflets and Symlets
wavelets. These wavelets exhibit different attributes and performance criteria when
applied to specific applications such as detection of transients, signal compression and
denoising [12].

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92972
 - 8 - 6 - 4

Mayer Maxican Hat

Daubechies 4 tap wavelet

1.5

I 1

A A 0.5

o
-0.5
-

VV :
-1

-1.5
\ scaling function
wavelet function
-2
1.5 2 2.5

Morlet Daubechies 4
Figure 3.4. Mother wavelets for signal processing

In order to select the optimal mother wavelet, the absolute values of the
decomposition coefficients are summated over a one cycle window for each fault
position.

It has been shown that wavelet coefficients can be successfully used for the
classification of different power system transients such as faults, capacitor switching
and load switching [13] by selecting a proper mother wavelet function. But this study
does not investigate that aspect, but assumes the availability of a technique such as the
one proposed in [13] to discriminate fault transients from the others.

Thus, among those wavelets Daubechies is the most widely used mother wavelet in
the analysis of fault transients in electrical networks and found to be well suited for
power system applications. [7,12,13]

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 During a fault in the system, the fault impedance can change randomly from as small
as 5Q to as large as 300£X The wavelet chosen should be able to detect high resistance
fault as well as low resistance fault. The related transient information on high
frequency and low frequency base Daubechies series wavelet can reflect the fault
information uniquely. In addition the higher number of wavelet levels used, the closer
the reconstructed function is to the original.

Therefore proposed scheme uses Daubechies 4 wavelet where number 4 represents the
number of wavelet coefficients.
In order to extract the transient travelling waves that contain frequency ranges mainly
between 40 kHz - 80 kHz [8,9], the sampling frequency of the micro processor based
protection should be about 200 kHz according to the Nyquist criterion. Therefore
sampling rate selected here is 200 kHz.

Scale 2°

Nyquist at 200

Figure 3.5 Wavelet decomposition for travelling wave sampled at 200 kHz

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