AMIE LOU G.

CISNEROS, CE
Instructor
Eng’g & Technology Dep’t
Cor Jesu College
• When determining how to appropriately
analyze any collection of data, the first
consideration must be the characteristics of
the data themselves.
• A lower bound of zero. No negative values are
possible.
• Presence of outliers.
• Positive skewness.
• Non – normal distribution of data.
• Seasonal patterns
• Data reported only as below or above some
threshold.
• Autocorrelation.
• Dependence on other uncontrolled variables.
• The mean (𝒙 ) is computed as the sum of all
data values 𝒙𝒊 , divided by the sample size 𝒏:
𝒏
𝒙𝒊
𝒙=
𝒏
𝒊=𝟏

• INFLUENCE OF THE ANY OBSERVATION ON THE

MEAN
▫ The mean is the balance point of the data.
▫ Data points further from the center exert a
stronger downward force than those closer to the
center.
• SENSITIVITY OF THE MEAN
▫ The sensitivity to the magnitude of a small
number of points in the data set defines why
the mean is not a “resistant” measure of
location.
▫ It is not resistant to changes in the presence
of, or to changes in the magnitudes of, a few
outlying observations.
• The median or 50th percentile 𝑷𝟎.𝟓𝟎 , is the
central value of the distribution when the
data are ranked in order of magnitude.
• For an odd number of observations, the
median is the data point which has an equal
number of observations both above and
below it.
• For an even number of observations, it is the
average of the two central observations.
• To compute the median, first rank the
observations from the smallest to the largest,
so that 𝒙𝟏 is the smallest observation, up to
𝒙𝒏 , the largest observation. Then

▫ 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝑷𝒏 = 𝒙(𝒏+𝟏)/𝟐 , when 𝒏 is odd, and

𝟏
▫ 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝑷𝒏 = 𝟐 𝒙𝒏/𝟐 + 𝒙 𝒏/𝟐 +𝟏 , when 𝒏 is
even.
• The median is only minimally affected by
the magnitude of a single observation,
being determined solely by the relative
order of observations.
• The sample variance, and its square root the sample standard
deviation, are the classical measures of spread.
• Like the mean, they are strongly influenced by outlying values.
𝑛 2
𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥
𝑠2 =
𝑛−1
𝑖=1

𝑠 = 𝑠2
• They are computed using the squares of deviations of data
from the mean, so that outliers influence their magnitudes
even more so than for the mean.
• When outliers are present these measures are unstable and
inflated. They may give the impression of much greater
spread than is indicated by the majority of the data set.
• INTERQUARTILE RANGE (IQR)
▫ the most commonly used resistant measure of spread.
▫ It measures the range of the central 50 percent of the
data, and is not influenced at all by the 25 percent on
either end by considering a data set ordered from
smallest to largest: 𝒙𝒊 , 𝒊 = 𝟏, … , 𝒏
▫ Is defined as the 75th percentile minus the 25th
percentile.
 75th percentile – upper quartile, a value which exceeds
no more than 75 percent of the data and is exceeded by
no more than 25 percent of the data.
 25th percentile – lower quartile, a value which exceeds no
more than 25 percent of the data and is exceeded by no
more than 75 percent.
• Percentiles 𝑃𝑗 are computed using the following
equation:

𝑃𝑗 = 𝑥(𝑛+1)∙𝑗

 𝑛 = the sample size of 𝑥𝑖

 𝑗 = the fraction of data less than or equal to the
percentile value ( for the 25th , 50th and 75th
percentiles, 𝑗 = 0.25,0.50, 0.75, respectively.

𝐼𝑄𝑅 = 𝑃0.75 − 𝑃0.25

• MEAN ABSOLUTE DEVIATION
▫ Computed by first listing the absolute value of
the difference between each observation and
the median.

𝑴𝑨𝑫 = 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒊 − 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒊

• Hydrologic data are typically skewed,
meaning that data sets are not symmetric
around the mean or median, with extreme
values extending out longer in one
direction.
• When the data is skewed, the mean is not
expected to equal the median, but it pulled
toward the tail of the distribution.
• COEFFICIENT OF SKEWNESS 𝒈
▫ The skewness measure used most often.
▫ It is adjusted third moment divided by the
cube of the standard deviation.
𝑛
𝑛 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 3
𝑔=
𝑛−1 𝑛−2 𝑠3
𝑖=1
• QUARTILE SKEW COEFFICIENT
▫ A more resistant measure of skewness.

𝑃0.75 − 𝑃0.50 − 𝑃0.50 − 𝑃0.25

𝑞𝑠 =
𝑃0.75 − 𝑃0.25

▫ Right – skewed: +𝑞𝑠

▫ Left – skewed: −𝑞𝑠
• Observations whose values are quite different
than others in the data set, often cause
concern or alarm.
• Outliers may be the most important point in the
data set, and should be investigated further.
• Outliers can have one of three causes:
▫ A measurement or recording error;
▫ An observation from the population not similar to
that of most of the data;
▫ A rare event from a single population that is quite
skewed.
• Transformations are used for three purposes:
▫ To make data more symmetric;
▫ To make data more linear; and
▫ To make data more constant in variance.
• Graphs provide crucial information to the
data analyst which is difficult to obtain in
any other way.
• Computing statistical measures without
looking at a plot is an invitation to
misunderstanding data.
• Graphs provide visual summaries of data
which more quickly and completely
describe essential information than do
tables of numbers.
• Graphs are essential for two purposes:
▫ To provide insight for the analyst into the data
under scrutiny;
▫ To illustrate important concepts when
presenting the results to others.
• These procedures that often or should be the
“first look” at data.
• Patterns and theories of how the system
behaves are developed by observing the
data through graphs.
• Their results provide guidance for the
selection of appropriate deductive
hypothesis testing procedures.
• HISTOGRAMS
▫ are familiar graphics,
and their construction is
detailed in numerous
introductory texts on
statistics.
▫ Bars are drawn whose
height is the number 𝑛𝑖
𝑛
or fraction 𝑛𝑖 of data
falling into one of
several categories or
intervals.
• QUANTILE PLOTS
▫ Visually portray the
quantiles, or
percentiles of the
distribution of sample
data.
• For the sample:

2 3 5 45 46 47

48 50 90 151 208

• Find the mean, median, IQR, standard

deviation, MAD, skewness, and quartile
skew coefficient.