Linear Algebra
Linear Algebra is a branch of mathematics which deals
with the study of vectors, families of vectors and with
functions that input one vector and output another,
according to certain rules. These functions are often
represented by Matrices. Matrices are defined as
rectangular arrays of numbers or symbols and matrix
algebra provides the rules which define the operations
that can be performed on such an object.
Linear algebra finds its applications in almost all
branches of engineering. The most basic of all
applications is to solve a system of linear equations in
several unknowns.
Matrix
A system of (mn) numbers arranged in the form of a
rectangular array having “m” rows and “n” columns is
called a Matrix, of order [m X n].
𝑎11 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝐴=[ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑚1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛
The horizontal arrangement are rows and vertical
arrangement are columns.
Types of Matrices
1. Square Matrix: - An [m X n] matrix for which m=n,
i.e. number of rows is equal to number of columns is
called a square matrix.
1 3 5
[2 4 6 ] Is a square matrix of order [3X3].
7 9 11
A square sub-matrix of a square matrix is called a
“principle sub-matrix”, iff the diagonal elements of the
sub matrix are also the diagonal elements of the matrix.
1 3
In reference to the above given matrix, [ ] is a
2 4
3 5
principle sub-matrix, but [ ] is NOT.
4 6
2. Diagonal Matrix: - A square matrix in which all of the
non-diagonal elements, i.e. entries outside the main
diagonal are zero. The diagonal elements, may or may
not be zero.
4 0 0
[0 3 0] is a diagonal matrix. This matrix can also be
0 0 2
written as diag[4,3,2]
Important properties for a Diagonal Matrix:
Diag[x,y,z]+diag[p,q,r]= diag[x+p, y+q, z+r]
Diag[x,y,z] X diag[p,q,r] = diag[xp, yq, zr]
(diag[x,y,z])-1=diag[1/x, 1/y, 1/z]
(diag[x,y,z])t=diag[x,y,z] ; the transpose of a diagonal
matrix is the transpose itself
(diag[x,y,z])n=diag[xn, yn, zn]
Eigen values of diag[x,y,z] are x, y, z
Determinant of diag[x,y,z] = xyz
3. Unit or identity matrix:- A square matrix whose
diagonal elements are 1 and non-diagonal elements are
zero. It is denoted by letter “I”. An identity matrix is
always a square matrix.
1 0 0
𝐼3 = [0 1 0] is an Identity matrix of order [3X3].
0 0 1
Important properties of Identity matrix:
AI=IA=A
In=I
I-1=I
Det (I) = 1
4. Null Matrix:- A matrix whose all elements are zero. It
may be a square or non-square matrix.
0 0
0 0
𝑂2 = [ ] , 𝑂3𝑋2 = [0 0] are examples of null
0 0
0 0
matrix.
Important properties of Null matrix:
A+O=O+A=A; therefore O is called an Additive identity
A+ (-A) =O
5. Idempotent Matrix: - A matrix ‘A’ is called
idempotent iff A2=A.
6. Involutory Matrix: - A matrix ‘A’ is called
involutory iff A2=I.
7. Upper triangular Matrix:- A matrix, always square,
in which elements below the diagonal elements are zero.
It is denoted by letter ‘U’.
1 2 2
[0 3 4] is an example of the Upper triangular Matrix.
0 0 6
8. Lower Triangular Matrix:- A matrix, always square,
in which elements above the diagonal elements are zero.
It is denoted by letter ‘L’.
1 0 0
[5 3 0] is an example of the Upper triangular Matrix.
8 8 6
9. Nilpotent Matrix:- A matrix ‘A’ is said to be
Nilpotent of degree ‘k’ iff Ak=0, and 𝐴𝑘−1 ≠ 0. The
Eigen values of a nilpotent matrix are zero.
Equal and Similar matrices:- Two matrices are said to be
equal, if there orders and each of the elements are same.
Two matrices are said to be similar, if there orders are
same but the elements are distinct from each other.
Two equal matrices will always be similar, but the vice
versa of it is not always true.
Two matrices can ONLY be added and subtracted if they
are similar, and/ or equal.
Matrix addition is commutative and associative
Matrix subtraction is neither commutative nor associative
Matrix Multiplication
Two matrices A and B can only be multiplied if the
number of columns in A is equal to number of rows in B.
Let [A](mXn) and [B](nXp), as number of columns of A
is equal to number of rows of B=n, the product AB is
possible and will be of order (mXp).
Matrix multiplication is not commutative; AB is not
necessarily equal to BA.
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Matrix multiplication is associative, if conformability is 𝐴+𝐴𝑡
is always a symmetric matrix
assured, i.e. A(BC)=(AB)C, where A, B and C are 2
If A and B are symmetric matrices then A+B and A-B
matrices of order (mXn), (nXp), (pXq) respectively.
are also symmetric. But AB and BA may or may not be
The equation AB=0 does not necessarily imply that at
symmetric.
least one of the matrices A and B must be a zero.
If AB=0, then it does not imply that BA=0, in fact BA
Skew Symmetric Matrix
might not even exist.
If At= - A, then the matrix is said to be skew symmetric.
A skew symmetric matrix must have all zeroes in its
Trace of a Matrix
diagonal.
The sum of elements lying in the principal diagonal of a
𝐴−𝐴𝑡
square matrix is called trace, denoted by Tr(A). For any matrix A, is always a skew symmetric
2
Properties of Trace matrix.
Tr(kA) = k Tr(A)
Tr(A+B) = Tr(A) + Tr(B) Orthogonal Matrix
Tr(AB) = Tr(BA) Any square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if;
At = A-1 ; AA-1=AAt = I.
Transpose of a Matrix This means that a matrix will be orthogonal if
Transpose of a matrix can be obtained by interchanging AAt=AtA=I.
rows to columns and vice versa. If [A](mXn) then An identity matrix is an orthogonal matrix
[A]t(nXm). The determinant of an orthogonal matrix is always ±1
Properties of transpose
(At)t=A Hermitian Matrix
(A+B)t=At+Bt A matrix is said to be Hermitian if, 𝐴𝜃 = 𝐴.
(kA)t=kAt
(AB)t=BtAt Skew-Hermitian Matrix
(ABC)t=CtBtAt A matrix is said to be skew hermitian if 𝐴𝜃 = −𝐴.

Complex Matrix/ Imaginary Matrix Unitary Matrix

If at least one of the elements of a matrix is a complex A square matrix A is said to be unitary iff;
number then the matrix is said to be Complex or 𝐴𝜃 = 𝐴−1 .
Imaginary Matrix.
A square matrix is said to be unitary if 𝐴𝐴𝜃 = 𝐴𝜃 𝐴 = 𝐼.
1+𝑖 2
𝐴=[ ] is an example of complex matrix
1 0
Determinants
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
Conjugate of a matrix
Conjugate can only be found out for a complex matrix, The symbol ∆= |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = 𝑎11 (𝑎22 𝑎33 −
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
by changing the sign of the imaginary part of the
𝑎23 𝑎32 ) − 𝑎12 (𝑎21 𝑎33 − 𝑎23 𝑎31 ) + 𝑎13 (𝑎21 𝑎32 −
complex number element in the matrix.
𝑎22 𝑎31 ) represents a determinant.
1−𝑖 2
𝐴̅ = [ ] is the conjugate of the above mentioned The signs of the elements are considered in the following
1 0
matrix A. + − +
pattern|− + −|.
+ − +
Properties of Conjugate of Matrix
̅̅̅̅
(𝑨̅) = 𝑨 Minors of a Determinant
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑨 + 𝑩) = 𝑨 ̅+𝑩 ̅ A minor is the determinant of a square matrix, formed by
̅̅̅̅) = 𝑨
(𝑨𝑩 ̅𝑩̅ deleting one roq and one column from some larger
̅ = 𝑨, then matrix is called a real matrix
If 𝑨 square matrix. Considering the determinant mentioned on
̅ = −𝑨, then matrix is called a purely imaginary
If 𝑨 the previous page;
matrix
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
Transposed Conjugate of a Matrix ∆= |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |, cross all entries sharing a row or
The transpose of the conjugate of a matrix A is called 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
column with a21.
transposed conjugate of A. It is denoted as 𝐴𝜃 .
Properties of Transposed Conjugate 𝑎12 𝑎13
(𝐴𝜃 )𝜃 = 𝐴 Minor of element a21= |𝑎 𝑎33 | = 𝑀21
32
(𝐴 + 𝐵)𝜃 = 𝐴𝜃 + 𝐵𝜃 When finding Minors, sign is NOT to be considered.
(𝑘𝐴) = 𝑘̅𝐴 , where k is any complex number
𝜃 𝜃

(𝐴𝐵)𝜃 = 𝐵𝜃 𝐴𝜃 Cofactors of a Determinant

After finding the minor, 𝑀𝑖,𝑗 , take the subscript and add
Symmetric matrices ‘I and j’. Whatever result we get from this addition, make
If At=A, then the matrix is said to be symmetric. it the power of -1, so the result will be either +1 or -1.
AAt is always a symmetric matrix

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Multiply this with the minor; we get the cofactor 𝐴𝑖,𝑗 = Procedure to test consistency of a system of linear
(−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖,𝑗 . equations ( r is the rank of mat A, and r’ is the rank of
augmented mat (A/B) ):-
Properties of a determinant Inconsistency – 𝑟(𝐴) ≠ 𝑟(𝐴|𝐵) then the system AX=B
The value of determinant does not change if rows and has no solution
columns are interchanged. Consistent systems- 𝑟(𝐴) = 𝑟(𝐴|𝐵) = 𝑟, then the system
If any row or column of a matrix A is completely zero, AX=B is consistent and the following two cases will
then det(A)=0. arise:-
If any of the two rows or columns are interchanged in a Consistent Unique Solution- 𝑟(𝐴) = 𝑟(𝐴|𝐵) = 𝑟 = 𝑛,
determinant, then the value of determinant is multiplied where n is the number of unknown variables in the
by -1. system
|𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴||𝐵| Consistent Infinite Solution- 𝑟(𝐴) = 𝑟(𝐴|𝐵) = 𝑟 < 𝑛,
A.AdjA=|𝐴|.I where n is the number of unknown variables in the
|𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴| = |𝐴|𝑛−1 system.
|𝐴𝑑𝑗 (𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴)| = |𝐴|^((𝑛 − 1))2 AX=0, represents a system of homogeneous equations;
find rank of A by reducing it to the triangular form by
applying E-Row transformations. Let rank A = r;
Inverse of a Matrix The above mentioned system of equations can never be
The inverse of a matrix A will exist iff |𝐴| ≠ 0, i.e. non- inconsistent
singular and is given by the formula, Consistent Unique Solution- If r = n, then AX= 0 will
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 have a unique/ trivial solution; i.e. x=y=z=0; 𝑟 = 𝑛 →
𝐴−1 = |𝐴| ≠ 0, 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
|𝐴|
Inverse of a matrix is unique, always. Let the two Consistent infinite Solution- if r<n then the system AX =
inverses of the matrix A be B and C, then AB=BA=I, and 0 will have infinite solutions; 𝑟 < 𝑛 → |𝐴| =
AC=CA=I. So, CAB=(CA)B=IB=B, and 0, 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
CAB=C(AB)=CI=C. Thus, B=C.
Eigen values
The equation AX = λ X, is called an Eigen Value
Adjoint of a square matrix problem, where λ is a scalar. The non zero solutions to X
It is a matrix formed by taking the transpose of cofactor satisfying the eigen value problem are called eigen
matrix for any square matrix A. vectors of A, and the corresponding values of λ are
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = [𝑐𝑜𝑓(𝐴)]𝑡 called the eigen values of A.
Properties of inverse
If A and B are inverse of each other, then AB = BA = I The matrix A- λ I is called the characteristic matrix of
(𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1 A, and the equation | A- λ I| = 0, is called the
(𝐴𝐵𝐶)−1 = 𝐶 −1 𝐵 −1 𝐴−1 characteristic equation of A.
If A is a non-singular matrix, then (𝐴𝑡 )−1 = (𝐴−1 )𝑡 , and
The roots of characteristic equation are called the eigen
(𝐴𝜃 )−1 = (𝐴−1 )𝜃
values for the given matrix.
Short cut to find inverse of a (2X2) matrix, if det (A) is
If I is a characteristic root of the equation |A – λ I| = 0,
non zero
then the matrix A-λI is a singular matrix
𝑎 𝑏 −1 1 𝑑 −𝑏
[ ] = [ ] If X is a eigen vector of a matrix A, then X cannot
𝑐 𝑑 (𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐) −𝑐 𝑎
correspond to more than one eigen values of A
The eigen values of a Hermitian matrix are real
Rank of a Matrix The eigen values of a real symmetric matrix are all real,
Rank of a matrix can be defined as the size of the largest
since every such matrix is Hermitian
non-zero minor.
Eigen values of a skew hermitian matrix are either pure
for any matrix A, 𝑟(𝐴) ≤ min(𝑚, 𝑛)
imaginary or zero
𝑟(𝐴𝐵) ≤ min[𝑟(𝐴), 𝑟(𝐵)] the eigen values of an Unitary matrix are of unit modulus
Rank of a matrix is the number of non zero rows in the The sum of the eigen values is equal to the sum of
echelon form. elements of the principal diagonal of the matrix
Echelon form: The product of eigen values of a matrix A is equal to its
Leading non zero element in every row is behind leading determinant
non zero element in previous row. If 𝜆 is an eigen value of A, then 1/λ is an eigen value of
All the zero rows should be below all non zero rows
𝐴−1
Elementary row transformations do not alter the rank of a
If λ is an eigen value of an orthogonal matrix then 1/λ is
matrix
also an eigen value of the same matrix.
Only null matrix can have a rank of zero, all other
If 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 … . 𝜆𝑛 be the eigen values of a matrix A, then
matrices should have rank of at least one
𝜆1𝑚 , 𝜆𝑚 𝑚
2 … . 𝜆𝑛 are the eigen values for matrix 𝐴
𝑚

Quadratic form
Consistency and Inconsistency for system of Linear
Equations

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 𝑎 ℎ 𝑔 𝑥 7. Which one of the following is an eigen vector of the
𝐴 = [ ℎ 𝑏 𝑓 ] , 𝑋 = [𝑦] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋 ′ = matrix
𝑔 𝑓 𝑐 𝑧
5 0 0 0
[𝑥 𝑦 𝑧] 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑋 ′ 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 𝑐𝑧 2 + 2𝑓𝑦𝑧 + 0 5 0 0
2𝑔𝑧𝑥 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 is said to be a quadratic form. 
The above quadratic is said to be 0 0 2 1
Positive definite, if all the eigen values of A>0  
Negative definite, if all the eigen values of A<0 0 0 3 1
Positive Semidefinite, if all the eigen values of A≥0, and
at least one eigen value =0
Negative semidefinite, if all the eigen values of A≤0 and 1 0 
at least one eigen value =0  2 0 
Indefinite if some of the eigen values of A are +ve and    
others –ve 0 1 
   
(A)   0 
0
Question (B)

1. The rank of a 3 X 3 matrix C(= AB), found by 1 1

multiplying a non-zero column matrix A of size 3 X 1 0   1
and a non-zero row matrix B of size 1 X 3, is    
(A) 0 (B) 1 0 2
(C) 2 (D) 3    
 2
C)  (D) 1
2. The following set of equations has
3x + 2y + z = 4
x-y+z=2
8. A is a 3 X 4 real matrix and Ax = b is an inconsistent
-2x + 2z = 5
system of equations. The highest possible rank of A
(A) no solution
is
(B) a unique solution
(A) 1 (B) 2
(C) Multiple solutions
(C) 3 (D) 4
(D) An inconsistency
9. Multiplication of matrices E and F is G. matrices E
3. Consider the system of simultaneous equations
and G are
x + 2y + z = 6
2x + y + 2z = 6 cos  sin  0
x+y+z=5  sin  cos 0
This system has 
(A) unique solution  0 0 1
(B) infinite number of solutions E= and
(C) no solution 1 0 0
(D) exactly two solutions
0 1 0 
4 1  
4. For the matrix [
1 4
] the eigen values are 0 0 1
G=
(A) 3 and -3 (B) -3 and -5 What is the matrix F?
(C) 3 and 5 (D) 5 and 0 cos  sin  0
 sin  cos 0
5. For which value of x will the matrix given below 
become singular?  0 0 1
8 𝑥 0 (A)
[4 0 2]

(A) 4
12 6 0
(B) 6  cos cos 0
(C) 8 (D) 12  cos sin  0

 0 1
(B) 
6. The sum of the eigen values of the matrix given 0
1 2 3
below is [1 5 1]
3 1 1  cos sin  0
(A) 5 (B) 7  sin  cos 0
(C) 9 (D) 18 
 0 0 1
(C)

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 2  2  4 1
 sin   cos 0 1 1  1  1
cos        
0
(A) (B) (C) (D)
 sin 
 0 0 1 17. Consider the following system of equations
(D) 2x1+ x2+ x3 = 0
X2- x3 = 0
3 2 X1+ x2 = 0
10. Eigen values of a matrix S  2 3 are 5 and what This system has
  (A) a unique solution
are the Eigen values of the matrix S2 = SS? (B) no solution
(A) 1 and 25 (B) 6 and 4 (C) infinite number of solutions
(C) 5 and 1 (D) 2 and 10 (D) five solutions

11. The number of linearly independent eigen vectors of 18. Eigen Values of a real symmetric matrix are always
(A)positive
2 1  (B) Negative
0 2 is
  (C) Real
(D)complex
(A) 0 (B) 1
(C) 2 (D) infinite
19. x + 2y + z = 4
2x + y + 2z = 5
1 2  x-y+z=1
12. The eigen vector of the matrix   are written
The system of algebraic equations given above has
0 2 
1  1 (A) a unique solution of x = 1,y = 1 and z = 1.
in the form a  and b . What is a + b? (B) only the two solutions of (x = 1,y = 1,z = 1) and (x
    = 2,y = 1, z = 0)
(C) infinite number of solutions
A) 0 (B) 2 (D) no feasible solution
(C) 1 (D) 2
5 3
13. For what value of a, if any will the following system 20. For a matrix A = 1 3 , ONE of the normalized
of equation in x,y and z have a solution ?  
2x + 3y = 4 eigen vectors given as
x+y+z=4
 1   1 
3x + 2y - z = a
   
(A) Any real number
(C) 1
(B) 0
(D) There is no such value
 2   2
   
 3   1 
1 2 4    
14. The matrix
3 0 6  has one eigen value (A)  2  (B)  2
 
1 1 p 
 3   1 
equal to 3. The sum of the other two eigen value is    
(A) p (B) p - 1  10   5
(C) p - 2 (D) p – 3    
 1   2 
   
M  = 
3 / 5 4 / 5
(C) 
15. For a matrix  , the transpose 10  (D) 
5
 x 3 / 5
of the matrix is equal to the inverse of the matrix,
M  = M 
ANSWERS
T -1. The value of x is given by
(A) – 4/5 (B) -3/5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(B) 3/5 (D) 4/5 B B C C A B A C C A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 2 B B B C A A C C C B
16. One of the eigen vectors of the matrix A = 1 3 
 
is

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