Professional Documents
Culture Documents
敦煌吐魯番研究
Journal of the Dunhuang and Turfan Studies
第十四卷
Volume ⅩⅣ
中國敦煌吐魯番學會成立三十周年
國際學術研討會專號 (上 )
中國敦煌吐魯番學會
首都師範大學歷史學院
香港大學饒宗頤學術館
北京大學東方學研究院
合辦
上海古籍出版社
二〇一四年·上海
編委會 (以姓名拼音字母爲序)
主 編
饒宗頤
編 委
柴劍虹 陳 明 鄧文寬 方廣錩 郝春文
李焯芬 林悟殊 劉 屹 孟憲實 榮新江
王邦維 王 素 游自勇 湛 如 張涌泉
趙和平
編輯部主任
郝春文
副 主 任
劉 屹 游自勇
目 録
論文
對莫高窟題記的初步整理和研究———《敦煌莫高窟題記彙編》編纂記
………………………………………………………………… 徐自强 張永强 (1 )
英國牛津大學藏斯坦因 1907 年敦煌莫高窟考古日記整理研究報告 …… 王冀青 (15 )
段永恩生平考略 …………………………………………………………… 朱玉麒 (55 )
俞澤箴與京師圖書館敦煌遺書編目工作 ………………………………… 劉 波 (79 )
Wang Zhongmins Years in Paris (1934 1939 ) ………………… Nathalie Monnet (95 )
Foreign Travellers to Dunhuang,1920 1960 …………………… Susan Whitfield (103 )
· 2·
Contents
Articles
:
Preliminary Compilation and Research of Inscription of Mogao Grottoes The Story
of the Compilation of Inscription of Mogao Grottoes at Dunhuang
……………………………………………… XU Ziqiang and ZHANG Yongqiang (1 )
An Investigation Report on Steins Diary of Archaeology in the Mogao Grottoes of
, …… WANG Jiqing (15 )
Dunhuang in 1907 Preserved in the Bodleian Library Oxford
A Study on the Life Story of Duan Yongen …………………………… ZHU Yuqi (55 )
Mr. Yu Zezhen and His Cataloguing Work of Dunhuang Manuscripts in the
Metropolitan Library in 1920 …………………………………………… LIU Bo (79 )
Wang Zhongmins Years in Paris(1934 1939 ) ……………… NATHALIE Monnet (95 )
Foreign Travellers to Dunhuang,1920 1960 …………………… SUSAN Whitfield (103 )
:
The Particularity of Dunhuang Manuscripts Some Manuscript Notes
……………………………………………………………… FANG Guangchang (181 )
A Study on the Properties of Dunhuang Documents Based on Codicology
…………………………………………… ISHIZUKA Harumichi and TANG Wei (193 )
Chinese Language Documents in S. F. Oldenburgs Fund of St. Petersburg Branch
· 1·
of the Archives of the Russian Academy of Sciences ……… IRINA. F. Popova (209 )
Cultural Relics of Dunhuang,Turfan and Other Places at the National Museum,
New Delhi of India …………………………………………………… WANG Su (217 )
:
An Essay on the Census Register System of the WuHu Period Analysis of the
Dunhuang and Turfan Documents ………………………………… SEKIO Shiro (223 )
The Famous Clans and Scholars in Dunhuang and the BeiLiang Kingdom:in
addition to Transformation of Confucianism from Famous Clans to Scholars
during Later Period of the Five Liang Kingdoms ………………… FENG Peihong (233 )
:
Study on the Original of Yuchi Family Research of Yuchi Family from the 3rd to 8th
Century A. D. PartⅠ …………………………………………… ZHAO Heping (245 )
On Auspicious Sign in the Period of Wuzetian:Focusing on the Shazhou Tujing
…………………………………………………………………… MENG Xianshi (261 )
Study the Canals of the Western Regions in Medieval China (5 )………… LI Fang (281 )
Preliminary Study on Litigant Document Format of Tang Dynasty:Mainly according to
Turfan Manuscripts …………………………………………… HUANG Zhengjian (289 )
Relationship between Management of Ship & Bridge and Tang Statutes and
:
Ordinance Focusing on the Water Department Regulations and Tiansheng Statutes
……………………………………………………………………… NIU Laiying (319 )
Review and Prospect of the Study on the Friends Letter Patterns ………… WU Liyu (331 )
Textual Criticism to Two Places of KharaKhoto Manuscript Xibei Zhudi Mabujun Biance
………………………………………………………………………… SUN Jimin (349 )
The Literary Style of Dunhuang Healing Liturgies …………… STEPHEN F. Teiser (355 )
,
The Shizhairi and the Zhaihui Religous Ritual as Seen in Dunhuang Texts
…………………………………………………………………… ARAMI Hiroshi (379 )
Dunhuang Bianwen:Study from the Perspective of the Offeringfoodtomonk Rite
……………………………………………………………………… HOU Chong (403 )
Constructing the Concepts of Dunhuang Literature and the Dimensions of the
Study of Dunhuang Literature …………………………………… ZHENG Acai (437 )
· 2·
On Study of Prayers in Dunhuang Applied Writing Documentary
…………………………………………………………………… WANG Sanqing (453 )
A Brief Discussion on the Issues on Bodhisattva Confession Pape of Chengyang
Three Years ……………………………………………………… WANG Zhenfen (467 )
The ReResearch for the WaterLand Ritual Origin and Development
……………………………………………………………………… DAI Xiaoyun (479 )
The Value of Japanese Duplicated Version of Shangshu Based on A Comparative
Textual Analysis from the Dunhuang Duplicated Version and Yanqi Duplicated
Version of Shangshu. ……………………………………………… XU Jianping (489 )
A Preliminary Examination on the Dunhuang Society and Culture in the Tang and
:
Five Dynasties Based on the Popular Lexicon with Special Reference to the
Dunhuang Manuscript Suwu yaoming lins Section on Drinking and Food
……………………………………………………………………… ZHU Fengyu (499 )
A Research on the NonBuddhist Materials in the Records of Great Masters Dharma
Traditions ………………………………………………………… ZHANG Zikai (523 )
Studies of Colloquial Chinese Language on DunHuang Materials …… GEN Yukiko (537 )
· 3·
《敦煌吐魯番研究》第十四卷
2014 年,
165 — 180 頁
Matthew Kapstein
Introduction
,
In recent decades new research on Dunhuang Tibetan documents relating to the study
of religion has advanced our understanding of developments during the obscure historical
period following the fall of the old Tibetan empire in the midninth century. The contributions
that I will be discussing here have been accomplished by a number of scholars and my own
role here has been a modest one. Nevertheless ,it may be useful to attempt a general
,
synthesis in order to clarify for nonTibetologists the manner in which new and specialized
research on Dunhuang Tibetan texts has transformed our view of the evolution of Tibetan
Buddhism towards the end of the first millennium. For it appears to be a general problem
within the field of Dunhuang Studies that work in any given area is often not effectively
,
communicated within the larger field a circumstance impeding our collective ability to study
questions of transmission across differing cultural spheres and to undertake comparative
researches as well.
The materials I shall summarize all touch on a key issue in the historical study of
, ,
Tibetan religion. Tibetan ritual systems are as is well known mostly based on the tantras ,
the scriptures of esoteric Buddhism,ofter termed “Mantrayna”or “Vajrayna. ”The tantras
are in turn often divided into two major groups in Tibet:those of the socalled “new mantra
traditions”(gsang sngags gsar ma pa ),which are followed primarily by the Sakyapa (sa
skya pa ), Kagyüpa (bka brgyud pa ) and Gelukpa (dge lugs pa ) orders of Tibetan
· 165·
敦煌吐魯番研究第十四卷
; “
Buddhism and those of the old mantra traditions ”(gsang sngags rnying ma pa),which
are peculiar to the Nyingmapa(rnying ma pa)order. Though there is some overlap between
these two categories (for example,the Guhyasamjatantra and the Ma! ju"rīnmasa#gīti
belong to both “old”and “new ”traditions,as do many of the “exoteric”tantras,on which
see below ),each includes a very large corpus of texts and rituals that it does not share with
the other. The distinction of the two traditions also entails there being different pantheons,
iconographies,and ma'$ alas,as well as specific approaches to contemplation and yoga
proper to each. Among the Nyingmapa,for instance,the culminating systems of meditation
are those designated as the Great Perfection (rdzogs chen ),iconically associated with the
Buddha Samantabhadra,while the new schools favor the Great Seal,or Mahmudr,whose
icon is Buddha Vajradhara.
“ ” ,
The histories of the new mantra traditions are in general relatively clear even if the
:
appearance of clarity frequently proves to be deceptive they are mostly based on tantras that
were current in India during the early second millennium and in many cases the Sanskrit
“
originals of the major texts survive. The old mantra traditions ,”however,present us with a
mystery. According to the Nyingmapa themselves ,their esoteric teachings follow Indian
currents of tantra that were prominent several centuries before the “new mantra traditions ”
arose and were transmitted to Tibet primarily during the time of the Tibetan ruler Tri
( , )
Songdetsen Khri Srongldebtsan reigned 755ca. 797 . Many scholars — including both
traditional Tibetan and modern historians — have found this to be problematic. They object
that the genuine documents from the age of Tri Songdetsen and his immediate successors that
have come down to us — above all the official catalogues of translated scriptures (studied
recently in H ALKIAS 2004 ,H ERRMANN PFANDT 2008 )— contain virtually no hint that the
distinctively Nyingmapa tantras were in circulation in Tibet at that time. In spite of this,by
the early eleventh century,when the “new mantra traditions ”were beginning to form,the
main currents of the “old mantra traditions”had definitely developed already.
Tibetan historiography is troubled by this state of affairs,for traditional sources maintain
that the midninth century decline of the monarchy marked the beginning of a long hiatus in
, “
Buddhist activity in Tibet. According to authors favorable to the Nyingmapa the old mantra
” ,
traditions therefore had to have been introduced before about 850 and their absence from
· 166·
:
Dunhuang Tibetan Buddhist Manuscripts and Later Tibetan Buddhism A Brief Review of Recent Research
the catalogues merely reflects the strictures of extreme esotericism with which they were
,
surrounded. Against this the critics argue that the distinctive forms of Nyingmapa esoteric
,
Buddhism were falsely fabricated by unscrupulous persons in Tibet who took advantage of
postimperial lawlessness to misrepresent their inventions as authentic Indian Buddhist tantric
teachings.
, ,
Contrasting with both of these perspectives however what contemporary scholars of the
history of Tibetan religion have increasingly come to recognize is that the Dunhuang Tibetan
documents are where we must turn to understand developments during the Tibetan age of
obscurity towards the end of the first millennium. Instead of the activities of a few charlatans ,
we find evidence here of the emergence of tantric ritual systems in milieux involving varied
,
interactions among Indian and Tibetan Buddhists and perhaps also Inner Asian and Chinese
Buddhist adepts and their disciples as well. A substantial survey of the Tibetan tantric
,
documents from Dunhuang may be found in DALTON AND VAN SCHAIK 2006 a catalogue of the
relevant works conserved in the Stein collection of the British Library and now an essential
“ ”
tool for research. A large proportion of the texts classified there as tantric are examples of
the numerous dhra$ īscriptures that were ubiquitous in midfirst millennium Mahyna
settings,both in India and China,and that are well represented in the early Tibetan
catalogues to which I have just referred. For present purposes,however,I will focus not on
texts of this type,whose credentials as “tantric ” are in some cases open to discussion.
Instead,my primary concern in what follows will be with only those documents that have a
distinctive relationship with later Nyingmapa tantrism.
,
the developed Nyingmapa system. Rather in accord with the usage that we find also in some
of the “new tantric traditions,”they seem to denote phases of ritual practice within the
tantric vehicles generally.
The tantric corpus of the Dunhuang Tibetan collection thus seems to reflect a period
,
prior to the systematization of the Nyingmapa tradition as we know it but during which the
structural elements of that tradition were already coming into use and available for
reappropriation. The question as to whether this suggests that works such as the Garland of
Views and other texts studied in DALTON 2005 should be taken to postdate the Dunhuang
, “ ”
archive or whether it is merely an accident that the classical Nyingmapa system does not
,
appear to be found there remains quite open.
Though it was long thought that no trace of this famous teacher was to be found in Dunhuang
,
texts the study of PT44 in B ISCHOFF AND HARTMANN 1971 demonstrated that he is the central
actor in at least one important narrative , relating to the tranmission of the tantras of
Vajrakīla. The same text has been studied anew in KAPSTEIN 2000 :158 160 and in
,
C ANTWELL AND MAYER 2008 which treats at great length the relationship of Padmasambhava
with the Vajrakīla tantras,as evidenced within the Dunhuang corpus. DALTON 2004 offers
further reflections on Dunhuang sources that may have contributed to the development of the
Padmasambhava legend. C ANTWELL AND ,an exemplary study of the tantra
MAYER 2012
entitled Noble Noose of Methods (Phags pa thabs kyi zhags pa ),offers further evidence
· 169·
敦煌吐魯番研究第十四卷
bearing on the development of the Padmasambhava legends. As for the Garland of Views
,
itself although it is mentioned in the Sba bzhed and exists in a version in old Tibetan
,
orthography accompanied by an 11 th century commentary it is not so far documented among
, ,
the Dunhuang finds or other pre11 th century documentary sources. It is however closely
related with the tantras of the Myjla (Magical Net ) cycle,the Guhyagarbha (Secret
Nucleus),above all,and,as will be seen below ,evidence that this cycle had emerged is
present in Dunhuang Tibetan texts.
,
Besides Padmasambhava one finds references in some Dunhuang documents to teachers
who would later figure among the culture heroes of the Nyingmapa. The beststudied example
,
is perhaps Buddhagupta whose manual of meditation according to the Great Perfection IOL(
) : ,
J Tib 594 is studied in KARMAY 1988 59 76. PT44 mentioned already for its account of
,
the Padmasambhava legend mentions several other adepts who are prominent in Nyingmapa
,
sources notably the famous Tibetan translator Pagor Vairocana ,as well as an Indian or
Nepali master named Prabase ,perhaps to be identified with the Prabhahasti of later
tradition. KARMAY 1981 exams,on the basis of a Dunhuang fragment,the formation of one of
the key legends of Nyingmapa Buddhism,that of the Indian king Dza.
adds an important note on the manner in which what appears to be an indigenous Tibetan
ritual tradition of‘calling the dead ’is seen in Dunhuang sources,and the role this may
have played in the formation of the famous “Tibetan Book of the Dead. ”
The ritual systems considered in K 2010 demonstrate a close relationship,for the
APSTEIN
Nyingmapa,between mortuary rituals and rites for the expiation of broken vows,the link
being due to the close connection that is believed to hold between the transgression of vows
and evil rebirth. VAN SCHAIK 2010 explores in particular the treatment of tantric vows in the
Dunhuang Tibetan corpus.
Later Nyingmapa sources often divide the corpus of Mahyoga tantras into two
, , “
categories called rgyud sde the class of the tantras ,”and sgrub sde,the “class of [the
practical methods of ] attainment. ” The ma'$ ala systems of the Myjla are the main
exemplars of the former,while the latter embrace the ma'$ ala systems sometimes referred to
as the “eight transmitted precepts”(bka brgyad). In the Dunhuang archive,this distinction
of the two classes seems not to be mentioned. However,it is clear that elements of both
classes are beginning to be formed. We have referred to the materials relating to the Myjla
,
tantras above. The second class that of “attainment,”is most prolifically represented at
Dunhuang by numerous texts devoted to the deity of the “diamond spike, ”or “dagger,”
Vajrakīla (or Vajrakīlaya),sometimes also called the “Vajra Youth ”(Tib. rdo rje gzhon
nu ,Skt. Vajrakumra ). This rich aspect of the Dunhuang tantric traditions has now
been very well studied thanks to the sustained efforts of C and M
ANTWELL (2008 a,
AYER
their work may be now taken as the model for critical research on Dunhuang tantric
materials and their continuity in relation to later Tibetan tantrism. Their painstaking
editions of the texts on which their research is based demonstrate clearly that ,between
the Dunhuang materials and later sources ,there was no radical rupture,but rather a
history of continuous development.
, ,
In the Vajrakīla and certain other tantric systems mentioned above exorcism and the
suppression of demonic forces are important foci of ritual activity. DALTON 2011 offers an
,
innovative synthesis of materials bearing on this focusing on selected Dunhuang documents
and their relation with Nyingmapa textual sources,and tracing this theme in a wide range of
later Tibetan materials.
, “
Dzogchen the Great Perfection ”
,
Finally we must mention the new light that Dunhuang documents have shed upon the
, ,
remarkable tradition of meditation shared by the Nyingmapa and Bn that is the system of
the Great Perfection,or Dzogchen (rdzogs chen ). Just a few decades ago,it was often
considered that this was simply a Tibetan inflection of influences stemming from Chinese
Chan traditions. Now it is known that such an assessment was much too simplistic. Key here
were the pioneering contributions of KARMAY 1985 ( ,1988 ),demonstrating a number of
Dunhuang texts directly related to later Bn and Nyingmapa Dzogchen materials. This line of
,
research was subsequently amplified in VAN SCHAIK 2004 VAN SCHAIK and DALTON 2004 ,
( , ),all of which contribute to clarifying the relationship between
and MEINERT 2002 2007
Chan and early Dzogchen in the Dunhuang sources. In connection with what was said earlier
regarding the sometimes fluid use of the term mahyoga / rnal byor chen po in Dunhuang
, , , ,
materials we see once again that dogmatic bounds were not yet rigid and that aspects of
, ,
Chan early Dzogchen and tantrism were capable of interpenetrating one another to various
degrees in the religious milieux around Dunhuang during the late first millennium.
Conclusions
,
If there is a clear conclusion that emerges from these investigations it is that the major
features of the Nyingmapa tradition had begun to take form during the ninth and tenth
· 173·
敦煌吐魯番研究第十四卷
centuries in the framework of an emerging body of coherent doctrinal and ritual systems and
— with perhaps the exception
not as isolated fabrications. And all of the systems concerned
of Tibetan Chan,to the extent that this may have existed as an independent system —
continued to evolve under the aegis of posttenth century Nyingmapa Buddhism. Included
here were the framing narrative of Padmasambhavas mission in Tibet , the general
architecture of the “nine sequential vehicles,
”the burgeoning Mahyoga corpus — both in
the aspects that would later be termed rgyud sde,the “tantric corpus ” focusing on the
Myjla cycle and the ma'$ alas of the hundred peaceful and wrathful divinities,and the
sgrub sde,the “sdhana corpus”focusing on the ma'$ alas of Vajrakīla and related deities—
and the culminating contemplative teachings of the Dzokchen,or Great Perfection. What
seems to be most evidently absent from this framework is a developed system of anuyoga,
for,although the term itself is documented within the Dunhuang documents,the emphasis
upon the subtle,inner body and the exercises of tantric yoga associated with it seem not to be
known in the Dunhuang Tibetan texts. It appears,therefore,that their incorporation within
the structure of Nyingmapa teaching was in large part a response to the influx of such
materials into Tibet from the eleventh century on. (Cf. the conclusions of G 1994 on
ERMANO
VAN SCHAIK 2012 for a review of current work on the material aspects of the Dunhuang
Tibetan documents. )But though the analysis of paper can be of help here,it cannot resolve
the entire problem,for it is always possible that scribes in and around Dunhuang made some
use of paper of Tibetan origin,and by the same token that the Tibetans of the regions that are
now in parts of Qinghai,Gannan,etc. ,made use of paper imported from central China. In
short ,analysis of the materials must be supplemented by better knowledge of cultural history.
Leaving these unresolved matters aside,it is at least clear that Tibetan tantrism,as we
see it developing in Dunhuang documents,overlapped with but was by no means identical to
the esoteric Buddhism known from contemporaneous Chinese sources, and that it was
certainly continuous with the tantrism of the Tibetan “old school, ” Nyingmapa,as it
continued to evolve after the tenth century. Of course,relations with developments elsewhere
in Inner Asia,among the Uighur and others,remain to be explored. We are only now
beginning to gain a clear picture of Tibetan esoteric Buddhism as it is represented in the
,
Dunhuang sources but this still leaves many larger questions untouched.
· 175·
敦煌吐魯番研究第十四卷
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