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本卷由中國敦煌石窟保護研究基金會資助出版

敦煌吐魯番研究
Journal of the Dunhuang and Turfan Studies
第十四卷
Volume ⅩⅣ

中國敦煌吐魯番學會成立三十周年
國際學術研討會專號 (上 )
中國敦煌吐魯番學會
首都師範大學歷史學院
香港大學饒宗頤學術館
北京大學東方學研究院
合辦

上海古籍出版社
二〇一四年·上海
編委會 (以姓名拼音字母爲序)
主  編
      饒宗頤
編  委
柴劍虹  陳  明  鄧文寬  方廣錩  郝春文
李焯芬  林悟殊  劉  屹  孟憲實  榮新江
王邦維  王  素  游自勇  湛  如  張涌泉
趙和平
編輯部主任
郝春文
副  主  任
劉  屹  游自勇
目    録
論文
對莫高窟題記的初步整理和研究———《敦煌莫高窟題記彙編》編纂記
  ………………………………………………………………… 徐自强  張永强 (1 )
英國牛津大學藏斯坦因 1907 年敦煌莫高窟考古日記整理研究報告 …… 王冀青 (15 )
段永恩生平考略 …………………………………………………………… 朱玉麒 (55 )
俞澤箴與京師圖書館敦煌遺書編目工作 ………………………………… 劉  波 (79 )
Wang Zhongmins Years in Paris (1934 1939 ) ………………… Nathalie Monnet (95 )
Foreign Travellers to Dunhuang,1920 1960 …………………… Susan Whitfield (103 )

于闐文書所見古代于闐的典押制度 ……………………………………… 段  晴 (113 )


試論回鶻文《玄奘傳》專有名詞的翻譯方式———以回鶻文第九、十卷爲例
  ………………………………………………………………… 張鐵山   朱國祥 (127 )
吐蕃時期敦煌的寫經人 ………………………………………………… 高田時雄 (137 )
英藏敦煌藏文 IOL. Tib. J. 26 號第二部分來源之研究 …………………… 才  讓 (145 )
Dunhuang Tibetan Buddhist Manuscripts and Later Tibetan Buddhism:A Brief
  Review of Recent Research …………………………………… Matthew Kapstein (165 )

敦煌遺書中寫本的特異性———寫本學劄記 ……………………………… 方廣錩 (181 )


從 Codicology 的角度來看敦煌漢文文獻 …………………… 石塚晴通   唐  煒 (193 )
俄羅斯科學院檔案館 С·Ф·奥登堡館藏中文文獻 …………………… 波波娃 (209 )
印度新德里國立博物館藏敦煌吐魯番等地文物 ………………………… 王  素 (217 )
“五胡”時代户籍制度初探———以對敦煌·吐魯番出土漢文文書的分析爲中心
  ………………………………………………………………………… 關尾史郎 (223 )
敦煌大族、名士與北涼王國———兼論五涼後期儒學從大族到名士的轉變
  …………………………………………………………………………… 馮培紅 (233 )
尉遲氏族源考———中古尉遲氏研究之一 ………………………………… 趙和平 (245 )
武則天時期的“祥瑞”———以《沙州圖經》爲中心 ………………………… 孟憲實 (261 )
中古時期西域水利考(五)———柳中縣、蒲昌縣水渠考 ………………… 李  方 (281 )
唐代訴訟文書格式初探———以吐魯番文書爲中心 ……………………… 黄正建 (289 )
舟橋管理與令式關係———以《水部式》與《天聖令》爲中心 ……………… 牛來穎 (319 )
關於敦煌《朋友書儀》的研究回顧與問題展説 …………………………… 吴麗娱 (331 )
黑水城金代漢文《西北諸地馬步軍編册》兩個地名的考證 ……………… 孫繼民 (349 )
(患文)……… Stephen F. Teiser (355 )
The Literary Style of Dunhuang Healing Liturgies
敦煌本十齋日資料與齋會、儀禮 ………………………………………… 荒見泰史 (379 )
敦煌變文:佛教齋供儀式角度的解讀 …………………………………… 侯  沖 (403 )
敦煌佛教文學理念的建構與研究面向 …………………………………… 鄭阿財 (437 )
敦煌應用文書啓請文研究 ………………………………………………… 王三慶 (453 )
承陽三年《菩薩懺悔文》及其相關問題 …………………………………… 王振芬 (467 )
水陸法會起源和發展再考 ………………………………………………… 戴曉雲 (479 )
由敦煌本與岩崎本互校看日本舊鈔《尚書》寫本之價值 ………………… 許建平 (489 )
敦煌通俗字書所呈現之唐五代社會文化研究芻議———以敦煌寫本《俗務
  要名林·飲食部》爲例 ………………………………………………… 朱鳳玉 (499 )
《歷代法寶記》所引“外書”考 ……………………………………………… 張子開 (523 )
敦煌文獻與中國口語史研究———以太田辰夫《中國語歷史文法》爲中心
  …………………………………………………………………………… 玄幸子 (537 )

新書目 ……………………………………………………………………… 常藎心 (553 )


《敦煌吐魯番研究》稿約 …………………………………………………………… (558 )
稿件書寫格式 ……………………………………………………………………… (559 )

· 2·
Contents

Articles

Preliminary Compilation and Research of Inscription of Mogao Grottoes The Story
  of the Compilation of Inscription of Mogao Grottoes at Dunhuang
  ……………………………………………… XU Ziqiang and ZHANG Yongqiang (1 )
An Investigation Report on Steins Diary of Archaeology in the Mogao Grottoes of
, …… WANG Jiqing (15 )
  Dunhuang in 1907 Preserved in the Bodleian Library Oxford
A Study on the Life Story of Duan Yongen …………………………… ZHU Yuqi (55 )
Mr. Yu Zezhen and His Cataloguing Work of Dunhuang Manuscripts in the
  Metropolitan Library in 1920 …………………………………………… LIU Bo (79 )
Wang Zhongmins Years in Paris(1934 1939 ) ……………… NATHALIE Monnet (95 )
Foreign Travellers to Dunhuang,1920 1960 …………………… SUSAN Whitfield (103 )

Pawning System of Ancient Khotan as Observed in Khotanese Documents


  ……………………………………………………………………… DUAN Qing (113 )
On the Way Translation of Proper Nouns of Xuanzang Biography in Uighur Script
  …………………………………………… ZHANG Tieshan and ZHU Guoxiang (127 )
Sutra Copyists in Dunhuang under Tibetan Occupation …………… TAKATA Tokio (137 )
A Research on the Origin of the Second Part of IOL. Tib. J. 26 ………… CAI Rang (145 )
Dunhuang Tibetan Buddhist Manuscripts and Later Tibetan Buddhism:A Brief
  Review of Recent Research ……………………………… MATTHEW Kapstein (165 )


The Particularity of Dunhuang Manuscripts Some Manuscript Notes
  ……………………………………………………………… FANG Guangchang (181 )
A Study on the Properties of Dunhuang Documents Based on Codicology
  …………………………………………… ISHIZUKA Harumichi and TANG Wei (193 )
Chinese Language Documents in S. F. Oldenburgs Fund of St. Petersburg Branch
· 1·
  of the Archives of the Russian Academy of Sciences ……… IRINA. F. Popova (209 )
Cultural Relics of Dunhuang,Turfan and Other Places at the National Museum,
  New Delhi of India …………………………………………………… WANG Su (217 )


An Essay on the Census Register System of the WuHu Period Analysis of the
  Dunhuang and Turfan Documents ………………………………… SEKIO Shiro (223 )
The Famous Clans and Scholars in Dunhuang and the BeiLiang Kingdom:in
  addition to Transformation of Confucianism from Famous Clans to Scholars
  during Later Period of the Five Liang Kingdoms ………………… FENG Peihong (233 )

Study on the Original of Yuchi Family Research of Yuchi Family from the 3rd to 8th
  Century A. D. PartⅠ …………………………………………… ZHAO Heping (245 )
On Auspicious Sign in the Period of Wuzetian:Focusing on the Shazhou Tujing
  …………………………………………………………………… MENG Xianshi (261 )
Study the Canals of the Western Regions in Medieval China (5 )………… LI Fang (281 )
Preliminary Study on Litigant Document Format of Tang Dynasty:Mainly according to
  Turfan Manuscripts …………………………………………… HUANG Zhengjian (289 )
Relationship between Management of Ship & Bridge and Tang Statutes and

  Ordinance Focusing on the Water Department Regulations and Tiansheng Statutes
  ……………………………………………………………………… NIU Laiying (319 )
Review and Prospect of the Study on the Friends Letter Patterns ………… WU Liyu (331 )
Textual Criticism to Two Places of KharaKhoto Manuscript Xibei Zhudi Mabujun Biance
  ………………………………………………………………………… SUN Jimin (349 )
The Literary Style of Dunhuang Healing Liturgies …………… STEPHEN F. Teiser (355 )

The Shizhairi and the Zhaihui Religous Ritual as Seen in Dunhuang Texts
  …………………………………………………………………… ARAMI Hiroshi (379 )
Dunhuang Bianwen:Study from the Perspective of the Offeringfoodtomonk Rite
  ……………………………………………………………………… HOU Chong (403 )
Constructing the Concepts of Dunhuang Literature and the Dimensions of the
  Study of Dunhuang Literature …………………………………… ZHENG Acai (437 )
· 2·
On Study of Prayers in Dunhuang Applied Writing Documentary
  …………………………………………………………………… WANG Sanqing (453 )
A Brief Discussion on the Issues on Bodhisattva Confession Pape of Chengyang
  Three Years ……………………………………………………… WANG Zhenfen (467 )
The ReResearch for the WaterLand Ritual Origin and Development
  ……………………………………………………………………… DAI Xiaoyun (479 )
The Value of Japanese Duplicated Version of Shangshu Based on A Comparative
  Textual Analysis from the Dunhuang Duplicated Version and Yanqi Duplicated
  Version of Shangshu. ……………………………………………… XU Jianping (489 )
A Preliminary Examination on the Dunhuang Society and Culture in the Tang and

  Five Dynasties Based on the Popular Lexicon with Special Reference to the
  Dunhuang Manuscript Suwu yaoming lins Section on Drinking and Food
  ……………………………………………………………………… ZHU Fengyu (499 )
A Research on the NonBuddhist Materials in the Records of Great Masters Dharma
  Traditions ………………………………………………………… ZHANG Zikai (523 )
Studies of Colloquial Chinese Language on DunHuang Materials …… GEN Yukiko (537 )

New Publications …………………………………………………………………… (553 )


Introduction to the Journal of Dunhuang and Turfan Studies ………………… (558 )

· 3·
《敦煌吐魯番研究》第十四卷
2014 年,
165 — 180 頁

Dunhuang Tibetan Buddhist Manuscripts and


Later Tibetan Buddhism :
A Brief Review of Recent Research

Matthew Kapstein

Introduction

In recent decades new research on Dunhuang Tibetan documents relating to the study
of religion has advanced our understanding of developments during the obscure historical
period following the fall of the old Tibetan empire in the midninth century. The contributions
that I will be discussing here have been accomplished by a number of scholars and my own
role here has been a modest one. Nevertheless ,it may be useful to attempt a general

synthesis in order to clarify for nonTibetologists the manner in which new and specialized
research on Dunhuang Tibetan texts has transformed our view of the evolution of Tibetan
Buddhism towards the end of the first millennium. For it appears to be a general problem
within the field of Dunhuang Studies that work in any given area is often not effectively

communicated within the larger field a circumstance impeding our collective ability to study
questions of transmission across differing cultural spheres and to undertake comparative
researches as well.
The materials I shall summarize all touch on a key issue in the historical study of
, ,
Tibetan religion. Tibetan ritual systems are as is well known mostly based on the tantras ,
the scriptures of esoteric Buddhism,ofter termed “Mantrayna”or “Vajrayna. ”The tantras
are in turn often divided into two major groups in Tibet:those of the socalled “new mantra
traditions”(gsang sngags gsar ma pa ),which are followed primarily by the Sakyapa (sa
skya pa ), Kagyüpa (bka brgyud pa ) and Gelukpa (dge lugs pa ) orders of Tibetan
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敦煌吐魯番研究第十四卷
; “
Buddhism and those of the old mantra traditions ”(gsang sngags rnying ma pa),which
are peculiar to the Nyingmapa(rnying ma pa)order. Though there is some overlap between
these two categories (for example,the Guhyasamjatantra and the Ma! ju"rīnmasa#gīti
belong to both “old”and “new ”traditions,as do many of the “exoteric”tantras,on which
see below ),each includes a very large corpus of texts and rituals that it does not share with
the other. The distinction of the two traditions also entails there being different pantheons,
iconographies,and ma'$ alas,as well as specific approaches to contemplation and yoga
proper to each. Among the Nyingmapa,for instance,the culminating systems of meditation
are those designated as the Great Perfection (rdzogs chen ),iconically associated with the
Buddha Samantabhadra,while the new schools favor the Great Seal,or Mahmudr,whose
icon is Buddha Vajradhara.
“ ” ,
The histories of the new mantra traditions are in general relatively clear even if the

appearance of clarity frequently proves to be deceptive they are mostly based on tantras that
were current in India during the early second millennium and in many cases the Sanskrit

originals of the major texts survive. The old mantra traditions ,”however,present us with a
mystery. According to the Nyingmapa themselves ,their esoteric teachings follow Indian
currents of tantra that were prominent several centuries before the “new mantra traditions ”
arose and were transmitted to Tibet primarily during the time of the Tibetan ruler Tri
( , )
Songdetsen Khri Srongldebtsan reigned 755ca. 797 . Many scholars — including both
traditional Tibetan and modern historians — have found this to be problematic. They object
that the genuine documents from the age of Tri Songdetsen and his immediate successors that
have come down to us — above all the official catalogues of translated scriptures (studied
recently in H ALKIAS 2004 ,H ERRMANN PFANDT 2008 )— contain virtually no hint that the
distinctively Nyingmapa tantras were in circulation in Tibet at that time. In spite of this,by
the early eleventh century,when the “new mantra traditions ”were beginning to form,the
main currents of the “old mantra traditions”had definitely developed already.
Tibetan historiography is troubled by this state of affairs,for traditional sources maintain
that the midninth century decline of the monarchy marked the beginning of a long hiatus in
, “
Buddhist activity in Tibet. According to authors favorable to the Nyingmapa the old mantra
” ,
traditions therefore had to have been introduced before about 850 and their absence from
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Dunhuang Tibetan Buddhist Manuscripts and Later Tibetan Buddhism A Brief Review of Recent Research

the catalogues merely reflects the strictures of extreme esotericism with which they were

surrounded. Against this the critics argue that the distinctive forms of Nyingmapa esoteric

Buddhism were falsely fabricated by unscrupulous persons in Tibet who took advantage of
postimperial lawlessness to misrepresent their inventions as authentic Indian Buddhist tantric
teachings.
, ,
Contrasting with both of these perspectives however what contemporary scholars of the
history of Tibetan religion have increasingly come to recognize is that the Dunhuang Tibetan
documents are where we must turn to understand developments during the Tibetan age of
obscurity towards the end of the first millennium. Instead of the activities of a few charlatans ,
we find evidence here of the emergence of tantric ritual systems in milieux involving varied

interactions among Indian and Tibetan Buddhists and perhaps also Inner Asian and Chinese
Buddhist adepts and their disciples as well. A substantial survey of the Tibetan tantric

documents from Dunhuang may be found in DALTON AND VAN SCHAIK 2006 a catalogue of the
relevant works conserved in the Stein collection of the British Library and now an essential
“ ”
tool for research. A large proportion of the texts classified there as tantric are examples of
the numerous dhra$ īscriptures that were ubiquitous in midfirst millennium Mahyna
settings,both in India and China,and that are well represented in the early Tibetan
catalogues to which I have just referred. For present purposes,however,I will focus not on
texts of this type,whose credentials as “tantric ” are in some cases open to discussion.
Instead,my primary concern in what follows will be with only those documents that have a
distinctive relationship with later Nyingmapa tantrism.

The Structure of Nyingmapa Teaching and


Its Dunhuang Antecedants
    The Nyingmapa ,like the Tibetan Bn religion,adopted a general scheme for the
classification of Buddhist teachings — resembling in some respects the Chinese panjiao 判教
systems — but based on the concept of “nine sequential vehicles ”of teaching,or theg pa
rim pa dgu in Tibetan:
I. Three vehicles derived from the teachings of the sūtras
1 ) rvakayna
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敦煌吐魯番研究第十四卷
2 Pratyekabuddhayna
3 Bodhisattvayna
“ ”
II. Three vehicles derived from the exoteric tantras
4 Kriytantra
5 Cryatantra
6 Yogatantra

III. Three vehicles derived from the unsurpassed ,”esoteric Yogatantras
7 Mahyoga
8 Anuyoga
9 Atiyoga (= the Great Perfection)
The antiquity of this scheme within Nyingmapa doctrinal works was considered in
: ,
KARMAY 1988 146 149 and the treatment of the nine vehicles in the Dunhuang document
PT 849 ,its formulation in Bn and in an influential Nyingmapa version attributed to
Padmasambhava (in the Garland of Views,or Man ngag lta bai phreng ba)were compared
in KAPSTEIN 2000 :13 17. D ALTON 2005 continues the investigation of early Tibetan sources
relative to the “vehicles,” including some references to works preserved at Dunhuang,
though primarily considering texts of likely antiquity that are known,however,from later
Nyingmapa collections.
, ,
On the basis of these studies it is now clear that although the elements that would be
subsequently given stable form in the classical Nyingmapa system of nine vehicles ,as
outlined above,were already present in the Dunhuang archive,the system was still evolving,
and not yet fixed in form. Thus,in PT 849 ,the first two vehicles are listed as the “vehicle
of men”and the “vehicle of gods, ”perhaps reflecting the inspiration of passages in the
La%kvatrasūtra,a scripture that was quite popular among the early Chan lineages as known
from both Chinese and Tibetan Dunhuang collections. Though these mundane vehicles were

dropped from the later system of nine vehicles some Nyingmapa works nevertheless preserve
, “
them under the designation of a single worldly vehicle of gods and men ”(jig rten lha mii
theg pa),which is then treated as a “half vehicle ”prior to the canonical nine. Similarly,
although PT 849s discussion of the nine vehicles does use the terms mahyoga,anuyoga,
and atiyoga,they are not in this case the designations of fullfledged vehicles,as they are in
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Dunhuang Tibetan Buddhist Manuscripts and Later Tibetan Buddhism A Brief Review of Recent Research


the developed Nyingmapa system. Rather in accord with the usage that we find also in some
of the “new tantric traditions,”they seem to denote phases of ritual practice within the
tantric vehicles generally.
The tantric corpus of the Dunhuang Tibetan collection thus seems to reflect a period

prior to the systematization of the Nyingmapa tradition as we know it but during which the
structural elements of that tradition were already coming into use and available for
reappropriation. The question as to whether this suggests that works such as the Garland of
Views and other texts studied in DALTON 2005 should be taken to postdate the Dunhuang
, “ ”
archive or whether it is merely an accident that the classical Nyingmapa system does not

appear to be found there remains quite open.

Padmasambhava and Other Nyingmapa Heroes


Although the system of nine vehicles as it is found in Padmasambhavas Garland of Views

has been authoritative for the Nyingmapa for the past thousand years it has not been possible
, ,
to establish that this text was in circulation at least in its present form before the mid
eleventh century. Indeed , not long ago some even questioned whether its author ,

Padmasambhava who is allimportant for the mythology of the Nyingmapa tradition ,was
himself known prior to the eleventh century. The figure of Padmasambhava,however,has
also begun to be clarified thanks to materials from Dunhuang and other early sources (above
all the Sba / Dba bzhed; see W and D
ANGDU 2000 , and, for evidence from
IEMBERGER

Dunhuang regarding the antiquity of the Sba / Dba bzhed,see V S AN and I


CHAIK 2009 ).
WAO

Though it was long thought that no trace of this famous teacher was to be found in Dunhuang

texts the study of PT44 in B ISCHOFF AND HARTMANN 1971 demonstrated that he is the central
actor in at least one important narrative , relating to the tranmission of the tantras of
Vajrakīla. The same text has been studied anew in KAPSTEIN 2000 :158 160 and in

C ANTWELL AND MAYER 2008 which treats at great length the relationship of Padmasambhava
with the Vajrakīla tantras,as evidenced within the Dunhuang corpus. DALTON 2004 offers
further reflections on Dunhuang sources that may have contributed to the development of the
Padmasambhava legend. C ANTWELL AND ,an exemplary study of the tantra
MAYER 2012
entitled Noble Noose of Methods (Phags pa thabs kyi zhags pa ),offers further evidence
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敦煌吐魯番研究第十四卷
bearing on the development of the Padmasambhava legends. As for the Garland of Views

itself although it is mentioned in the Sba bzhed and exists in a version in old Tibetan

orthography accompanied by an 11 th century commentary it is not so far documented among
, ,
the Dunhuang finds or other pre11 th century documentary sources. It is however closely
related with the tantras of the Myjla (Magical Net ) cycle,the Guhyagarbha (Secret
Nucleus),above all,and,as will be seen below ,evidence that this cycle had emerged is
present in Dunhuang Tibetan texts.

Besides Padmasambhava one finds references in some Dunhuang documents to teachers
who would later figure among the culture heroes of the Nyingmapa. The beststudied example

is perhaps Buddhagupta whose manual of meditation according to the Great Perfection IOL(
) : ,
J Tib 594 is studied in KARMAY 1988 59 76. PT44 mentioned already for its account of

the Padmasambhava legend mentions several other adepts who are prominent in Nyingmapa

sources notably the famous Tibetan translator Pagor Vairocana ,as well as an Indian or
Nepali master named Prabase ,perhaps to be identified with the Prabhahasti of later
tradition. KARMAY 1981 exams,on the basis of a Dunhuang fragment,the formation of one of
the key legends of Nyingmapa Buddhism,that of the Indian king Dza.

The Mahyoga Systems



Within the system of the nine vehicles the distinctively Nyingmapa tantric corpus is the

domain of the three final vehicles those of the “Great Yoga”(mahyoga,rnal byor chen
po),“Subsequent Yoga ”(anuyoga,rjes su rnal byor ),and “Extreme Yoga ”(atiyoga,
shin tu rnal byor ),this last also known as the “Great Perfection ”(rdzogs pa chen po ).
While the first and the last are well represented within the Dunhuang corpus,the second
presents some particular difficulties to which we shall have occasion to return below. (The
three lower categories of tantra — Kriytantra,Cryatantra,and Yogatantra — are to a large
extent shared by the old and new tantric systems in Tibet,and often have close parallels in
East Asian esoteric Buddhism as well. However,I will refer to them only in passing here;
more detailed consideration of their place in the Dunhuang archive must await another
occasion. )
For the later Nyingmapa tradition ,many of the most important tantric systems are
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Dunhuang Tibetan Buddhist Manuscripts and Later Tibetan Buddhism A Brief Review of Recent Research

, “Great Yoga. ”The term seems to refer in the first instance to


classified as Mahyoga the
texts and practices that were thought to occupy the highest rank among the Yogatantras,
works of which class, such as the wellknown Sarvadurgatipari& odhana and the
Tattvasa# graha (which belongs to East Asian tantrism as well ),had begun to circulate in
Tibet during the late 8 th and early 9 th centuries. The designation Mahyoga perhaps marked a
, ,
new superior dispensation among these tantras and came to be regarded as a distinctive

class of tantra in itself as it is for the Nyingmapa.
, ,
However when the term appears in the Dunhuang documents although it sometimes
does seem to denote a specific class of tantric practice ,this is not always so. In some

instances it perhaps refers to the contemplative or ritual practice that is judged by the author
, ,
of the work in which it occurs to be most excellent. This I think is sometimes the case
when the term is found in connection with the Chan 禪 teaching and this usage has been the
subject of some confusion. Although there is clear evidence for a syncretistic ChanTantric
( , ,V
teaching in some Dunhuang documents see e. g. AN ,
SCHAIK and DALTON 2004 MEINERT
2009 ),the mere occurrence of the expression rnal byor chen po,Mahyoga,should not be
taken to imply this automatically. It perhaps sometimes only means a “great contemplative
method. ”
Be this as it may,in its Nyingmapa usage Mahyoga is associated with particular groups
of Tantras,in the first instance the extensive corpus collectively termed the “Magical Net ”
(Myjla,Sgyu phrul drwa ba )of which the most important is the “Tantra of the Secret
Nucleus”(Guhyagarbhatantra,Rgyud gsang ba snying po ). Following a pioneering article
on Mahyoga in Dunhuang sources,E ASTMAN1983 ,a series of contributions has begun to
clarify the extent of the Mahyogas elaboration in the Dunhuang texts. Included are
Eastmans own contributions to the topic as treated in SNELLGROVEs IndoTibetan Buddhism
(1987),and a series of important articles on the subject by V AN ( ,
SCHAIK 2008a 2008b . )
That the entire class of the Myjla tantras was already in an advanced stage of development
by the midtenth century has been shown in KAPSTEIN 2006.
TAKAHASHI 2010 provides a complete edition and translation of the “Questions of
”(rdo rje sems dpai zhu lan)a major doctrinal treatise related to the Mahyoga
Vajrasattva
system,and known from three Dunhuang exemplars,that would indeed continue to be
· 171·
敦煌吐魯番研究第十四卷
transmitted in virtually identical form in the later Nyingmapa tradition. C ANTWELL and MAYER
2012 critically investigates the evolution of the “Noble Noose of Methods ”Upayap"a,a

distinctive Mahyoga tantra of the Nyingmapa beginning with the Dunhuang version of the
text and continuing throughout the later Nyingmapa manuscript and print textual traditions.
An important branch of the Nyingmapa Mahyoga systems concerns mortuary rituals
based on the ma'$ alas of the Myjla. KAPSTEIN 2010 takes up the Dunhuang evidence for

one such ritual corpus the Na rak dong sprug or , ‘Churning the Pit of Hell,’and its
primary tantra,the “Taintless Tantra of Contrition,
”Dri med gshags rgyud. I 2010 MAEDA

adds an important note on the manner in which what appears to be an indigenous Tibetan
ritual tradition of‘calling the dead ’is seen in Dunhuang sources,and the role this may
have played in the formation of the famous “Tibetan Book of the Dead. ”
The ritual systems considered in K 2010 demonstrate a close relationship,for the
APSTEIN

Nyingmapa,between mortuary rituals and rites for the expiation of broken vows,the link
being due to the close connection that is believed to hold between the transgression of vows
and evil rebirth. VAN SCHAIK 2010 explores in particular the treatment of tantric vows in the
Dunhuang Tibetan corpus.
Later Nyingmapa sources often divide the corpus of Mahyoga tantras into two
, , “
categories called rgyud sde the class of the tantras ,”and sgrub sde,the “class of [the
practical methods of ] attainment. ” The ma'$ ala systems of the Myjla are the main
exemplars of the former,while the latter embrace the ma'$ ala systems sometimes referred to
as the “eight transmitted precepts”(bka brgyad). In the Dunhuang archive,this distinction
of the two classes seems not to be mentioned. However,it is clear that elements of both
classes are beginning to be formed. We have referred to the materials relating to the Myjla

tantras above. The second class that of “attainment,”is most prolifically represented at
Dunhuang by numerous texts devoted to the deity of the “diamond spike, ”or “dagger,”
Vajrakīla (or Vajrakīlaya),sometimes also called the “Vajra Youth ”(Tib. rdo rje gzhon
nu ,Skt. Vajrakumra ). This rich aspect of the Dunhuang tantric traditions has now
been very well studied thanks to the sustained efforts of C and M
ANTWELL (2008 a,
AYER

2008 b , 2012 ), mentioned earlier in connection with Dunhuang references to


Padmasambhava and the tantra of the “Noble Noose of Methods. ”We may add here that
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Dunhuang Tibetan Buddhist Manuscripts and Later Tibetan Buddhism A Brief Review of Recent Research

their work may be now taken as the model for critical research on Dunhuang tantric
materials and their continuity in relation to later Tibetan tantrism. Their painstaking
editions of the texts on which their research is based demonstrate clearly that ,between
the Dunhuang materials and later sources ,there was no radical rupture,but rather a
history of continuous development.
, ,
In the Vajrakīla and certain other tantric systems mentioned above exorcism and the
suppression of demonic forces are important foci of ritual activity. DALTON 2011 offers an

innovative synthesis of materials bearing on this focusing on selected Dunhuang documents
and their relation with Nyingmapa textual sources,and tracing this theme in a wide range of
later Tibetan materials.

, “
Dzogchen the Great Perfection ”

Finally we must mention the new light that Dunhuang documents have shed upon the
, ,
remarkable tradition of meditation shared by the Nyingmapa and Bn that is the system of
the Great Perfection,or Dzogchen (rdzogs chen ). Just a few decades ago,it was often
considered that this was simply a Tibetan inflection of influences stemming from Chinese
Chan traditions. Now it is known that such an assessment was much too simplistic. Key here
were the pioneering contributions of KARMAY 1985 ( ,1988 ),demonstrating a number of
Dunhuang texts directly related to later Bn and Nyingmapa Dzogchen materials. This line of

research was subsequently amplified in VAN SCHAIK 2004 VAN SCHAIK and DALTON 2004 ,
( , ),all of which contribute to clarifying the relationship between
and MEINERT 2002 2007
Chan and early Dzogchen in the Dunhuang sources. In connection with what was said earlier
regarding the sometimes fluid use of the term mahyoga / rnal byor chen po in Dunhuang
, , , ,
materials we see once again that dogmatic bounds were not yet rigid and that aspects of
, ,
Chan early Dzogchen and tantrism were capable of interpenetrating one another to various
degrees in the religious milieux around Dunhuang during the late first millennium.

Conclusions

If there is a clear conclusion that emerges from these investigations it is that the major
features of the Nyingmapa tradition had begun to take form during the ninth and tenth
· 173·
敦煌吐魯番研究第十四卷
centuries in the framework of an emerging body of coherent doctrinal and ritual systems and
— with perhaps the exception
not as isolated fabrications. And all of the systems concerned
of Tibetan Chan,to the extent that this may have existed as an independent system —
continued to evolve under the aegis of posttenth century Nyingmapa Buddhism. Included
here were the framing narrative of Padmasambhavas mission in Tibet , the general
architecture of the “nine sequential vehicles,
”the burgeoning Mahyoga corpus — both in
the aspects that would later be termed rgyud sde,the “tantric corpus ” focusing on the
Myjla cycle and the ma'$ alas of the hundred peaceful and wrathful divinities,and the
sgrub sde,the “sdhana corpus”focusing on the ma'$ alas of Vajrakīla and related deities—
and the culminating contemplative teachings of the Dzokchen,or Great Perfection. What
seems to be most evidently absent from this framework is a developed system of anuyoga,
for,although the term itself is documented within the Dunhuang documents,the emphasis
upon the subtle,inner body and the exercises of tantric yoga associated with it seem not to be
known in the Dunhuang Tibetan texts. It appears,therefore,that their incorporation within
the structure of Nyingmapa teaching was in large part a response to the influx of such
materials into Tibet from the eleventh century on. (Cf. the conclusions of G 1994 on
ERMANO

this question in its relation to the later Dzogchen traditions. )


In the foregoing summary of recent research, I have focused primarily on the
contribution of the Dunhuang Tibetan documents to the study of specifically Tibetan religious
, , :
history. An important question however remains just what do the materials surveyed here
have to tell us about the religious life,not of Tibet,but of Dunhuang?This is by no means
easy to answer,given the present state of our knowledge. It is possible,however,to offer a
few tentative reflections on the directions we must pursue in order to answer it properly.
, ,
The first and by far most important issue that has not yet been satisfactorily clarified
concerns the comparison between the types of esoteric Buddhism we find in Dunhuang
Tibetan and Chinese sources ,including the nontextual sources (e. g. ,paintings and
diagrams). On the basis of what is known to date,there are certainly some areas in which
Sinophone and Tibetophone esoteric Buddhist communities shared closely similar materials:
this seems to have been the case,for instance,with respect to the cults of Avalokite%vara as
Amoghap%a,the wrathful divinity Mahbala,and perhaps that of the eight Mahbodhisattva
· 174·

Dunhuang Tibetan Buddhist Manuscripts and Later Tibetan Buddhism A Brief Review of Recent Research

(八大菩萨)as derived from the Vajra"ikharatantra,among other sources. (On aspects of


Chinese Buddhist esotericism at Dunhuang,a selection of representative writings in Western
languages is given in bibliography. )But on the other hand,there also seem to be aspects of
tantrism ,as known through Dunhuang texts,that are distinctive to either Chinese or Tibetan
contexts. This may be true of a number of the Tibetan tantric materials I have surveyed
above.
In treating of works of this last category ,the Tibetan tantric traditions known from
Dunhuang but apparently absent from Dunhuang Chinese sources,additional questions for
future research remain: do these materials reflect the religious life of Tibetophone
communities in and around Dunhuang? or are they merely texts that arrived and were
fortuitously conserved in Dunhuang,despite their provenance among Tibetan Buddhists from
outside of the Dunhuang region?The research on the paper used for Dunhuang Tibetan
manuscripts,recently undertaken by A. HellmanWa·z ny,may eventually help to resolve
these questions,for HellmanWa·z ny has convincingly shown that some Dunhuang Tibetan

works are written on paper that is certainly of Tibetan origin. (Refer to H


·
W
ELMAN and
A ZNY

VAN SCHAIK 2012 for a review of current work on the material aspects of the Dunhuang
Tibetan documents. )But though the analysis of paper can be of help here,it cannot resolve
the entire problem,for it is always possible that scribes in and around Dunhuang made some
use of paper of Tibetan origin,and by the same token that the Tibetans of the regions that are
now in parts of Qinghai,Gannan,etc. ,made use of paper imported from central China. In
short ,analysis of the materials must be supplemented by better knowledge of cultural history.
Leaving these unresolved matters aside,it is at least clear that Tibetan tantrism,as we
see it developing in Dunhuang documents,overlapped with but was by no means identical to
the esoteric Buddhism known from contemporaneous Chinese sources, and that it was
certainly continuous with the tantrism of the Tibetan “old school, ” Nyingmapa,as it
continued to evolve after the tenth century. Of course,relations with developments elsewhere
in Inner Asia,among the Uighur and others,remain to be explored. We are only now
beginning to gain a clear picture of Tibetan esoteric Buddhism as it is represented in the

Dunhuang sources but this still leaves many larger questions untouched.
· 175·
敦煌吐魯番研究第十四卷
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