Journal of Food Processing and Preservation ISSN 1745-4549

EFFECT OF THERMAL PROCESSING ON PHENOLIC CONTENT,

TOCOPHEROLS AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF SACHA
INCHI KERNELS
LENKA  
STERBOV  1 PETRA HLASN
A,  A 
 CEPKOV  2,3 IVA VIEHMANNOVA
A,  2,5 and
4
DANTER CACHIQUE HUANSI
1
Quality of Plant Products, Crop Research Insitute, Drnovsk
a 507/73 161 06 Prague 6-Ruzyn e, Czech Republic
2
Department of Crop Sciences and Agroforestry, Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamyck
a 129, 16521
Prague 6, Czech Republic
3
Gene Bank, Crop Research Insitute, Drnovsk a 507/73, 161 06 Prague 6-Ruzyn e, Czech Republic
4
Peruvian Amazon Research Institute, Jr. Bel
en Torres de Tello 135, Morales, Tarapoto 22200, Peru

5
Corresponding author. ABSTRACT
TEL: 1 420-224-382-170;
EMAIL: viehmann@ftz.czu.cz, Raw, honey-coated and processed Sacha inchi kernels were investigated for effects
viehmannova@gmail.cz of different thermal processes on the content of total phenolic content (TPC)
(Folin assay) and radical scavenging capacity (DPPH method), the content of a-
Received for Publication July 17, 2015
tocopherol, ß 1 c-tocopherol, d-tocopherol. Sacha inchi kernels were subjected to
Accepted for Publication December 31, 2015
open boiling, pressure boiling, sous-vide, low-temperature roasting, high-
doi:10.1111/jfpp.12848 temperature roasting and honey roasting. The radical scavenging capacity of ker-
nels was little affected by thermal processing, with the average loss of 8%. Roast-
ing had a significant negative effect on tocopherol content but not on the total
phenolic content. The appropriate thermal procedure and adequate time can sig-
nificantly influence the quality of Sacha inchi kernels during food preparation.
Especially roasting at 190C for 35 min and honey roasting at 170C for 30 min of
Sacha inchi kernels have positive effect of increasing TPC.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Plukenetia volubilis or Sacha inchi seeds are the traditional food used as nuts in
the mountain area of the South America. The oil have recently become popular as
a source of unsaturated fatty acids, antioxidants and A and E vitamins; however,
not much information has been published on the micronutrients in processed
seeds. This article presents several processing methods for Sacha inchi seeds and
offers the description of changes in health beneficial compounds the kernels are
seeking for. This article aims to become a useful tool for increasing number of
importers and processors spreading this rediscovered food.

INTRODUCTION
Noticeable trend for healthy lifestyle and healthy food grows
recently worldwide. Essential components of healthy foods
are plant products coming from plant species providing edi-
ble kernels and nuts. It is a well-known fact that these species
possess many health benefits documented by several
research studies and it is known that seeds and nuts play a
key role against chronic human diseases such a cardiovascu-
lar, cancer and diabetes disease (Preedy et al. 2011). Nuts are
considered to be a good source of phytochemicals with anti-
oxidant properties, mainly phenolics and fat-soluble antiox-
idants like tocopherols and carothenoids (Bolling et al.
2011).
One of the recently rediscovered crop providing edible
seeds is Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) from family
Euphorbiaceae. It is a native crop in Peruvian Amazon and
its seeds were produced by locals long a time ago, growing as
a shrub producing globular capsules containing one seed.

Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 00 (2016) 00–00 V

C 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 1
EFFECT OF THERMAL PROCESSING IN SACHA INCHI KERNELS
Hamaker et al. (1992) first reported its excellent nutritional
composition, especially high oil and protein content of
exceptional quality. Over the last few years were published
several studies screening the chemical composition of Sacha
inchi seed. Guttierez et al. (2011) confirmed high level of oil
presence in seeds and characterized by important quantities
of essential fatty acids 3-x and 6-x and, further significant
content of proteins 24.7% in Sacha inchi seed and presence
of essential microelements in amount beneficial for human
health. Fanali et al. (2011) corroborated that Sacha inchi oil
is a good source of linoleic and linolenic acids with consid-
erable amounts of tocopherols and in addition, the flavo-
noid composition in the extracted oil suggests its potential
use as dietary source of natural antioxidants. Even leaf
extract of Sacha inchi contained components with antioxi-
dant activity (Lima Nascimiento et al., 2013).
Recently published studies indicated that high antioxi-
dant capacity of Sacha inchi oil carry out the analysis with
raw seeds and nuts (Chirinos et al., 2013; Souza et al., 2013)
but that the majority of plant species which provide edible
nuts or kernels (oil) are consumed after a thermal treatment
during culinary preparation. The content of phytochemicals
(polyphenol, total phenols and total antioxidant capacity)
significantly varied between and within nut genotypes since
it is affected by many pre- and postharvest factors; genotype
being the most important preharvest factor and environ-
mental stress, either biotic or abiotic being the most impor-
tant postharvest (Preedy et al., 2011). It is well documented
that roasting of nut and kernels before consumption has an
effect on sensory, chemical and nutritional properties. How-
ever, the thermal processing might have an ambivalent effect
on the antioxidant properties of food. The high temperature
in combination with oxygen supply may lead to increase in
oxidation of raw material (mainly fatty acids) with the fol-
lowing antioxidant degradation. Trox et al., 2010 reported
the decrease in tocopherol and carothenoid content in
cashew nuts after drying and roasting. Schmitzer et al.,
(2011) reported the decrease of various phenolic com-
pounds (protocatechic acid, phloretin-2-O-glucoside, cate-
chin and epicatechin) in hazelnuts after roasting, but the
total phenolic content and radical scavenging capacity
(determined by DPPH) increased after treatment. This is in
consent with theory of Xu and Chang (2008) that thermal
treatment applied to foods of plant origin causes changes in
cellular structure, which might result in a greater availability
of plant phenolic compounds. Moreover, it is suggested that
total antioxidant capacity and radical scavenging capacity
may benefit from the newly formed simple phenolics, e.g.,
gallic acid as products of thermal degradation of more com-
plex phenolic compound (catechins). Contrary to the stud-
ies mentioned above, Lemos et al. (2012) presented the 40%
reduction in radical scavenging capacity and 55% reduction
in total phenolics after roasting of unpeeled baru nuts.
2 Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 00 (2016) 00–00 V
L. 
ST  ET AL.
ERBOVA
Chandrasekara and Shahidi (2011) suggested for effective
enhancement of the antioxidant activity of cashew nut and
testa high temperature–short time roasting. Similarly, an
appropriate roasting (30 min at 150C) of pine nuts lead to
improving the oxidative stability and radical scavenging
capacity of pine nut oil.
The inconsistent reports mentioned above indicate that
roasting does not have a simple predictable effect on phyto-
chemicals in nuts. Moreover, there is only limited knowl-
edge of Sacha inchi nuts after thermal processing. Cisneros
et al. (2014) confirmed tendency in Sacha inchi oil (from
roasted seeds) the higher resistance to oxidation due to the
formation of phenolic compounds with higher antioxidant
activity during the roasting process. But no information on
nuts itself were reported.
Considering the limited information about the influence
of thermal procedures on Sacha inchi kernels, this study
address the information gap and aims at analysis of antioxi-
dant components (total phenolic content, a-, ß 1 c-tocoph-
erol, d-tocopherol) and radical scavenging capacity in raw
and processed Sacha inchi kernels to describe the effects of
different types of thermal processing (open boiling, pressure
boiling, sous-vide cooking and honey roasting, including
traditional type of preparation – high- and medium-
temperature roasting; Hamaker et al. (1992) by locals in
Peruvian Amazon on antioxidant properties of Sacha inchi
kernels.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Sacha inchi seeds were acquired from local producers on the
market in Tarapoto region San Martın in Peruvian Amazon.
Seeds were stored in a cool and dark place until further use.
Seeds were shelled manually and the visual control, that dis-
carded broken or decayed kernels, was carried out. The
peeled kernels were stored for maximum 5 days in a refriger-
ator (4C) until thermal processing.
Thermal Processing
Three different roasting conditions and three different boil-
ing conditions were used for thermal processing of Sacha
inchi kernels. All processes were carried out in similar way
of preparation as it is commonly used by local consumers.
The whole duration of processing was in all variants long
enough to clear the astringent off-flavor. Wherever possible,
samples were collected during the process in suitable inter-
vals to follow the changes in antioxidant properties. Col-
lected samples were ground and stored in sealed colorless
plastic bags at 224C until analysis.
Open Boiling (OB). Whole seeds were boiled in excessive
amount of distilled water (120 g of seeds in 1 L of water
C 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
L. STERBOVA
 ET AL.
salted with 4 g of NaCl). The boiling system was open under
atmospheric pressure that responds to the temperature of
boiling water 100C. Samples were collected after 15, 30, 45,
60, 90, 120 and 135 min.
Pressure Boiling (PB). Whole seeds were boiled in exces-
sive amount of distilled water (120 g of seeds in 1 L of water
salted with 4 g of NaCl). The boiling system was airtight at
1.91 bar that responds to the temperature of water 119C.
“Sous-Vide” – Water Bath Boiling (SV). Grounded
seeds were processed in a glass jar in open water bath at
100C while constantly mixed. No direct contact with water
was allowed. Samples were collected after 15, 30, 45, 60, 90,
120 and 135 min.
Low-Temperature Roasting (LTR). Whole seeds were
roasted at 125C in a dry oven on open tray for 200 min.
Samples were collected after 10, 20, 40, 80, 120, 160 and
200 min.
High-Temperature Roasting (HTR). Whole seeds were
roasted in a dry oven on open tray at 190C in a dry oven for
35 min. Samples were collected after 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 and
35 min.
Honey Roasting (HR). Whole seeds were roasted with
honey based on method from US patent no. US4161545A,
but simplified. Briefly, dry seeds were coated with 80%
honey soluted in distilled water. The average weight of coat-
ing was 23 g of honey solution per 100 g of seeds. Samples
were roasted in oven on open tray at 170C and collected
after 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35 min.
Chemical Analyses
Folin Assay. Total phenolic content (TPC) was deter-
mined spectrophotometrically with the Folin–Ciocalteau
reagent. A modified method of Holasova et al. (2002) was
used. Two grams of sample was extracted with 20 mL of
80% methanol for 60 min in a centrifugation tube. Tubes
were protected from sunlight by aluminum foil. 0.5 mL of
the extract was pipetted into 50 mL volumetric flask and
diluted with distilled water. Then 2.5 mL Folin–Ciocalteau
reagent (PENTA, Czech Republic) and 7.5 mL 20% sodium
carbonate solution was added after agitation. After 2 h
standing in dark at laboratory temperature, absorbance at
wave length k 5 765 nm on the spectrophotometer Genesys
10UV (Thermo Scientific, USA) was measured against
blank. Results were quantified using gallic acid (Merck,
Germany) and expressed as gallic acid equivalents (GAE).
Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 00 (2016) 00–00 V
C 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
EFFECT OF THERMAL PROCESSING IN SACHA INCHI KERNELS
DPPH Assay. Free-radical scavenging assay. The radical
scavenging capacity (RSC) was determined on microtiter
plates in methanol extracts using the stable radical
DPPH
(2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl). Briefly, 20 mL of
methanol was added to 1 g of sample and shaked for 90 min
while protected from light by aluminum foil. Twenty micro-
liters of extract reacted for 10 min with 150 lL DPPH solu-
tion with initial absorbance A 5 0.6 at 550 nm. The reaction
occurred in the dark, and the absorbance at 550 nm was
read afterward using a spectrophotometer (Sunrise absorb-
ance reader, Tecan, Switzerland). The ability to scavenge the
DPPH radical was determined using the standard curve
obtained with Trolox (Sigma Aldrich, Germany) in the
range from 0.0 to 0.2 mmol/L. The results were expressed as
Trolox equivalent (TE) antioxidant capacity.
Tocopherol Content. Samples were extracted by hexan
after discontinuing alkaline extraction according to
Delgado-Zamarre~ no et al. (2001). The tocopherols were
determined using HPLC separation on Waters 2695 Separa-
tions Module Alliance (Waters, USA) on reverse phase
(Lichrospher C18 250 3 4@4 mm, Merck GmBH, Germany)
and detected with fluorescence detector Waters 474 (k (exci-
tation) 5 285 nm, k (emission) 5 330 nm). The octadecyl
silica used as a stationary phase in chromatographic separa-
tion is not able to separate b- and c-isomer. Thus, the
tocopherol content is present as a-tocopherol and d-
tocopherol separately, whereas the content of b-tocopherol
and c-tocopherol is presented as a sum of the two and
expressed in c-tocopherol equivalents (c-tE).
Statistical Analysis
Results were presented as the mean value 6 standard devia-
tion (SD) of at least three independent experiments. Differ-
ences were estimated by the analysis of variance (ANOVA)
followed by Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference (HSD)
test. Differences were considered to be significant at
p  0.05. Correlation analysis was performed between meas-
ured parameters and type of processing and time of process-
ing. All statistical analyses were performed by software
Statistica 12.0 CZ.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of Cooking Method on Total Phenolic
Content, Radical Scavenging Capacity and
the Content of Tocopherols
The results of the total phenolic content (TPC) determina-
tion in Sacha inchi are shown in Table 1. TPC of Sacha inchi
kernels was measured in a range from 5.7 to 141.3 mg/100 g
GAE of total phenolic compounds. The maximum content
3
 EFFECT OF THERMAL PROCESSING IN SACHA INCHI KERNELS L. 
ST  ET AL.
ERBOVA

(102.7 mg/100 g GAE) was measured in seeds roasted with

processing (%)

*Different letters in columns denote statistically significant difference (as defined by ANOVA test and HSD post-hoc test at p  0.05). Overall influence of processing is evaluated separately. Gains are
AA by thermal
Loss /gain of
TABLE 1. EFFECT OF DIFFERENT THERMAL PROCESSING ON DPPH RADICAL SCAVENGING CAPACITY (RSC), TOTAL PHENOLIC CONTENT (TPC), CONTENT OF a-TOCOPHEROL, b 1 c-TOCOPHEROL

honey and the lowest value in open boiled seeds (16.0 mg/
100 g GAE).

10.3
210

223
210
213
In general, TPC of Sacha inchi kernels is comparable to or

16

8
lower than in other nuts. TPC values after roasting obtained

217.7 6 17.3ab

212.5 6 31.6ab
241.3 6 16.5b

241.7 6 17.1b

241.3 6 16.5b
in this study are closest to the identified TPC values in pine

186.4 6 15.6a

222.1 6 27.4a
217.6 6 7.2ab
243.2 6 0.0b

256.6 6 4.8b
RSC (mmol

nut by Wu et al. (2004). TPC in processed Sacha inchi ker-

TE/100 g)

nels did not exceed the content reported for other popular
nuts and those produced in South American region. TPC of
Sacha inchi nuts after roasting was by far lower in compari-
processing (%)
d-tocopherol

son with the result of unpeeled baru nut, where the maxi-
Loss/gain of

by thermal

mum content of the total phenolic content reached

531.8 mg/100 g GAE12 while Sacha inchi roasted kernels in
115
114

130
129
15

19

12
our case reached only 55.7 mg/100 g GAE. Explanation of
such high difference can be caused by testing of baru nuts
d-tocopherol

27.2 6 0.4bc
(mg/100 g)
25.9 6 0.8b
21.7 6 3.9b

22.5 6 0.7b

25.8 6 0.8b
18.0 6 0.9a
18.3 6 0.3a
19.7 6 0.4a

22.6 6 4.7a
29.7 6 1.9c

with peel, which exhibited much higher TPC than the nut
without peel and Sacha inchi seed does not possess any pro-
tective peel eventually increasing TPC. Pelvan et al. (2012)
calculated average loss of 66.3% of TPC in hazelnuts after
b1c-tocopherol

processing (%)

roasting but mainly due to the removal of skin after roasting

Loss/gain of

by thermal

that had a significant impact on the loss of phenolic.

Chandrasekara and Shahidi (2011) found higher TPC in
236
225
230

278
278
250

50

high-temperature-treated cashew than in raw cashew testa.

Likewise, HR and HTR enhanced TPC in Sacha inchi
b1c-tocopherol
(mg c-tE/100 g)

kernels more than other thermal treatment. After HTR, the

26.5 6 1.5bc
41.4 6 3.3d
40.6 6 0.0d

20.3 6 0.9b

41.4 6 3.3b
20.9 6 9.3a
31.2 6 1.6c
29.0 6 2.2c

9.0 6 0.6a
9.3 6 2.8a

TPC was increased by 234% comparing to initial value of

raw kernels and the HR caused even higher increase (378%)
compared to the initial value of raw kernels coated with
honey. These results suggests that similar to the study of Cis-
a-tocopherol
(mg/100 g)

neros et al. (2014), total phenols in oil increased with roast-

ing intensity and it is explained by the formation of new
<5
<5

<5
<5
<5

<5
<5
<5

<5
<5

compounds with stronger antioxidant capacities.

The content of tocopherol isomers detected in the Sacha
processing (%)

inchi kernels after different cooking processing is presented

Gain of TPC
by thermal

in Table 1. Statistically significant differences in ß 1 c-

1145

1234
1378

tocopherol and d-tocopherol were confirmed in all tested

136

155
16

15

cooking procedures. ß 1 c-tocopherol and d-tocopherol

were found in the highest mean value for kernels treated by
TPC (mg/100 g

102.7 6 9.6b

42.6 6 31.5b

PB and SV followed by kernels treated with OP process. The

40.9 6 2.0b
16.7 6 2.7a
21.5 6 0.0a

16.0 6 0.4a

17.4 6 1.0a

22.7 6 0.4a

16.7 6 2.7a
55.7 6 7.9c

highest losses of ß 1 c-tocopherol (78%) were recorded in

indicated with 1 and losses are indicated with 2.
GAE)
AND d-TOCOPHEROL IN SACHA INCHI KERNELS

kernels after HTR and LTR. Pereira de Souza et al. (2013)

reported significantly lower amount of tocopherol isomers
Raw kernels coated

in raw Sacha inchi kernels than our study. The values we

Sous-vide (water
bath cooked)
Roasted (125C)
Roasted (190C)
Honey roasting
Pressure boiled

found are comparable to those presented by Hamaker et al.

with honey
Open boiled
Raw kernels

Initial value

(1992) who also first described the presence of a-tocopherol

Final value
(170C)

in amount of 3.9–6.3 mg/100 g in Sacha inchi oil that we did

not find. On the other hand, Chirinos et al. (2014) estimated
the variability in total tocopherol content within the range
Unprocessed kernels

Thermally processed

Overall influence of

78.6–137.0 mg/100 g of kernels depending on cultivar with

the majority of c-tocopherol and d-tocopherol, whereas a-
processing

and b-tocopherol represent only 3% of total tocopherols.

kernels

Our study confirmed that the predominant part of toco-

pherols is attributed to ß 1 c-tocopherol and d-tocopherol

4 Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 00 (2016) 00–00 V

C 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
L. STERBOVA
 ET AL.
in raw kernels and during the thermal processing. The high-
est total content of tocopherols was recorded in PB kernels
(53.7 mg/100 g), OB kernels (53.7 mg/100 g) and SV kernels
(51.5 mg/100 g). LTR- and HTR-treated kernels showed sig-
nificant decrease in ß 1 c-tocopherol and d-tocopherol
(27.0 and 27.6 mg/100 g, respectively) and that corre-
sponded to 78% loss of ß 1 c-tocopherol and 29% loss of
d-tocopherol. Slightly lower losses were recorded also in HR
treated kernels. Follegatti-Romero et al. (2009) showed
results which are somewhat lower than published by
Chirinos et al. (2013) in raw seeds. It seems that
d-tocopherols are the most thermostable. Similarly,
Cisneros et al. (2014) detected that the d-tocopherol content
was almost unaffected while c-tocopherol content was
slightly lower in Sacha inchi oil after roasting.
Radical scavenging capacity of raw Sacha inchi kernels
showed significant differences (p  0.05) compared to val-
ues obtained after processed nuts (Table 1). The highest
mean value was found in kernels after SV treatment (256.6
mmol TE/100 g), kernels after LTR treatment exhibited the
lowest RSC (186.4 mmol TE/100 g). The raw Sacha inchi
kernels possessed significantly lower RSC in comparison
with hazel nut antioxidant capacity (Pelvan et al., 2012).
The mean values of raw kernels were similar to those
obtained in roasted hazelnuts. It can be attributed to the fact
that the raw hazelnuts were measured with the dark peel
that is rich in phenolics. Published results of scavenging
capacity in Sacha inchi are missing. Chirinos et al. (2013)
reported total antioxidant capacity of Sacha inchi kernels
measured by ORAC close to pine nuts values and the losses
after roasting and boiling were minor (from 10 to 23%).
That is similar to the losses in RSC we found by DPPH. The
losses were higher after the thermal treatments with low
water activity – LTR, HTR and HR than in OB or SV treat-
ment. This trend was described by Smitzer et al. (2011) in
hazelnut kernels.
Our result confirmed a positive correlation between the
total phenolic content and the antioxidant activity as in case
of baru nuts (Lemos et al., 2012). Positive correlation was
observed not only between the radical scavenging capacity
and the total phenolic compounds but also in mutual posi-
tive correlation with d-tocopherol content and ß 1 c-
tocopherol.
We also measured tocopherols, total phenolics and radical
scavenging capacity in the water remained after boiling. We
detected 0.3 mg/100 mL of d-tocopherol in the water after
open boiled procedure and 0.1 mg/100 g in the water after
PB procedure. Radical scavenging capacity of remained
water was 23.1 and 1.2 mmol TE/100 g after OB and PB
treatment, respectively. Such results confirm that the losses
of TPC, RSC and tocopherol content are caused not only by
the degradation of antioxidant compound but also by the
leaching of the kernels.
Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 00 (2016) 00–00 V
C 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
EFFECT OF THERMAL PROCESSING IN SACHA INCHI KERNELS
Changes of Total Phenolic Compounds,
Radical Scavenging Capacity and
Content of Tocopherols During Different
Thermal/Cooking Procedure in Time
Changes during different thermal procedure are docu-
mented in Fig. 1a–d. Figure 1a describes the trend of TPC in
six types of different thermal processing of Sacha inchi ker-
nels including TPC retained in water after OB and PB pro-
cess. During OB, TPC remained insignificantly changed
until 45 min and suddenly dropped almost to half of its
original value after 60 min of boiling. Then it rose again
near to original value after 135 min. We suggest that the
phenolics were slightly degraded after 1 h of boiling, but fur-
ther boiling has changed the cell structure in kernels and
that enhance the extraction efficiency of phenolics from
boiled kernels. Similar effect of cooking on antioxidant
activity was recorded in carrot, celery and asparagus by
Jimenez-Monreal et al. (2009). For the same reason, TPC in
nuts significantly increased from 13.3 mg/100 g at the begin-
ning to 40.9 mg/100 g after 120 min in press boiled proce-
dure, which corresponded to 67% increase of TPC in Sacha
inchi kernels. To keep the stable pressure, we were not able
to sample the kernels and follow the trends during PB pro-
cess. Upward trend of TPC was shown in HR and HTR at
190C and the changes of TPC were statistically significant
after 15 min of processing. In honey roasting process started
growth up TPC after 10 min and the maximum value
(130.4 mg/100 g GAE) was reached after 30 min of roasting,
and then the value has fallen slightly. Similarly, roasting at
190C, the highest TPC (55.7 mg/100 g GAE) in kernels was
measured after a little longer time, after 35 min. These
results suggest roasting promotes formation of phenolic
compounds which is consistent with findings of Cisneros
et al. (2013) in TPC of Sacha inchi oil after roasting. A
smaller increase (40%) of TPC was revealed in roasting at
lower temperature (125C) and the peak value was detected
after 20 min. Similarly, Pelvan et al. (2012) suggested that
the thermal processing at high-temperature-treated (130C
for 33 min) and even roasting (140C for 30 min) can
increase the content of phenolic content. However, we did
not observe appropriate increase in radical scavenging
capacity. SV type of thermal processing of nuts almost did
not changed; the differences during 150 min of SV treatment
were not significant. The TPC measured in water after OB
process stayed negligible until 90 min of boiling and started
to rise steeply reaching the maximum (18.9 mg/100 g GAE)
at the end of processing. It was caused by gradual leaching,
but also by the evaporation of water that occurred in the
open boiling system. TPC was below detection level in water
remained after pressure boiled process.
Figure 1b,c describes the changes in ß 1 c-tocopherol
content and d-tocopherol content during various
5
EFFECT OF THERMAL PROCESSING IN SACHA INCHI KERNELS L. 
ST  ET AL.
ERBOVA

FIG. 1. CHANGES OF TOTAL PHENOLIC CONTENT (A), CONTENT OF ß 1 c-TOCOPHEROL (B), Content Of d-TOCOPHEROL (C) AND DPPH RADICAL
SCAVENGING CAPACITY (D) OF SACHA INCHI KERNELS DURING DIFFERENT THERMAL PROCESSING IN TIME

processing. Tocopherols are supposed to prevent the rancid-
ity process producing off-flavors and odors and make Sacha
inchi seeds/oil fairly stable (Hamaker et al., 1992). The OB
caused the steady increase of d-tocopherol in first two hours
of up to 31.3 mg/100 g but the value decreased to 27.7 mg/
100 g after last 15 min of boiling. The content of
ß 1 c-tocopherol remained almost stable with no statisti-
cally significant changes during the open boiling. The
pressure boiling procedure significantly changed neither
ß 1 c-tocopherol nor d-tocopherol. However, while the for-
mer slightly decrease, the latter increased.
Roasting in all three variants decreased both measured
parameters more than boiling. It can be explained by higher
temperature and exposition of the kernels to the air during
roasting. The losses of ß 1 c-tocopherol were higher than
the losses of d-tocopherol. Cisneros et al. (2013) also
pointed on the little increase of c-tocopherol in Sacha inchi
oil and stability of d-tocopherols. Similar fluctuation in
d-tocopherol content was detected in roasted pine nuts (Cai
et al., 2013). Only exception was recorded in HR process
where the sum of ß 1 c-tocopherol grew from 40.6 to 43.5
c-tE mg/100 g after 15 min but the growth was not
significant. Analyses revealed increasing tendency in
ß 1 c-tocopherols during SV processing up to 45 min and
the values declined further during next 105 min. In
d-tocopherols there were notable growth up to 60 min dur-
ing sous-vide preparation and the numbers dropped to an
initial value. ß 1 c-tocopherols were practically not detected
in water remained after OB and PB process. d-tocopherols
were assessed at very low level yet with growing trend in OB
system (Fig. 1c). It was caused by gradual leaching and by
the evaporation of water that occurred in the open boiling
system.
Figure 1d describes the changes in radical scavenging
capacity (RSC) of Sacha inchi kernels during different ther-
mal processes in time. Significant decrease of RSC was
recorded after 45 min of OP treatment. Then, the values
started steady increase and after 135 min of open boiling,
the reached value of RSC (217.7 mmol TE/100 g) was close
to the initial value (243.03 mmol/100 g). Press boiling

6 Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 00 (2016) 00–00 V

C 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
L. STERBOVA
 ET AL.
slightly affected RSC. Similar trend was observed in all three
types of roasting (LTR, HTR and HR). RSC slowly and insig-
nificantly declined until 30 min of processing in HTR and
HR and until 160 min of processing in LTR. Then the RSC
started to grow in all three treatments reaching final loss
only 18.5% after next 40 min of LTR, 8.9% and 12.6% after
next 5 min of HTR and HR, respectively. Increased RSC was
noticed in SV preparation after 30 min of processing. It
increased even more, reaching peak at 60 min of processing
(5.8%) and the final gain was 3.9% after 150 min of process-
ing. However, the changes were not statistically significant.
Turkmen et al. (2005) explained the increase in antioxidant
activity during thermal processing by improvement of anti-
oxidant properties of naturally occurring compounds or by
the new compounds with antioxidant properties formed
during the thermal process by the Maillard reaction. Such
phenomenon has been reported by Natella et al. (2002) dur-
ing roasting process of coffee beans. Similarly high tempera-
ture treated cashew kernels showed higher TEAC value
compared to the raw kernels.13 Water after 135 min open
boiling showed RSC 88.8 mmol TE/100 g after steep rise in
the end of treatment caused by evaporation in open system.
The water remained after pressure boiling showed negligible
RSC (2.3 mmol TE/100 g).
CONCLUSION
Concluding, in this study, an effect of six type of thermal
preparation on phytochemical components presented in
Sacha inchi kernels, namely, total phenolic content, content
of ß 1 c-tocopherols and d-tocopherols, radical scavenging
capacity, have been carried out for the first time. Raw Sacha
inchi kernels exhibited lower amount of estimated parame-
ters than was reported in other kernels, these difference
caused by absence of any skin as an important source of
phenolics.
It has to be highlighted that the appropriate thermal pro-
cedure and adequate time can significantly influence the
quality of Sacha inchi kernels during food preparation.
Especially roasting at 190C for 35 min and honey roasting at
170C for 30 min of Sacha inchi kernels has a positive effect
on increasing TPC as a consequence of formation of new
compounds. The tocopherols showed fair stability during
the boiling processes but they are susceptible to degradation
during roasting. Thermal processing had a minor impact on
the radical scavenging capacity of the Sacha inchi kernels
since the loss of tocopherols was balances by the increase of
TPC.
A sous-vide method (water bath cooking) least influenced
the values of the investigated parameters. From this point of
view, it seems to be a very gentle method for Sacha inchi ker-
nels preparation.
Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 00 (2016) 00–00 V
C 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
EFFECT OF THERMAL PROCESSING IN SACHA INCHI KERNELS
The results of this study provide information on the
effects of different thermal processing on the phenolics and
antioxidant activities of Plukenetia volubilis kernel, which
may encourage the food industry to use particular cooking
methods.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported financially by Internal Grant
Agency of the Czech University of Life Science Prague CIGA
(Project no. 20144207), the Internal Grant Agency of the
Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences IGA, Czech University of
Life Sciences Prague (Project no. 20165014) and Ministry of
Agriculture of the Czech Republic (Project no. RO0415).

The authors thank Veronika Camkov a for technical support
in the laboratory.
REFERENCES
BOLLING, B.W., CHEN C.-Y.O., MCKAY D.L., BLUMBERG J.B.
2011. Tree nut phytochemicals: composition, antioxidant
capacity, bioactivity, impact factors. A systematic review of
almonds, Brazils, cashews, hazelnuts, macadamias, pecans, pine
nuts, pistachios and walnuts. Nutr. Res. Rev. 24, 244–275.
CAI, L., CAO, A., AISIKAER, G., YING, T. 2013. Influence of
kernel roasting on bioactive components and oxidative stability
in pine nut oil. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 115, 556–563.
CISNEROS, F.H., PAREDES, D., ARANA, A.,
CISNEROS-ZEVALLOS, L. 2014. Chemical composition,
oxidative stability and antioxidant capacity of oil extracted
from roasted seeds of Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.).
J. Agric. Food Chem. 62, 5191–5197.
DELGADO-ZAMARRE~ no, M., BUSTAMANTE-RANGEL, M.,
SaNCHEZ-PEREZ, A., HERNaNDEZ-MENDEZ,  J. 2001.
Analysis of vitamin E isomers in seeds and nuts with and
without coupled hydrolysis by liquid chromatography and
coulometric detection. J. Chromatogr. A 935, 77–86.
FANALI, C.H., DUGO, L., CACCIOLA, F., BECCARIA, M.,
GRASSO, S., DACHA,  M., DUGO, P., MONDELLO, L. 2011.
Chemical characterization of Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis
L.) oil. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59, 13043–13049.
FOLLEGATTI-ROMERO, L.A., PIANTINO, C.R., GRIMALDI, R.,
CABRAL, F.A. 2009. Supercritical CO2 extraction of omega-3
rich oil from Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) seeds.
J. Supercrit. Fluids 49, 323–329.
 
GUTIERREZ, L.-F., ROSADA, L.-M., JIMENEZ, A. 2011.
Chemical composition of Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.)
seeds and characteristics of their lipid fraction. Grasas Aceites
62, 76–83.
HAMAKER, B.R., VALLES, C., GILMAN, R., HARDMEIER,
R.M., CLARK, D., GARCIa, H.H., GONZALES, A.E.,
KOHLSTAD, I., CASTRO, M. 1992. Amino acid and fatty acid
profiles of the inca peanut (Plukenetia volubilis L.). Cereal
Chem 69, 461–463.
7
EFFECT OF THERMAL PROCESSING IN SACHA INCHI KERNELS
HOLASOVA, M., FIEDLEROVA, V., SMRCINOVA, H., ORSAK,
M., LACHMAN, J., VAVREINOVA, S. 2002. Buckwheat - The
source of antioxidant activity in functional foods. Food Res
Intern 35, 207–211.
CHANDRASEKARA, N., SHAHIDI, F. 2011. Effect of roasting
on phenolic content and antioxidant activities of whole
cashew cuts, kernels, and testa. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59,
5006–5014.
CHIRINOS, R., ZULOETA, G., PEDRESCHI, R., MIGNOLE, E.,
LARONDELLE, Y., CAMPOS, D. 2013. Sacha inchi
(Plukenetia volubilis): A seed source of polyunsaturated fatty
acids, tocopherols, phytosterols, phenolic compounds and
antioxidant capacity. Food Chem. 141, 1732–1739.

JIMENEZ-MONREAL, A.M., GARCIA-DIZ, L.,
MARTINEZ-TOMe, M., MARISCAL, M., MURCIA, M.A.
2009. Influence of cooking methodson antioxidant activity of
vegetables. J. Food Sci. 74, 97–103.
LEMOS, M.R.B., DE ALMEIDA SIQUIERA, E.M., ARRUDA,
S.F., ZAMBIAZI, R.C. 2012. The effect of roasting on the
phenolic compounds and antioxidant potential of baru nuts
[Dipterix alata Vog.]. Food Res. Int. 48, 592–597.
LIMA NASCIMENTO, A.K., MELO-SILVEIRA, R.F.,
DANTAS-SANTOS, N., MORAIS FERNANDES, J.,
ZUCOLOTTO, S.M., ROCHA, H.A.O., CASTANHO
SCORTECCI, K. 2013. Antioxidant and antiproliferative
activities of leaf extracts from Plukenetia volubilis Linneo
(Euphorbiaceae). Evid Based Compl Alt. 1–10.
NATELLA, F., NARDINI, M., GIANNETTI, I., DATTILO, C.,
SCACCINI, C. 2002. Coffee drinking influences plasma
antioxidant capacity in humans. J. Agric. Food Chem. 50(21),
6211–6216.
8 Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 00 (2016) 00–00 V
L. 
ST  ET AL.
ERBOVA
PELVAN, E., ALASALVAR, C., UZMAN, S. 2012. Effects of
roasting on the antioxidant status and phenolic profiles of
commercial Turkish hazelnut varieties (Corylus avellana L.).
J. Agric. Food Chem. 60, 1218–1223.
PEREIRA DE SOUZA, A.H.P., GOHARA, A.K., RODRIGUES, A.C.,
DE SOUZA, N.E., VISENTAINER, J.V., MATSUSHITA, M. 2013.
Sacha inchi as potential source of essential fatty acids and tocopherols:
Multivariate study of nut and shell. Acta Sci. Tech. 35, 757–763.
PREEDY, V.R., WATSON, R.R., PATEL, V.B. 2011. Nut and seeds
in health and disease prevention, pp 1187, 1st ed., Academic
Press, Elsevier Inc., San Diego, CA, USA.
SCHMITZER, V., SLATNAR, A., VEBERIC, R., STAMPAR, F.,
SOLAR, A. 2011. Roasting affects phenolic composition and
antioxidative activity of hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.).
J. Food Sci. 75, S14–S19.
TROX, J., VADIVEL, V., VETTER W., STUETZ, W.,
SCHERBAUM, V., GOLA, U., NOHR, D., BIESALSKI, H.K.
2010. Biocative compounds in cashew nut (Anacardium
occidentale L.) kernels: Effect of different shelling methods.
J. Agric. Food Chem. 58(9), 5341–5346.
WU, X., BEECHER, G. R., HOLDEN, J. M., HAYTOWITZ, D.
B., GEBHARDT, S. E., PRIOR, R. L. 2004. Lipophilic and
hydrophilic antioxidant capacities of common foods in the
United States. J. Agric. Food Chem. 52, 4026–4037.
XU, B., CHANG, S. K. C. 2008. Total phenolics, phenolic acids,
isoflavones, and antioxidant properties of yellow and black
soybeans as affected by thermal processing. J. Agric. Food
Chem. 56, 7165–7175.
TURKMEN, N., SARI, F., VELIOGLU, Y.S. 2005. The effect of
cooking methods on total phenolics and antioxidant activity
of selected green vegetables. Food Chem. 93, 713–718.
C 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.