CHAPTER 2- LITERATURE REVIEW

A World Heritage Site (WHS) is a place that has been identified by United Nations Educational

Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as possessing outstanding universal cultural and

natural importance to the common heritage of humanity. The enlisting of the BJCM to the WHS

List carries with it responsibilities for the host country to observe. These include the responsibility

to educate and share the importance of the WHS to not only residents of the host country, but to

the citizens of the world and for generations to come. A strategy to transmit and educate the public

of the WHS is to develop a gateway town.

The gateway town is one which is intended to be a central point where the significance of the WHS

can be celebrated and where visitors can be inspired, engaged and educated about the outstanding

natural and cultural wonders contained within the WHS. A gateway town also provides the services

which cannot be located within the WHS due to the ecological and cultural sensitivity of the region.

Though the concept of a gateway town is well established, research in the area has been scant

resulting in a lack of literature on the subject. However, it is understood that gateway towns are

“towns” which must provide for its local community as well as the influx of tourists travelling to

the WHS. The needs of the local community differ from that of tourists As a result existing towns

have to be retrofitted to meet the needs of the tourists. The basic needs of a tourist are

accommodation, food, transportation and entertainment. Whereas these activities would have been

present in a normal town, in a gateway town they would receive much more focus.
Precedence

 Cromford Mills

According to UNESCO (2016), “The Derwent Valley in central England contains a series of 18th

and 19th century cotton mills and an industrial landscape of high historical and technological

interest. The modern factory owes its origins to the mills at Cromford, where Richard Arkwright's

inventions were first put into industrial-scale production. The workers' housing associated with

this and the other mills remain intact and illustrate the socio-economic development of the area.”

There are several gateways towns leading to this heritage site which is known to the world as the

‘birthplace’ of mechanization in production. One of the gateway towns of major interest is

Cromford mills. Cromford Mills is of importance to this research as it brings out how important

the urban design factor is in creating a gateway.

Cromford Mills is designed in such a way that is ensures easy access to different activities geared

towards educating the visitors about the world heritage site and it also includes spaces of secular

activities such as restaurants, bars, and other recreational activities. This was done by converting

the ground floor of selected buildings to provide spaces auditorium, exhibition area, shop and

historical interpretation based on archaeological evidence within the area (UNESCO, 2016). The

World Heritage Site ‘Gateway’ is intended to provide a focal point within the northern part of The

Derwent Valley Mills World Heritage Site to attract a broad spectrum of visitor and engage interest

in a variety of ways.

This strategy can be applied in Papine since it has the potential to be a gateway, a university town

and a major transport hub in the KMR (Jamaica Observer, 2012). This suggest that the area has to

be multifunctional; it has to provide for the local, student and potential tourist population. In order
to do this the same approach taken in Cromford can be applied; suggesting areas on the ground

floor of some building for tourist activities and other commercial activities and areas above for

uses that are more exclusive such as offices and accommodation.

 Dorset and East Devon Coast - Jurassic Coast

The second precedent, Jurassic Coast is one of importance because it shows how the educational

institutions can be used to enhance the functioning of a gateway to a world heritage site. According

to VisitBritain (2015), “The Dorset and East Devon Coast, also known as The Jurassic Coast was

the first ever site to be inscribed as a 'natural' World Heritage Site. It spans 95 miles of dramatic

coastline all the way from East Devon to Dorset and includes a range of world-renowned fossils

of all types.”

The Jurassic coast education strategy strives to include programs that would foster further research

on the area (Dorset and East Devon Coast - Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site) as a part of the

regular school curriculum. A major milestone for the region was teaching the science, history,

geography and other aspects of the area to students as a part of the national curriculum (Jurassic

Coast World Heritage Site, 2006). This strategy allows the schools in the region to be continuously

involved in research, community education and encouraging innovative ways on how to present

the site to the world. The government had dedicated funding especially towards the educational

aspect in order to ensure that the projects undertaken by the various institutions are successful

(Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site, 2006). Projects are undertaken formally by schools at all level

of education and even informally through the costal visitor events.

This president is an excellent one because there is a large number of educational institutions at all

levels in Papine. This president showed how the world heritage site can be streamlined into the
education curriculum of these institutions. Doing this will not only help to attain more information

on the site but it will also help to devise more innovative and efficient ways of promoting and

managing the world heritage site. It will raise local public awareness about the site and local

knowledge and appreciation will increase.

 West Yellowstone, Montana – Yellowstone’s Western Gateway

According to UNESCO (2016), “Yellowstone contains half of all the world's known geothermal

features, with more than 10,000 examples. It also has the world's largest concentration of geysers

(more than 300 geysers, or two thirds of all those on the planet). Established in 1872, Yellowstone

is equally known for its wildlife, such as grizzly bears, wolves, bison and wapitis.”

The Yellow Stone National Park has five gateway towns that offer convenient access to the park,

and each have a unique character, vacation activities, and attractions all their own. The town of

Montana however is the busiest because it is a hub for activities which make it the preferred stop

for persons travelling to the Yellowstone national park from Idaho. This gateway is of importance

because it provides a wide range of supporting services a gateway needs to be an attractive tourism

product (Yellow Stone Association, 2016).

The town has several squares that have dining spots, coffee shops, gift shops and other

entertainment spots. In addition they offer outdoor activities such as water sports, hiking bike trails,

snowmobiling and cross country skiing. These activities compliment the heritage site and help to

enhance the Yellow Stone area as a tourist attraction.

Having activity spots in Papine will not only make it a more attractive gateway but it will also

attract visitors to the world heritage site. What will be promoted are activities that not only take

place during the daytime but also at night time which will increase profits and productivity. It will
be seen as a growth pole in the region that will attract much investments and this will allow the

area to significantly contribute to the GDP.

 Infrastructural requirements for a tourist destination

Physical infrastructure refers to the basic physical systems of a region. Transportation,

communication, sewage, water and electric systems are all examples of infrastructure. These

systems tend to be high-cost investments; however, they are vital to an area’s economic

development and prosperity (U.S. Governament , 2016).

Physical infrastructure provides the basis for social infrastructure to function. Physical

infrastructure is the key to the functioning of any area and it is crucial to the economic growth. In

a tourist town or a gate way town, the same is true, and even more so proper infrastructure is

needed because it will not only cater to the needs of the visitors but it also to the local people that

live there. In addition the tourist arrival may fluctuate depending on the time of year. The physical

infrastructure of the area should be able to function with the added tourism pressure.

The same is true for Papine because the BJM has been declared a world heritage site; it is almost

automatically guaranteed to have increased number of tourist arrival because of its international

significance (Pedersen, 2002). Because Papine is located at the foot of the world heritage site, in

the Kingston Metropolitan region and close to one of the islands major points of entry it would

make a perfect gateway to the area. Therefore in order to facilitate this large influx of people the

gateways infrastructure must be able to withstand the added pressure from increase tourist arrival.

In order to achieve this here has to be development of the existing the infrastructure and there also

has to be capacity building in the social organization to ensure that the necessary infrastructure
(both social and physical) in place are adequate to support both the local population that use them

on a day to day bases and the tourist that visit the area.

The Australian government has embarked on developing a model to predict how much water

resource the visitor tourist population would consume for the period of one year and by extension

it also shows how much waste water they will produce. Case study applications of the model are

developed for the Australian tourist destinations of Daylesford in Victoria and Byron Bay in New

South Wales. Analysis includes full calculations for the water and wastewater needs and associated

costs for the forecast year of 2031 (Beecham, 2009). Major benefits of this research include better

knowledge and understanding of tourist demands, and the need for water and wastewater

infrastructure and analytical tools, enabling councils and other authorities to quantify present and

future tourist demands, infrastructure requirements to meet demand, and the associated costs of

infrastructure provision and operation.

It is important to assess the quality, use and treatment of the water resources of an area because it

is vital to its functioning (Beecham, 2009). Tourism can have devastating impacts on the water

resources of an area because it can cause pollution in the water system. Waste water can cause

pollution to both ground and surface water reservoirs which can in turn affect aquatic life wetland

ecosystem and other ecologically important yet sensitive areas. In addition to polluting areas there

is also the risk of depleting the water resources of the user population is too large for them to

support. In many countries pumping of excess ground water from coastal caused ground water

levels to fall below sea levels and saline intrusion occurs (Beecham, 2009).

Knowing the potential water usage can assist decision makers to assess whether or not

conservation measures are needed and the systems which need to be in place to achieve this.
Potential water usage will also help to decision makers to know the supply, waste management

and treatment system that will be needed and the type and the cost of infrastructure required for

the system. The model also allows one to calculate the water usage per capita so this information

can be used to assess the amount of water that will be used when this figure is multiplied by the

amount of tourist in addition to the amount to local people.

In the same way that the infrastructure related to water supply, distribution and treatment should

be considered; it is the same way that other infrastructure needs to be developed to support the

added pressure from tourist arrivals (Jamaica Tourist Board, n.d.). Some of this infrastructure

include but are not limited to: electricity, health facilities, fire serviced, security, proper road

network etc. In addition the elements of tourism should also be incorporated in the area these

include: accommodation, transportation, attractions and tours, dining and entertainment (inclusive

of festivals and events), and the support services.

Tourism

Tourism is difficult to define since it encompasses a wide span of consumption activities which

demands products and services from an equally wide span of industries. A simple definition is:

“tourism is as a set of socioeconomic activities carried out either by or for tourists. Those carried

out by tourists correspond to what tourists do, while those carried out for tourists correspond to

what other socio-economic institutions do to support the needs of tourists” (WTO, 1993) where

tourists are considered “persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment

for no more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes (WTO, 1993).

Tourism can be disruptive and harmful to the local environment hence alternative tourism has risen

to replace mass tourism practices. Alternative tourism is a form of tourism that sets out to be

consistent with the natural, social and community values and which allows both hosts and guests
to enjoy positive and worthwhile interaction and shared experience (Wearing and Neil, 1999). This

research paper will focus on examining the suitable tourist alternative tourism activities to facilitate

travelers.

The tourism market comprises three general classifications:

• the independent travel market,

• the specialty activity market, and

• the general package-holiday market.

Independent travelers are not part of organized groups but travel alone or in small groups of friends.

They travel either out of a general interest or because they want to practice a certain activity in a

new and different environment. Most independent travelers are young, adventurous, willing to use

rustic accommodations, eat traditional foods, and take public transport.

Specialty tourism firms organize trips for clients wishing to participate in a specific activity such

as bird-watching, wildlife viewing, photography or archaeological, historical and cultural tours.

Also in this category are adventure travel firms offering activities such as back-packing/trekking,

white water rafting, kayaking, canoeing, rock climbing and sport fishing.

The general package-holiday market attracts groups wishing to see an area and its culture but

without a specific interest in a defined activity or subject matter. These tourists tend to be interested

in general sightseeing and shopping, and may be interested in cultural attractions such as museums,

ruins or other well-known or documented historical sites.

The outstanding universal cultural and natural heritage of the BJCMWHS sets it apart from all

other destinations in the world. The same reasons the area is qualified to be enlisted as a World

Heritage Site (WHS) are the same that will make the territory a renowned travel destination. The

development of a viable tourism product within the BJCMWHS therefore must be done in tandem
with conservation efforts and observe best practices of sustainable tourism development.

Sustainable Tourism and Community-based Tourism

Sustainable tourism and community based tourism are linked. Both approach the attempt to

mitigate the windfall effects of mass tourism by adapting a balanced and comprehensive approach

of development where the social, economic and environmental interest of the local community is

held in high regard. Swarbrooke (1991) defines sustainable tourism as a form of tourism that is

economically viable and does not destroy the resources on which future of tourism will depend,

notably the physical environment and the social fabric. WWF (2001) defined it as a form of tourism

“where the local community has substantial control over, and involvement in, its development and

management, and a major proportion of the benefits remain within the community.” WWF (2001)

accepted that the concept of community depends on local “social and institutional structures” and

accepted that it “must also embrace individual initiatives within the community”

Sustainable practices is the preferred approach in ecologically and culturally sensitive sites such

as the BJCMWHS. The second chapter of UNESCO's Word Heritage Convention which outlines

the host country's responsibility of its enlisted WHS states that each territory is to ensure the

identification, protection, conservation, presentation and transmission of the natural and cultural

heritage to future generations. It further states that these activities are to be achieved with the state's

own resources. This multi-faceted duty is best met through sustainable tourism practices and can

best be implemented through a community-based tourism model. These two forms of tourism not

only maximize the benefits for local communities and minimizes cost, but also assures the

conservation of the cultural and natural environment and the economic sustainability of the tourism
industry without compromising the natural and cultural integrity of the WHS (WTO 1998; Kang

2000). The BJCMWHS due to its mixed natural and cultural heritage, can foster both cultural and

nature-based tourism activities. These two broad headings can be divided into its component parts

and examined.

Cultural Tourism

The Outstanding Universal cultural heritage of the BJCMWHS qualifies the destination to develop

a cultural tourism product. A growing international trend of tourists is to visit remote locations in

search of distinctiveness. According to Ivonovic (2008) cultural tours or treks involving visits to

or overnight stays with tribal people or villages are becoming more and more popular, especially

in the emerging destinations of the world. The modern tourist is more experienced, independent

and discriminating in what they seek from destinations. These visitors have been categorized as

“new tourists” (Poon, 1993) or “post-tourists” (Urry, 2001). This deliberate seeking out of distinct

destinations in response to the effect of homogenization of destinations through globalization. New

tourists travel to achieve the sense of value that culture brings to a place where the main (if not the

only) attraction is the distinctiveness of the cultural offerings.

Distinctiveness of a destination can be distilled into two elements: the intangible culture and the

tangible culture. According to Ivanovic (2008) culture is seen as a process (intangible) and a

product (tangible). Culture as a process refers to the way of life of the people whereas the cultural

products is seen as the artistic and intellectual works, activities and practices to which specific

meanings are attached. Cultural tourism, in this sense, is dependent on not only distinctiveness but

authenticity of the attraction as well. Tour operators have organized activities encompassing the

two cultural elements where varying focus is placed on either the exploitation of products or the
process of the indigenous culture. This has resulted in cultural tourism manifesting itself in

different forms: indigenous cultural tourism, heritage tourism, and creative tourism (Smith, 2009).

Each form of cultural tourism may have activities that overlap with other forms. For example,

activities in heritage tourism (tours of religious sites, monuments and historic routes) may very

well be found in indigenous cultural tourism packages. When considered in isolation, the activities

may be difficult to place, however, when examined collectively, the form of cultural tourism to

which it belongs become clear.

1.1 Indigenous Cultural Tourism

According to Smith (2009) this terminology refers to a kind of tourism in which travelers visit

indigenous people within their own natural environment which is different from that of the tourist.

Indigenous people typically inhabit a region or fragile location under special protection from the

state (such as a national park) or a remote area that is typically inaccessible (such as a mountain

range, forest and so on). Tour operators have capitalized on the inaccessibility of these indigenous

regions whose remoteness and protection from the state provide opportunities for the development

of wildlife tourism adjacent to the indigenous region.

The distinct culture of indigenous people combined with the landscape facilitates numerous

opportunities for indigenous cultural tourism development. Smith (2009) states that this has been

recognized by a number of countries whose destinations are becoming increasingly popular among

new tourists:

◦ Hilltribe and mountain trekking (e.g. Thailand, Vietnam, Peru, Chile, Nepal, China,

India).

◦ Wildlife tourism and national parks (e.g. Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, Botswana,
 Nambia).

◦ Rainforest and jungle ecotours (e.g. Brazil, Ecuador, Costa Rica, Indonesia,

Malaysia).

◦ Village tourism (e.g. Senegal, Mali, Indonesia, Malaysia, South Pacific Islands).

◦ Cultural heritage tourism (e.g. New Zealand, Australia, North America, Hawaii).

◦ Arts and crafts tourism (e.g. Guatemala, Mexico, Lapland, Mali, Panama).

Additionally, the capitalization on the exoticism of the indigenous group which involves the

purchasing of souvenirs and attendance to performances and cultural displays from an important

part of tourists’ cultural experience.

1.2 Heritage Tourism

Heritage tourism is concerned largely with interpreting and representing the past (Smith, 2009).

Ivanovic (2009) states that heritage tourism is place-bound and geographically specific as it

represents the historic evolution of a specific cultural group. The scope of heritage tourism is wide

and tedious to define. ICOMOS (1999) provides an extensive definition of heritage:

“Heritage is a broad concept and includes the natural as well as the cultural

environment. It encompasses landscapes, historic places, sites and built

environments, as well as biodiversity, collections, past and continuing cultural

practices, knowledge and living experiences. It records and expresses the long

process of historic development, forming the essence of diverse national, regional,

indigenous and local identities and is an integral part of modern life.”

According to Timothy and Nyaupane (2009) heritage tourism is divided into parts consisting of
the demand and supply perspective. Heritage tourism is made up of the “supply”, i.e. places, events

and artifacts as well as the activities and motives of the tourists who experience them. Tourist who

travel to heritage destinations are less motivated to visit typical cultural attractions such as

museums but “demand” a much more immersive and memorable experience. The new tourist

travel to such destinations to enhance learning, satisfy curiosity and feelings of nostalgia, grow

spiritually, relax, get away from home, spend time with loved ones or discover themselves (Coulon,

1999).

Timothy and Nyaupane (2009) identified subsets of cultural heritage tourism to be religious,

pilgrimage, diaspora and living culture. For the sake of this research focus will be placed on the

last two subsets which are relevant to the BJCMWHS and its buffer zone.

1.2.1 Diaspora Tourism

Coles and Timothy (2004) stated that this is a form of ethnic or personal heritage tourism. People

from a variety of backgrounds travel to specific sites to connect to their roots, celebrate religious

or ethnic festivals, visit relatives and learn about themselves. Jamaicans may travel to isolated

maroon community of Accompong to commemorate the treaty signed between the maroons and

the British in 1739 hence forming a sense of identity and even cultural pride in this achievement.

1.2.2 Living Culture Tourism

This form of heritage tourism exploits the existing cultural day-to-day way of life of a community.

It encompasses agricultural landscapes, agrarian lifestyles, arts and handicrafts, villages,

languages, musical traditions, spiritual and religious practices, and other aspects of the cultural

landscape. Agritourism is a subset of this tourism. It describes the activity of holiday-making in

rural areas, specifically for those seeking a rural experience. Activities can include, outdoor sports,

participation in the rural lifestyle and local community, enjoyment of the natural environment and

the opportunity to enjoy truly locally produced food. Coulson (1999) recognized that cultural

festivals which develop out of spiritual traditions, agricultural harvests etc. become a main form

of attraction. Carnival in Brazil and Trinidad, Crop Over in Barbados, Day of the Dead festivities

in Mexico are some examples of this form of heritage tourism. Similarly, an essential part of living

culture is culinary heritage. The food combined with the method of preparation, associated rituals

and rites and esthetics are an important part of the intangible heritage product.

Heritage politicization has become a serious issue in many countries. Managers tend to use their

power to sideline the heritage of ethnic minorities or select those aspects of heritage which are

politically correct and most appealing to international travelers (Ivanovic, 2006). In an attempt to

make destinations seem more “authentic” and engaging, managers organize staged performances

resulting in an inauthentic, mass-produced misrepresentation of the cultural heritage. Ivanovic

(2006) goes on further to identify issues of commercialization of heritage and museums,

particularly through retail and tourism development, compromise the core function of cultural

heritage attractions. Distilling and tailoring the cultural heritage for an audience is regrettable and

calls for concern within the community.

1.3 Creative Tourism

Creative tourism has risen in tandem with creative industries. This form of tourism involves the

active participation of tourists to create something either collectively or individually. This form of

tourism is being explored by destinations (such as rural areas) which may not have adequate

cultural heritage resources to compete with other destinations. The experience is led by guest-host

interaction. It is hands-on, fun and informal. A case study in New Zealand demonstrates that the
indigenous Maori culture could be taught and appreciated in this way. Visitors not only learn about

the culture from Maori tutors themselves but leave their destinations with hand crafted souvenirs

and lasting memories of their experience (Creative Tourism New Zealand, 2009).

The local community stands to benefit economically from tourism development, however, the

windfall effects can be significant. According to M. Smith (2009) “this form of tourism can easily

become a kind of cultural voyeurism in which the local indigenous population is reduced to little

more than a human zoo”. However, cultural tourism can assist the mandate of host countries to

educate and expose the heritage within WHS.

Nature-Based Tourism

The fastest growing element of tourism is ‘nature-based’ tourism, involving excursions to national

parks and wilderness areas, to developing countries where a large portion of the world’s

biodiversity is concentrated (Olson et al, 2001; WWF, 2001; Christ et al, 2003) Though the reason

tourist travel are varied, one important reason for travel is to view natural wonders and experience

different features of nature for enjoyment. International trends in tourism indicate tremendous

growth in tourism concerned with wildlife, wildlife areas, scenic beauty based on natural areas and

so on (Collins and Tisdell 2002; Tisdell and Wilson 2012). Nature-based tourism and

environmental conservation are inextricably linked. This type of tourism has become popular in

communities as an incentive to practice nature conservation and to generate earnings from

environmentally sensitive areas where many forms of development are prohibited. However,

defining nature-based tourism should not be limited to activities surrounding nature conservation.

Forms of nature-based tourism are diverse and some types of tourism may not seem to utilize

nature at first glance actually make significant use of it. Take into consideration adventure tourism
which makes considerable use of the natural environment. Nature-based tourism may be based on

visits to natural objects (such as mountains, rivers, cliffs) or on the use of living things or a

combination of both; essentially the main focus is on the nature itself as the tourist attraction

(Tisdell and Wilson, 2012). The different types of nature-based tourism include: ecotourism,

wildlife tourism and adventure tourism.

Ecotourism

Ecotourism is three tiered. It combines sustainable development with conservation and education.

Blamey, 2003 defines ecotourism as “traveling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural

areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring, and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants

and animals, as well as any existing cultural manifestations (both past and present) found in these

areas". It is regarded as “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and

sustains the well-being of local people” (Blamey, 2005) and provides financial incentive and public

support in conservation efforts. Ecotourism has evolved in a sort of specialty travel which has

merged a plethora of activity types and such as scientific study, birdwatching, photography, diving,

bushwalking and regeneration of damaged ecosystems. Whereas ecotourism requires little built

infrastructure, specialized infrastructure is typically built to be enhance the passive observation of

the natural environment (such as cable cars).

Ecotourism is focused on active appreciation endeavors. Many ecotourism activities combine

physical activities such as trekking and cycling with environmental awareness (Swarbrooke,

1999). Ecotourism is highly focused on it eco-centric motives of education, conservation, personal

growth, and other intrinsic values. This sets this form of tourism apart from just another industry
or activity in the natural environment; it is rather, intended to an experience that an individual or

group has that affects their attitudes, values and actions thereby preserving the natural environment

of the host community (Wearing and Neil, 1999)

Wildlife Tourism

Wildlife tourism is ‘based on encounters with non-domesticated (non-human) animals ...in either

the animals’ natural environment or in captivity. ” where wildlife is considered to be “animals

living in their natural habitat” (Higginbottom, 2004).

Wildlife tourism is based on three types of interactions: consumptive use (fishing), low-

consumptive (zoos and aquaria) and non-consumptive (photography and wildlife observation)

(Newsome et al, 2005).

Captive Wildlife Tourism

This is form of wildlife tourism included both consumptive and non-consumptive use of captive

wildlife species. Visitors are sold products made from farmed animals which are kept for

consumptive purposes. Furthermore, traditional zoos rely on captive wildlife though not all these

animals are taken from the wild; many are bred in captivity. This practice is typical for endangered

wildlife species (Tisdell and Wilson, 2012).

Semi-Captive Wildlife Tourism

This involves the keeping of wildlife in relatively large open areas where the species are typically

used for consumptive purposes and in relatively open zoos where they are used for non-

consumptive purposes. The latter example is typical for wildlife orphanages and refugee facilities
which aim to reintroduce their animal species into the wild.

Non Captive Wildlife Tourism

This is a form of wildlife tourism which utilizes species occurring in their natural or modified

habitats. It may be non-consumptive in the case where wildlife is observed. It becomes

consumptive when the wildlife is hunted recreationally.

Adventure Tourism

Adventure means different things to different people. There is little consensus on what is

“adventure” as one activity that is considered exciting to one individual may be boring to another.

Adventure products are a far more well-defined unifying aspect of this form of tourism. Adventure

tours are retail-level commercial tour products which clients purchase specifically to take part in

an outdoor activity which is more exciting than contemplative, and where the outdoor environment

is enjoyed as a setting for the activity rather than for it scenery, flora or fauna (Buckley, 2006)

Adventure tourism brings together travel, sport, and outdoor recreation. Mountains are particularly

attractive destinations as they offer a range of activity options in a setting steeped in actual and

symbolic representations of adventure. Mountains are wild, rugged places that attract bad weather

and contain dangers which make mountain recreation activities inherently risky. However, it is this

level of risk and potential of personal endangerment that creates excitement and sets adventure

tourism apart (Hudson, 2012).

Adventure tourism is considered serious leisure. Activities can vary in level of intensity depending

on the experience of tourists and the risks involved. Mountain-based adventure tourism has

extended the breath of traditional mountaineering. These include: climbing, walking, abseiling,
scrambling, off-road biking, conyoning, bungee jumping, paragliding and so on. The list of

activities is endless and is continually being lengthened with the addition of new forms of sports.

The global growth in tourism is well documented and today tourism is often described as the

world’s ‘largest’ industry (Managing Natural World Heritage, 2012). An ever increasing and

significant proportion of this industry is centered on nature and associated cultural heritage. At its

best tourism can provide an excellent opportunity to increase the understanding and appreciation

of natural and cultural heritage which is essentially a vision of the World Heritage Convention;

while at the same time providing long-term financial support to the site’s management team, local

communities and the tourism providers. Poorly managed tourism or excessive visitor numbers at

a site can pose serious threats to the outstanding universal value of the site as well as degrade the

quality of the experience that visitors have when they come to visit the site (Managing Natural

World Heritage, 2012). This points to the importance of devising a proper management framework

in order to avoid the possible negative consequences of developing a tourism product out of a

World Heritage Site inscription. Ringbeck (2008) asserts that once a site is inscribed on the World

Heritage List, it becomes increasingly important for that site to have an instrument for effective

management. The author went on to say that World Heritage sites undergo dynamic development

processes that sometimes present great challenges to the goal of preservation.

It is critically important to ensure that a proper management framework of the World Heritage Site

be set up so as to ensure that the different systems that will be operating within the gateway such

as educational, commerce, entertainment, research etc. as well as the systems that will be operating

within the World Heritage Site itself such as light accommodation, nature-based activities etc. all

function to forge a holistic, comprehensive and profitable world heritage tourism product.
Ringbeck (2008) says that management plans are the central planning instrument for the

protection, use, conservation and the successful development of World Heritage sites. Pedersen

(2002) shares similar opinions with Ringbeck (2008) stating that, “Goals and objectives give

direction to site management and set the agenda for defining the experiences that will be offered

to visitors, as well as for determining the limits of tourism development. Setting goals and

objectives is also the key to success for other programmes including interpretation, promotion and

carrying capacity assessment. Detailed management objectives are essential for setting monitoring

standards.” The management framework should consist of policy goals as well as management

objectives. Policy goals can be described as broad statements that set out a vision of how a site

will be managed on the basis of its unique characteristics such as environmental and social

conditions.

The policy statement can unite people with different viewpoints and give direction to public and

private tourism management (Pedersen, 2002). On the other hand, management objectives are

specific actions taken that build upon the stated policy goals. Pederson (2002) says that

management objectives set out in detail how a site will be managed. He went on to say that within

the framework of the general policy goals, the management objectives spell out desired conditions

that reflects what management wants to maintain and the experiences a visitor would ideally

encounter at a site. Management objectives should be subject to evaluation. This means that they

should be clear and specific, quantifiable, have time limits and be stated in clear language so that

they can be understood by all those responsible for their implementation. They should be the basis

for a standard by which to measure the performance of site management. Pederson (2002) cited

the example that at a historical monument, a policy goal may be to support local educational
activities, while a management objective could be to increase the number of local school children

who attend the site’s educational programme.

Pederson (2002) listed the following as examples of good policy goals:

 Generate and sustain local employment, revenue and development.

 Ensure that all activities permitted at the site are in harmony with nature and with

the history of the area.

 Provide opportunities for research that will benefit society.

 Educate visitors and the local community to enhance appreciation of the site’s

values and inspire considerate attitudes towards the natural and/or cultural

environment.

 Provide infrastructure for visitor safety, the protection of the site’s natural

environment or the recovery and protection of threatened and endangered species.

The above-mentioned policy goals are essentially the kind of management policy objectives that

should govern the operations both in the gateway as well as the site itself. A policy structure with

these goals will ensure optimum usage of the world heritage site and will ensure that the site is

protected and appreciated not only by visitors that come from abroad but by the local population.

Plans should be driven by management objectives and prescriptions that conserve and enhance the

values for which the property has been inscribed. However it should be noted that many, probably

most, World Heritage sites will have values in addition to those specifically mentioned in the

World Heritage nomination and the management plan needs to address the conservation of all

these values (Managing Natural World Heritage, 2012). It is important to note that management

plans take on many different formats and as such there is no template for an ideal management
plan for tourism in a world heritage site. The plan must be drafted by skilled professionals who are

aware of the specific and unique characteristics of the site in order to ensure that the outstanding

universal value of a property are preserved, preferably through participatory means. The major

challenge when developing tourism plans and policies is to respect as chief the conservation

objectives (both tangible and intangible) of the World Heritage Convention, while engaging with

tourism development that is sustainable and equitable (Managing Natural World Heritage, 2012).

The management policy framework must involve relevant government agencies, public and private

tourism sectors and civil society, including NGOs, visitors, the site’s management authority,

museums and community members.

The key principle is to ensure that visitation to World Heritage site destination contributes to the

long-term sustainability of its heritage values and sense of place, while at the same time generate

cultural and socio-economic benefits that the local population and surrounding region can enjoy.

Managing Natural World Heritage (2012) says that providing explicit guidance on tourism

planning is difficult which makes it important to develop the capacity of World Heritage site staff

in tourism management so ideally the development of plans and policies should not be left solely

to external consultants while taking little input from site managers. Some basic elements to

consider when developing tourism policies and planning according to Managing Natural World

Heritage (2012) are as follows:

 Linking tourism to overall World Heritage management and conservation of OUV

(Outstanding Universal Value)

It is important for the managers of the site to determine how they will work with visitors, the

tourism industry in the country and other stakeholders to develop effective and sustainable tourism
activities that are sensitive to the Outstanding Universal Value of the site. Essentially this should

be the starting point for the creation of any tourism-related management plan for a World Heritage

site. Plans should further consider management capacity, stakeholder concerns, existing legislation

and integration with other policies in place at the property. This is to ensure that the management

framework for the World Heritage site region functions in harmony with what already exists so as

to ensure that there is cooperation among the different entities that make up the wider society.

There should also be consideration as to how the contribution of tourism will affect the sites

Outstanding Universal Value in terms of improving awareness, building understanding and

increasing financial support.

 Zoning

This is a very important component of planning and management that when used appropriately

limits the spread and intensity of tourism impacts. This is critical because world heritage sites,

especially natural sites usually tend to have very delicate ecological systems that requires proper

management for them to be preserved. In order to limit the spread and intensity of tourism impacts

there needs to be a careful defining of quantitative standards which will specify the amount of

change that can be accommodated in the site. This type of zoning focuses on harmonizing those

places of greatest natural and cultural value with those places of greatest tourism demand in an

effort to satisfy both interests, that of preservation of the site as well as tourist interest. When

effective zoning systems are connected to appropriate management objectives and instructions it

can accommodate the demands for access, quality visitor experiences, the need to support

infrastructure development and the ambitions and activities of all the relevant stakeholders.
  Community engagement in World Heritage tourism

Plans and policies should ensure that there is strong community engagement in tourism at World

Heritage sites in meaningful and beneficial tourism ventures. Plans and policies that are created

by management should respect local community use of the site; empower communities to take part

in decision making about the conservation and use of their heritage.

 Understand tourists’ views of the sites

Site managers should invest in research, surveys and monitoring as this can help them to better

understand how tourists view and use the site. The various groups of visitors that visit the site

should be carefully observed so that managers can identify the types of tourism at the site; and

examine the tourists’ travel patterns, the activities and the attractions that they visit and this will

help them to better engineer a tourism plan for the area that is sustainable. If visitors are satisfied

and informed about the site and its importance they will be more willing to contribute income in

terms of paying for various types of visitor services and products. Equally they are more likely to

promote the site to their friends, family or acquaintances which in turn leads to greater prospects

for support of the World Heritage Convention.

 Connection with wider landscapes and destinations

It is important for World Heritage sites to be integrated into the wider country or regional

development plan for tourism. This is important because World Heritage inscription is a very big

accomplishment for any country and the opportunities in terms of economic and social

development are very great. A large portion of tourism promotion, visitor activity and economic

development associated with World Heritage sites usually occurs outside the boundaries of the

site, and is often outside of the direct influence of the World Heritage Site Managers it therefore
means that tourism development and visitor management requires the establishment of a strong

relationship with local authorities and tourism operators in order to influence development in the

buffer zones of the site as well as the surrounding areas.

 Monitoring and research

Tourism plans should include monitoring and research and develop a list of indicators with

justifications for their selection and estimates of associated monitoring costs. Plans should be

careful to include details of how the site staff will be trained in standardized methods of collecting

data as well as determine how the stakeholder partners can play a part in monitoring and setting

standards for managing visitors.

 Facilities at the site

Appropriate visitor facilities should be in place at the site prior to it being added to the World

Heritage List. Facilities should be regularly evaluated to ensure that they are meeting visitor needs

and delivering tourism objectives, e.g. showcasing OUV (Outstanding Universal Value) and

ensuring the delivery of benefits to the local population. Providing retail facilities can provide

sustainable sources of revenue for site management and local communities as well as create a

demand for locally produced goods, foods, arts and crafts. This will go a far way in ensuring that

the benefits of tourism in the region because of the World Heritage site trickles down to people

living in communities in and around the site.

 Ensure that tourism industry links with the site are appropriate

Regular open, two-way communications with tourism operators is the most important strategy for

ensuring the development of sustainable tourism. Steps that can help to build this relationship
include ensuring that site managers have a good understanding of the tourism market: how the

tourism industry is organized and the tourism industry’s vision and marketing of the site. This

means, for example, understanding how the National Tourism Office officials and tourism industry

representatives attract tourists to the site.

 Concessions

Concessions are permits, licenses or leases that regulate commercial activities, organized non-

profit activities and/or use of land and the building of structures on specific locations within a

World Heritage site or buffer zone. These activities should only be allowed if the conservation

values of the site are protected and the concessions are consistent with the site’s overall

management plan. Concessions can be an important source of revenue.

 Interpretation

Another requirement of tourism is the effective presentation of the site in its entirety in a manner

that properly explains its values, especially those pertaining to its special values that caused it to

be inscribed on the World Heritage Site listing. The above-mentioned guidelines for tourism policy

and planning for World Heritage Sites will help to ensure that a successful, sustainable

management framework is created to manage tourism in the World Heritage site region.

According to Jamaica: Master Plan for Sustainble Tourism Development (2002), many of the

towns located in Jamaica have the potential and capacity to become vibrant Heritage Tourism

destinations due to their distinct cultural and historical significance. The same sentiments can be

expressed about Papine being that it has its historical roots as being a town that was established

primarily for ex-slaves to sell their agricultural produce and today it sits at the foot hills of the Blue

and John Crow Mountains which has been declared a World Heritage Site. The Master Plan for
Sustainble Tourism Development: Jamaica, (2002) identifies a number of steps listed in the

product development phase for the creation of heritage tourism towns. These steps essentially

describes the management policy framework that would be necessary to manage tourism in the

heritage town region from the perspective of the government of Jamaica. A few of the steps as

outlined in the document are listed below.

 Form pro-active committees

The coordinating committees would, whenever possible be drawn from the Parish Development

Committee (PDC) to include representatives of the local parish council, JNHT (Jamaica National

Heritage Trust), tourism agencies, utilities, the private sector, ENGOs (Environmental Non-

Governmental Organization), CBOs (Community Based Organization). They would work through

the Resort Boards to develop project proposals and source funds. The involvement of these various

stakeholders on the coordinating committees allows a balanced mix of ideas from the different

interest groups.

 Create Heritage Tourism Action Areas (HTAA)

Parish councils would be assisted by JNHT (Jamaica National Heritage Trust), the local Parish

Heritage Foundation and TPDCo (Tourism Product Development Company) to designate Heritage

Tourism Action areas within the town.

 Development of a Town Plan for HTAA (Heritage Tourism Action Areas)

The plan would include infrastructure, restoration, landscaping traffic and parking, pedestrian

ways, land use and signage, with specific projects identified. This development would improve the

capacity of the town to accommodate visitors.

  Strengthen representation on the Parish Council

Inclusion of representatives of the local Parish Heritage Foundation and a representative from, or

nominated by, the JNHT.

 Give JNHT a more pro-active role in Parish Councils.

Setting development plan agendas with Parish Councils, either through engagement of specialist

consultants/in-house staff. These steps give a brief synopsis of the planning approach that would

be necessary to take if the town is to be properly developed into a heritage tourism town.
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