Running head: CORAL BLEACHING 1

Coral Bleaching

Camryn Takahashi

Arizona State University

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Abstract

[Insert ~150 word project description, summarizing what you have researched, and the primary

challenge that your proposal will address]

Keywords​: [Insert 2-3 search terms that others might use to search for your research]
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[Title]

Section 1, Introduction

Introduce your topic and why your interested in it.

Section 2, Annotated Bibliography

In this section you will construct an annotated bibliography of 6-8 sources:

Your bibliography should be in APA format and alphabetical order.

Bayraktarov, E., Saunders, M. I., Abdullah, S., Mills, M., Beher, J., Possingham, H. P., . . .

Lovelock, C. E. (2015). The cost and feasibility of marine coastal restoration. ​Ecological

Applications​. doi:10.1890/15-1077.1

This article discusses the cost of marine coastal restoration. It stated that “coral reefs and

seagrass were among the most expensive to restore,” (p. 1). One of the reasons why restoration is

not an immediate may be due to high costs. According to the report, “more than 60% of the

world’s coral reefs are under immediate and direct threat” (p. 1). Coral reef restoration is only

being completed at a small scale and with that, “high mortality was reported for approaches that

used culturing and seeding of coral spat or transplanting juvenile corals to degraded reefs” (p. 9).

Efficient and impactful restoration of coral reefs cannot occur unless the events causing coral

reef degradation cease.

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All of the contributing authors to this article work in some scientific category at the University of

Queensland in Australia. They provided ample data on the pricing of marine coastal restoration

based on the ecosystem.

This article will be very useful for this project. It discusses a different point of view than other

sources that I used. It will aid in seeing all sides of coral bleaching and if it is possible to restore

coral reefs.

“The most cost-effective coral reef restoration projects were those where coral reef fragments

were transplanted from donor colonies to a degraded reef, estimated at US$11717/ha in a

developing country. In contrast, the least cost-effective approach for coral reef restoration used a

combination of stabilizing substrate and trans- plantation of fragments (estimated at

US$2,879,773/ha in a developing country).” (p. 7)

“compared to terrestrial ecosystems marine coastal ecosystems, particularly coral reefs, seagrass,

and oyster reefs, are more expensive to restore.” (p. 9)

Scott, M., & Lindsey, R. (2018, August 01). Unprecedented 3 years of global coral bleaching,

2014-2017. Retrieved March 24, 2019, from

https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/unprecedented-3-years-global-cor

al-bleaching-2014–2017
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This article discusses a three year period, 2014-2017, in which coral bleaching was at its worst. It

explained that coral bleaching occurs when stress is put on the coral leading the algae to leave

the coral which leaves it to bleach. It described events such as El ​Niño and La Niña which

caused heat stress to many coral reefs. The authors described that some reefs in Guam, American

Samoa, and Hawaii had the worst coral bleaching ever documented. According to the article,

“reefs in the northern part of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef that had never bleached before lost

nearly 30 percent of their shallow water corals in 2016,” (para. 6).

Michon Scott has aided in writing many articles for the NOAA. He works with the National

Snow & Ice Data Center (NSIDC). Rebecca Lindsey has also written many articles for the

NOAA. She is a contractor to the Oceanic and Academic Research (OAR)/ Climate Program

Office (CPO) and a managing editor. Overall, they both prove to be credible authors through the

programs that they work with and their research. In the article, they also used a credible source

for their information.

This source will be helpful in my essay because it talks about coral bleaching worldwide in

recent years. Seeing a current time frame allows me to write about how coral bleaching has been

increasing over time and prove how increase in climate change affects coral. It also shows

images that show the stress of coral reefs during 2015 and 2016.
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“​Reefs in the northern part of Australia’s ​Great Barrier Reef ​that had never bleached before lost

nearly 30 percent of their shallow water corals in 2016, while reefs a bit farther south lost

another 22 percent in 2017,” (para. 6).

“​A strong El Niño ​arrived in 2016​, and heat stress occurred at 51 percent of the world's coral

reefs into early 2017, when a ​La Niña was in place​,” (para. 5).

Hughes, T. P., Kerry, J. T., Álvarez-Noriega, M., Álvarez-Romero, J. G., Anderson, K. D.,

​ lobal warming and recurrent mass bleaching

Baird, A. H., ... Wilson, S. K. (2017, March 15).​ G

of corals. ​Nature, 543,​ 373-377. ​ doi: ​10.1038/nature21707

This article talked about global warming and its effect on coral bleaching and recurrent mass

coral bleaching. One of the parts of the article discusses resistance and adaptation to bleaching

and proves how devastating bleaching is as the authors state how they could not find evidence on

coral acclimating or adapting to bleaching. The article also displayed a graph (Figure 3) which

showed a direct correlation between the percent of corals bleached and heat exposure. The

authors used the pan-tropical events in 1998, 2002 and 2016 to show mass coral bleaching and

their cause. The Great Barrier Reef had very severe bleaching from these three years, especially

in 2016.
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Terry P. Hughs is the Director of the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for

Coral Reef Studies. He has researched coral reefs and their importance and has worked

particularly in Australia. He is very knowledgeable on the subject of coral reefs and is able to

provide credible evidence on the impact of coral bleaching and global warming.

This article brings a lot of credible evidence to my paper. It proves that global warming and

rising ocean temperatures causes coral bleaching. It also shows how devastating coral bleaching

can be through the pictures. The data and other statements will help me prove that this is a

pressing issue that does not yet have a serious solution.

“​we find no evidence for a protective effect of past bleaching,” (para. 8)

“​Conversely, in 2016, only 8.9% of 1,156 surveyed reefs escaped with no bleaching, compared

to 42.4% of 631 reefs in 2002 and 44.7% of 638 in 1998,” (para. 3)

The Ocean Portal Team & Knowlton, N. (2018, December 18). Corals and Coral Reefs.

Retrieved March 24, 2019, from

https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/corals-and-coral-reefs
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This article discusses the many aspects of coral; how it 's grown, its importance, threats to it, and

how it can be protected. The authors discuss how coral reefs are extremely diverse and provide

many services for humans. They touched on coral bleaching and how fragile coral are. In one

section, it stated that “the future of coral reefs will depend on reducing carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere,” (para. 27). Carbon dioxide increases ocean temperatures, which causes coral

bleaching and ocean acidification.

Dr. Nancy Knowlton reviewed this article and she graduated from Harvard University and UC

Berkeley and works with the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. She is the Sant

Chair in Marine Sciences and a coral reef biologist. The Ocean Portal works with the

Smithsonian as well and consists of researchers who want to educate the public about the ocean.

This source will help with my essay because it, unlike my other sources, talks about general coral

facts and not just coral bleaching. It stresses the importance of coral to us and to the

environment. It also details how coral bleaching occurs and some ways to protect coral reefs.

“​Temperatures more than 2 degrees F (or 1 degree C) above the normal seasonal maximum can

cause bleaching,” (para. 25).

“In the long run, however, the future of coral reefs will depend on reducing carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere, which is increasing rapidly due to burning of fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide is both
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warming the ocean, resulting in coral bleaching, and changing the chemistry of the ocean,

causing ocean acidification. Both making it harder for corals to build their skeletons,” (para. 27).

“​Coral reefs are the most diverse of all marine ecosystems. They teem with life, with perhaps

one-quarter of all ocean species depending on reefs​ for food and shelter,” (para. 1).

US Department of Commerce, & National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2010,

March 15). ​What is coral bleaching?​ Retrieved March 17, 2019, from

https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bleach.html

This article talks about how coral becomes bleach and what causes it. Coral bleaching is the

result of a stressor affecting a healthy coral. Zooxanthellae leaves the coral as a result, turning it

white, then the coral is susceptible to disease and starvation. According to the NOAA’s Coral

Reef Conservation Program, some causes of coral bleaching includes, increased ocean

temperature, runoff, pollution, high solar irradiance, and exposure to the air. Coral bleaching can

also be caused by cold water temperatures.

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is a credible government

resource that provides information about the causes and effects of coral bleaching.
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This is a smaller article but it is helpful in my essay because I mostly will focus on global

warming as a cause of coral bleaching but this article and graphic show different causes of coral

bleaching. It brings in a new perspective and new data of bleaching events.

“Corals can survive a bleaching event, but they are under more stress and are subject to

mortality,” (para. 2).

“In 2005, the U.S. lost half of its coral reefs in the Caribbean in one year due to a massive

bleaching event,” (para. 3).

NOAA. (n.d.). ​Coral Reef Watch Home.​ Retrieved March 17, 2019, from

https://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov/satellite/education/monitoring.php

The Coral Reef Watch allows for people to view current data on the conditions of coral reefs

around the world. Though the satellite, you are able to see the CO2 levels and the severity of the

bleaching of the ocean. You can also view the sea surface temperature, anomalies, and hotspots.

Though viewing the data, it is very clear that coral reefs are currently under large amounts of

stress and that ocean temperatures are above what they should be. According to the NOAA,

“these tools can be used to trigger bleaching response plans and support appropriate management

decisions and communication with the public,” (para. 3). The satellite serves many different
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functions such as education and a timely way to monitor coral. It has the potential to help predict

and decrease the extent of coral bleaching.

The Coral Reef Conservation Program runs the Coral Reef Watch. They work with the National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and work on coral reef issues. They are a government

program and bring credible data to the program. The data is also updated very often so give an

accurate portrayal of conditions of coral reefs and ocean temperatures. The NOAA is a

government organization which proves its credibility.

This interactive chart is helpful because it proves that climate change is growing increasingly

worse and therefore, increasing the amount of coral bleaching. The Coral Reef Watch includes

very current data on the ocean temperature trends and CO2 output. The NOAA, being a credible

source, is able to add data to my paper to help prove the negative impact of coral bleaching.

“​When bleaching conditions occur, these tools can be used to trigger bleaching response plans

and support appropriate management decisions and communication with the public,” (para. 3).

Lane, C. (2010). Stay of Execution: Saving the Death Penalty from Itself. Lanham, MD: Roman

and Littlefield Publishers. Retrieved from ​http://lib.myilibrary.com.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/

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In Stay of Execution, Charles Lane (2010) discusses the waning popularity of the death penalty

by examining Gallup Polls between 1953 and 2008. Lane claims that the latter of these polls

represents the effect of DNA testing, which to date, has exonerated over 250 wrongfully accused

death row inmates. Specifically, he illustrates the decline in support for the death penalty

between 1953 when 68% approved, and 1966 when only 42% approved, a period which

represents the first time in US history that opposition to the death penalty exceeded support for it

(p. 16). Discussing the causes of this declining support, he cites “a decrease in death sentences,”

“World War II,” and “a change of attitudes in the courts” as the motivating factors. Lane also

claims that during this period “eight states either abolished capital punishment or changed the

definition to drastically limit the population of death row inmates (p. 37). Further accounting for

the death penalty’s lack of popularity, Lane very presciently states that “when justice misfires

and an innocent man goes to prison, that mistake can eventually be corrected. Unique among all

punishments, however, death is irrevocable” (p. 5). Additionally he argues that the public

perception of the death penalty changed largely because of disagreement with the statement that

capital punishment deters crime, and whether or not racial disparities, mental illness, social and

cognitive disabilities, and juveniles should be taken into account during sentencing (p. 45-47).

Lane is a graduate of Harvard and Yale Law School, the former editor of The New Republic, and

has written for The Washington Post, Foreign Affairs, The New York Review of Books, and The

Atlantic. Overall, Lane is a credible source his professional work as a journalist and the

thoroughness of his research more than adequately qualify his reporting on the death penalty; his
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argument is valid with thoroughly supported claims. He uses reliable research and legitimate

reasons as to why support for the death penalty fell over the last several decades.

As a result this source will be extremely helpful in my inquiry essay as it demonstrates the

history of public opinion about capital punishment. His claims, the facts he purports, and the data

he includes will help make my own paper more credible and informative.

“Studies show that white and black defendants are no longer sentenced to death at different rates,

when all the relevant variables are taken into account. But statistical studies that those who kill

whites are more likely to get the death penalty than those who kill blacks” (p. 5)

“Proponents of capital punishment insist it deters murder, but 64 percent of the public disagrees,

according to the May 2006 Gallup Poll” (p. 6)

Section 3, Investigative Essay

In this section, you should present the scope of the problem, other approaches toward

change, what is at stake, and draw on your research.

Coral Bleaching

​One of the biggest threats to coral reefs today is coral bleaching. According to the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, coral bleaching is when corals “expel the

algae (zooxanthellae) living in their tissues causing the coral to turn completely white” (para. 2).

The event of the coral turning white does not mean that the coral has died but that it is under

stress. Stressors such as changes in ocean temperature, runoff/pollution, overexposure to

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sunlight, and low tides can all cause a coral to bleach. Coral bleaching leaves corals vulnerable to

disease and starvation.

Climate change has had a significant effect on coral reefs worldwide, especially in recent

years. An article written by Michon Scott and Rebecca Lindsey stated that, “​A strong El Niño

arrived in 2016​, and heat stress occurred at 51 percent of the world's coral reefs into early 2017,

when a ​La Niña was in place​,” (para. 5). Mass coral bleaching is a natural occurrence but the

frequency that they are currently happening at is increasing. Proof of the worsening condition of

coral reefs can be found in an article titled, Global warming and recurrent mass bleaching of

corals, “c​onversely, in 2016, only 8.9% of 1,156 surveyed reefs escaped with no bleaching,

compared to 42.4% of 631 reefs in 2002 and 44.7% of 638 in 1998,” (para. 3). ​To monitor the

warming of the planet and how it affects the oceans, the NOAA set up the Coral Reef Watch

program which, “uses satellite data to provide current reef environmental conditions to quickly

identify areas at risk for coral bleaching,” (para. 1). The tool provided by the Coral Reef Watch

program’s website allows the viewer to see recent alerts, hotspots, anomalies, and CO​2​ levels.

Coral bleaching has been proven to be a harmful event on the world’s coral reefs. There

are several small solutions to help restore the reefs, however, recovery can be costly. According

to an article titled ​The cost and feasibility of marine restoration,​ “compared to terres- trial

ecosystems marine coastal ecosystems, particularly coral reefs, seagrass, and oyster reefs, are

more expensive to restore,” (p. 9). The same article also inferred that governments often pay the

bulk of the money (which can be millions of dollars). Some argue that government money needs

to go to other issues in their respective countries, however, the Ocean Portal Team set up by the

Smithsonian stated that coral reefs provide, “food, protection of shorelines, jobs based on
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tourism, and even medicines,” (para. 2). Coral reefs are worth billions of dollars and their

disappearance has the potential to damage economies worldwide.

Section 4, Conclusion