CHAPTER 1

Wireless Power Transmission

1.1: Introduction

Power is very important to modern systems. From the smallest sensors, bionic implants,
laptops, consumer products to satellites and oil platforms, it is important to be able to deliver
power means other than classical wires or transmission lines. Wireless transmission is
useful in cases where instantaneous or continuous energy transfer is needed, but
interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible some times. In the case
of biological implants, there must be a battery or energy storage element present that can
receive and hold energy. This element takes up valuable space inside a person body. In the
case of satellites, UAVs and oil platforms, solar panels, fuel cells, or combustion engines
are currently used to supply power. Solar panels take up a great deal of weight and bulk in
terms of energy density and must have a tracking system to maximize exposure to the sun.
Fuel cells and combustion cells needs fuel and maintenance to be delivered on site.

Wireless Power Transmission (WPT) is the efficient transmission of electric

power from one point to another trough vacuum or an atmosphere without the use of wire or
any other substance. The power can be transmitted using Inductive coupling for short range,
resonant induction for mid-range electromagnetic wave power transfer. WPT is a
technology that can transport power to locations, which are otherwise not possible or
impractical to reach. The objective of this report is to design and implant a method to
transmit wireless electrical power through space. The system will work by using resonant
coils to transmit power from an AC line to a resistive load. Investigation of various
geometrical and physical form factors evaluated in order to increase coupling between
transmitter and receiver.

1.2: Why Do We Go For WPT System

1.2.1 Losses in the Wired System
Professor Rauscher showed that the earth’s magnetosphere contains sufficient potential
energy (at least 3 billion kilowatts) so that the resonant excitation of the earth- ionosphere
cavity can reasonably be expected to increase the amplitude of natural

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“Schumann” frequencies, facilitating the capture of useful electrical power. Tesla also knew
that the earth could be treated as one big spherical conductor and the ionosphere as another
bigger spherical conductor, so that together they have parallel plates and thus, comprise a
“spherical capacitor.” Dr. Rauscher calculates the capacitance to be about 15,000
microfarads for the complete earth-ionosphere cavity capacitor. W.O. Schumann is credited
for predicting the “self-oscillations” of the conducting sphere of the earth, surrounded by
an air layer and an ionosphere in 1952, without knowing that Tesla had found the earth’s
fundamental frequency fifty years earlier. In comparison to the 3 billion kW available from
the earth system, it is possible to calculate what the
U.S. consumed in electricity. In 2000, about 11 Quads (quadrillion Btu)
were actually used by consumers for electrical needs, which is equal to 3.2 trillion kWh.
Dividing by the 8760 hours in a year, we find that only 360 million kW are needed on site
to power our entire country. This would still leave 2.6 billion kW for the rest of the world!
The really shameful U.S. scandal, unknown to the general public, is that out of the total
electrical power generated using wire transmission (about 31 Quads), a full 2/3 is totally
wasted in “conversion losses.”

Fig 1.1: Losses in the Wired System

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No other energy production system of any kind in the world has so much wastefulness. Instead
of trying to build 2 power plants per week (at 300 MW each) for the next 20 years (only to
have a total of additional 6 trillion kWh available by 2020), as some U.S. government
officials want to do, we simply need to eliminate the 7 trillion kWh of conversion losses in our
present electricity generation modality. Tesla’s wireless transmission of power accomplishes this
goal, better than any distributed generation.
1.3: Historical Revolution of Wireless Power Transmission

Fig 1.2: Wireless Power Transmission

In 1864, James C. Maxwell predicted the existence of radio waves by means of

mathematical model. In 1884, John H. Pointing realized that the Pointing vector would play
an important role in quantifying the electromagnetic energy. In 1888, bolstered by
Maxwell's theory, Heinrich Hertz succeeded in showing experimental evidence of radio
waves by his spark gap radio transmitter. The prediction and evidence of the radio wave in
the end of 19th century was start of the wireless power transmission.
During the same period of Marches G. Marconi and Reginald Fessenden who are
pioneers of communication via radio waves, Nicola Tesla suggested an idea of the wireless
power transmission and carried out the first WPT experiment in 1899. He said “This energy
will be collected all over the globe preferably in small amounts, ranging from a fraction of
one to a few horse powers. One of its chief uses will be the illumination of isolated homes”.
His actual y built a gigantic coil which was connected to a high mast of 200 ft. with a 3 ft.
diameter ball at its top. He fed 300 Kwan power to the Tesla coil resonated at 150 kHz.
The RF potential at the top sphere reached 100

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MV. Unfortunately, he failed because the transmitted power was diffused to all directions
with 150 kHz radio waves whose wave length was 21 km.
To concentrate the transmitted power and to increase transmission efficiency, we
have to use higher frequency than that used by Tesla. In 1930s, much progress in generating
high power microwaves, namely 1-10 GHz radio waves, was achieved by invention of the
magnetron and the klystron. After World War II, high power and high efficiency microwave
tubes were advanced by development of radar Technology. We can concentrate a power
to receiver with microwaves. We call the wireless power transmission with microwaves as
microwave power transmission (MPT). Based on the development of the microwave tubes
during the World War II, W. C. Brown started the First MPT research and development in
1960. First of all, he developed a retina, rectifying antenna which he named, for receiving
and rectifying microwaves. The efficiency of the first retina developed in 1963 was 50 %
at output 4WDC and 40% at output 7WDC, respectively.

Fig 1.3: MPT Demonstration with Helicopter by W.C.Brown

With the retina, he succeeded in MPT experiments to wire helicopter in 1964 and to free
flied helicopter in 1968 (Fig. 1.3). In 1970s; he tried to increase DC RF transmission RF
DC total efficiency with 2.45 GHz microwave. In 1970, overall DC total efficiency was
only 26.5 % at 39WDC in Marshall Space Flight Centre.

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 Fig 1.4: 1sty Ground To Ground MPT Experiment in 1975 At The Venous Site.

In parallel, he and his team succeeded in the largest MPT demonstration in 1975 at the
Venus Site of JPL Goldstone Facility (fig 1.4). Distance between a transmit ting parabolic
antennas, whose diameter was 26m, and a retina array, whose size was 3.4 m x 7.2 m, was
1 mile.

After 1990s, many MPT laboratory and field experiments were carried out in the
world. We often use 2.45 GHz or 5.8 GHz of the ISM band (ISM=Industry, Science, and
Medical) for the MPT system. A Canadian Group demonstrated fuel free airplane flight
experiment with MPT in 1987 which was called SHARP (Stationary High Altitude Relay
Platform) with 2.45 GHz.

Fig 1.5: Stationary High Altitude Relay Platform.

In USA, there were many MPT research and development projects after W. C. Brown: for
instance, retro directive microwave transmitters, retina, and microwave circuit technologies.

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In Japan, there were many field MPT experiments such as fuel free airplane flight
experiment with MPT phased array with 2.411 GHz in 1992, ground to ground MPT
experiment with Power Company and universities in 1994-95.

Fig 1.6: Ground To Ground MPT Experiment In Japan In 1994-95.

In the early 1970s, experiments with RFID tags began and by the early 2000’s Professor
She Yuen (Ron) Hue and S.C. Tang developed a charger to provide resonant power
transfer for small electronics. Today wireless power is used for everything from industrial
motors to charging smart phones and tablets.
Researchers predict that wireless power will be making a signify ant contribution to
energy supplies by the end of this decade.

1.4: What Is WPT?

WPT is nothing but wireless electricity. Transmission of electrical energy from one object
to another without the use of wires is called as WPT. WPT will ensure that the cell phones,
laptops, iPods and other power hungry devices get charged on their own, eliminating the
need of plugging them in. WPT technology is transferring electric energy or power over
distance without wires. With the basics of electricity and magnetism, and work our way up
to the WPT technology. Even better, because of WPT some of the devices won't enquire
batteries to operate. No, this concept of wireless electricity is not new. In fact Nikola Tesla
used resonance magnetic fields to transfer wireless power.

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1.5: How Does Wireless Power Work?
The basics of WPT involve the transmission of energy from a transmitter to a receiver via
an oscillating magnetic field. To achieve this, Direct Current (DC) supplied by a power
source, is converted into high frequency AC by specially designed electronics built into the
transmitter. The AC energizes a copper wire coil in the transmitter, which generates a
magnetic field. Once a second (receiver) coil is placed within proximity of the magnetic
field, the field can induce an alternating current in the receiving coil.
Electronics in the receiving device then converts alternating current back into
direct current, which becomes usable power. The diagram FIG. 1.8 simplifies this
process into four key steps.

1.6: Need of WPT

Now a days there is a Rapid development of autonomous electronics like Laptops, Cell
phones, House hold robots and all those devices typically relay on chemical energy
storage(Battery) As they are becoming daily needs to present generation, Wireless energy
transfer would be useful for many applications and they need midrange energy.

Fig 1.7: Wireless Energy Transfer

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Fig. 1.8: Simple Wireless Power Transmission Diagram

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 CHAPTER 2

The Basic Idea of Transforming Electricity to WPT

2.1: Electricity
The flow of electrons (current) through a conductor (like a wire), or charges through the
atmosphere (like lightning). A convenient way for energy to get from one place to another.

Fig 2.1: An Illustration Representing the Earth's Magnetic Field

2.2: Magnetism
A fundamental force of nature, which causes certain types of materials to attract or repel each
other. Permanent magnets, like the ones on your refrigerator and the earth‘s magnetic field, are
examples of objects having constant magnetic fields. Oscillating magnetic fields vary with time,
and can be generated by alternating current (AC) flowing on a wire. The strength, direction, and
extent of magnetic fields are often represented and visualized by drawings of the magnetic field
lines.
2.3: Electromagnetism
A term for the interdependence of time varying electric and magnetic fields. For example, it turns
out that an oscillating magnetic field produces an electric field and an oscillating electric field
produces a magnetic field.

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 Fig 2.2: B Represents
Magnetic Field When Current Flows Through a Coil.

As electric current, I, flows in a wire, it gives rise to a magnetic field, B, which wraps around
the wire. When the current reverses direction, the magnetic field also reverses its direction.

2.4: Magnetic Induction

A loop or coil of conductive material like copper, carrying an alternating current (AC), is a
Very efficient structure for generating or capturing a magnetic field. If a conductive loop is
connected to an AC power source, it will generate an oscillating magnetic field in the
vicinity of the loop. A second conducting loop, brought close enough to the first, may
capture some portion of that oscillating magnetic field, which in turn, generates or induces
an electric current in the second coil. The current generated in the second coil may be used
to power devices. This type of electrical power transfer from one loop or coil to another is
well known and referred to as magnetic induction. Some common examples of devices
based on magnetic induction are electric transformers and electric generators.

2.5: Energy/Power Coupling

An electric transformer is a device that uses magnetic induction to transfer energy from its
primary winding to its secondary winding, without the windings being connected to each
other. It is used to transform AC current at one voltage to AC current at a different voltage.
Energy coupling occurs when an energy source has a means of

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Transferring energy to another object. One simple example is a locomotive pulling a train
car the mechanical coupling between the two enables the locomotive to pull the train, and
overcome the forces of friction and inertia that keep the train still and, the train moves.

Fig 2.3: Magnetic Induction

Magnetic coupling occurs when the magnetic field of one object interacts with a second
object and induces an electric current in or on that object. In this way, electric energy can
be transferred from a power source to a powered device. In contrast to the example of
mechanical coupling given for the train, magnetic coupling does not require any physical
contact between the object generating the energy and the object receiving or capturing that
energy.

2.6: WPT Technology

WPT power sources and capture devices are specially designed magnetic resonators that
efficiently transfer power over large distances via the magnetic near field. These proprietary
source and device designs and the electronic systems that control them support efficient
energy transfer over distances that are many times the size of the sources/devices
themselves.
The WPT power source, left, is connected to AC power. The blue lines represent
the magnetic near field induced by the power source. The yellow lines represent the flow of
energy from the source to the WPT capture coil, which is shown powering a light bulb. Note
that this diagram also shows how the magnetic field (blue lines) can wrap around a
conductive obstacle between the power source and the capture device.

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Fig 2.4: WPT Power Source

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 CHAPTER 3

Theories on WPT

3.1: Near Field Theory

Near field are wireless transmission techniques over distances comparable to, or a few times
the diameter of the device(s), and up to around a quarter of the wavelengths used. Near
field energy itself is non radioactive, but some radioactive losses will occur. In addition there
are usually resistive losses. Near field transfer is usually magnetic (inductive), but electric
(capacitive) energy transfer can also occur.
The magnetic near field has several properties that make it an excellent means of
transferring energy in a typical consumer, commercial, or industrial environment. Most
common building and furnishing Materials, such as wood, gypsum wall board, plastics,
textiles, glass, brick, and concrete are essentially transparent to magnetic fields enabling
WPT Technology to efficiently transfer power through them. In addition, the magnetic near
field has the ability to wrap around many metallic obstacles that might otherwise block the
magnetic fields.

3.2: Electrical Conduction Principle

Electrical energy can be transmitted by means of electrical currents made to flow through
naturally existing conductors, specifically the earth, lakes and oceans, and through the upper
atmosphere starting at approximately 35,000 feet (11,000 m) elevation — a natural
medium that can be made conducting if the breakdown voltage is exceeded and the
constituent gas becomes ionized. For example, when a high voltage is applied across a neon
tube the gas becomes ionized and a current passes between the two internal electrodes.

In a wireless energy transmission system using this principle, a high-power ultraviolet

beam might be used to form vertical ionized channels in the air directly above the
transmitter-receiver stations. The same concept is used in virtual lightning rods, the electro
laser electroshock weapon and has been proposed for disabling vehicles. A global system
for "the transmission of electrical energy without wires" dependent upon the high electrical
conductivity of the earth was proposed by Nikola Tesla as early as 1904.

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"The earth is 4,000 miles radius. Around this conducting earth is an atmosphere. The earth is
a conductor; the atmosphere above is a conductor, only there is a little stratum between the
conducting atmosphere and the conducting earth which is insulating. Now, you realize right
away that if you set up differences of potential at one point, say, you will create in the
media corresponding fluctuations of potential. But, since the distance from the earth's
surface to the conducting atmosphere is minute, as compared with the distance of the
receiver at 4,000 miles, say, you can readily see that the energy cannot travel along this
curve and get there, but will be immediately transformed into conduction currents, and these
currents will travel like currents over a wire with a return. The energy will be recovered
in the circuit, not by a beam that passes along this curve and is reflected and absorbed, but
it will travel by conduction and will be recovered in this way."

Researchers experimenting with Tesla's wireless energy transmission system

design have made observations that may be inconsistent with a basic tenet of physics
related to the scalar derivatives of the electromagnetic potentials, which are presently
considered to be nonphysical. The intention of the Tesla world wireless energy
transmission system is to combine electrical power transmission along with broadcasting
and point-to-point wireless telecommunications, and allow for the elimination of many
existing high-tension power transmission lines, facilitating the interconnection of electrical
generation plants on a global scale. One of Tesla's patents suggests he may have
misinterpreted 25–70 km nodal structures associated with cloud - ground lightning
observations made during the 1899 Colorado Springs experiments in terms of circum
globally propagating standing waves instead of a local interfere nice phenomenon of direct
and reflected waves. Regarding the recent notion of power transmission through the earth-
ionosphere cavity, a consideration of the earth- ionosphere or concentric spherical shell
waveguide propagation parameters as they are known today shows that wireless energy
transfer by direct excitation of a Schumann cavity resonance mode is not realizable.
"The conceptual difficulty with this model is that, at the very low frequencies that
Tesla said that he employed (1-50 kHz), earth- ionosphere waveguide excitation, now well
understood, would seem to be impossible with the either the Colorado Springs or the Long
Island apparatus (at least with the apparatus that is visible in the photographs of these
facilities)."

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 Fig 3.1: Tesla Coil Transformer Wound in the Form of a Flat Spiral. This Is The
Transmitter Form As Described In U.S. Patent 645,576.

On the other hand, Tesla's concept of a global wireless electrical power transmission grid
and telecommunications network based upon energy transmission by means of a spherical
conductor transmission line with an upper three-space model return circuit, while
apparently not practical for power transmission, is feasible, defying no law of physics.
Global wireless energy transmission by means of a spherical conductor “single-wire”
surface wave transmission line and a propagating TM00 mode may also be possible.

3.3: Induction Principle (Non Resonant Energy Transfer)

The action of an electrical transformer is the simplest instance of wireless energy transfer.
The primary and secondary circuits of a transformer are not directly connected. The transfer
of energy takes place by electromagnetic coupling through a process known as mutual
induction. (An added benefit is the capability to step the primary voltage either up or
down.) The Battery chargers of a mobile phone or the transformers on the street are
examples of how this principle can be used. Induction cookers and many electric
toothbrushes are also powered by this technique. The main

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Drawback to induction, however, is the short range. The receiver must be very close to the
transmitter or induction unit in order to inductively couple with it.

3.4: Electrostatic Induction Principle

FIG 3.2: (Tesla Illuminating Two Exhausted Tubes By Means Of A Powerful, Rapidly
Alternating Electrostatic Field Created Between Two Vertical Metal Sheets
Suspended From The Ceiling On Insulating Cords.)

The "electrostatic induction effect" or "capacitive coupling" is an electric field gradient or

differential capacitance between two elevated electrodes over a conducting ground plane
for wireless energy transmission involving high frequency alternating current potential
differences transmitted between two plates or nodes. The electrostatic forces through
natural media across a conductor situated in the changing magnetic flux can transfer energy
to a receiving device (such as Tesla's wireless bulbs).Sometimes called "the Tesla effect" it
is the application of a type of electrical displacement, i.e., the passage of electrical energy
through space and matter, other than and in addition to the development of a potential
across a conductor.
Tesla stated, "Instead of depending on [electrodynamics] induction at a distance to light
the tube . . . the ideal way of lighting a hall or room would . . . be to produce such a
condition in it that an illuminating device could be moved and put anywhere, and that it is
lighted, no matter where it is put and without being electrically connected to anything. I have
been able to produce such a condition by creating in the room a powerful, rapidly
alternating electrostatic field. For this purpose I suspend a sheet of metal a distance from
the ceiling on insulating cords and connect it to one terminal of the induction coil, the other
terminal being preferably connected to the ground.

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I suspend two sheets .each sheet being connected with one of the terminals of the coil, and
their size being carefully determined. An exhausted tube may then be carried in the hand
anywhere between the sheets or placed anywhere, even a certain distance beyond them; it
remains always luminous.” And “In some cases when small amounts of energy are required
the high elevation of the terminals, and more particularly of the receiving- terminal D' may
not be necessary, since, especially when the frequency of the currents is very high, a
sufficient amount of energy may be collected at that terminal by electrostatic induction
from the upper air strata, which are rendered conducting by the active terminal of the
transmitter or through which the currents from the same are conveyed.

3.5: Electro-Dynamic Induction (Resonant Inductive Coupling Method/ Evanescent

Coupling Method)
An inductive transformer is a device commonly used in power circuits and
electromechanical motors (for example electrical toothbrushes and chargers). A transformer
typically operates up to mid-kHz frequencies. It essentially transfers electrical energy
from one circuit to another via induction: the time-varying magnetic flux produced by a
primary coil crosses a secondary coil and induces in it a voltage. The primary and the
secondary coils are not physically connected, hence the method is wireless. Transformers
can be very efficient but the distance between the coils must be very small (typically a few
millimeters). For distances a few times the size of the coils, the efficiency drops
significantly. Part of the underlying physics for most of the existing methods for the
wireless transfer of electricity is the fundamental principle of resonance: the property of
certain physical systems to oscillate with maximum amplitudes at certain frequencies.
It follows that, for any type of excitation (mechanic an l, acoustic,
electromagnetic, nuclear) with a given frequency, a receiver will pick up the transmitted
energy efficiently only when designed to resonate at the excitation frequency. Only then do
successive excitations after each oscillation period add coherently in phase and lead to a
buildup of energy within the receiver. To illustrate, consider 100 glasses filled with wine at
different levels so that they support acoustic resonances at different frequencies. Now let
electric-guitar players produce and sustain a very well-defined note. Only one of the
glasses, the one resonant with the frequency of this note, will respond to the excitation, to the
extent that it may even break, while the rest will remain unaffected. Similarly, we tune the
electromagnetic

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Antenna of a radio to be resonant with the frequency of the station we want to listen to.
Many transformers used in power circuitry and elsewhere are also designed to employ
resonance to enhance the power transmission.

3.6: Experimental Demonstration of Evanescent Coupling at MIT

Based on their theory, they started experiments in late 2006.The main challenges
consisted of designing a driving circuit that would operate in our desired low-MHz regime
and constructing coils that would resonate with high enough value of
Q. After a trial-and-error phase, they realized that a simple coil design without a separate
capacitor, but using the coil’s self-capacitance to achieve resonance was best option in terms
of Q. We made two copper-pipe coils with 60 cm diameters and with five turns, such
that they resonate at 10MHz and have Q=1000. A 60 W light bulb was the chosen
device, since it operates at tested frequencies (and what can be a clearer sign of the
functionality of a system than the switch on of a light bulb?). They suspended the coils
from the ceiling with fishing wire, at distance of 2m from each other, tuned them up,
turned them on and…there was light. At an efficiency of 45%, this was, to our knowledge,
the first-ever demonstration of midrange efficient wireless energy transfer.

Fig 3.3: Lightening a 60 Watt Bulb Around 2m Away From the Source at MIT

3.7: Far Field Theory

Far field methods achieve longer ranges, often multiple kilometer ranges, where the
distance is much greater than the diameter of the device(s). With radio wave and optical
devices the main reason for longer ranges is the fact that electromagnetic radiation in the far-
field can be made to match the shape of the receiving area (using high directivity antennas
or well-collimated Laser Beam) thereby delivering almost all

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Emitted power at long ranges. The maximum directivity for antennas is physically limited
by diffraction. The Raytheon Company did the first successful WPT experiment in 1963. In
this experiment energy was transmitted with a DC-to-DC efficiency of 13%. This company
also demonstrated a microwave-powered helicopter in 1964. The Jet propulsion lab of
NASA carried out an experiment and demonstrated the transfer of 30 kW over a distance
of 1 mile in 1975. They used an antenna array erected at the Goldstone facility. This test
demonstrated the possibilities of wireless power outside the laboratory. Rockwell
International and David Sarnoff Laboratory operated in 1991 a microwave powered rover
at 5.86 GHz. Three kilowatts of power was transmitted and 500 watts was received.

3.8: Microwave Power Transmission (MPT)

In order to transport electricity is has to be transformed into a suitable energy form. For
wireless transmission, this has to be a form that can travel through air. Microwave
frequencies hold this ability. The microwave spectrum is defined as electromagnetic energy
ranging from approximately 1 GHz to 1000 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes
lower frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. A
complete microwave transmission system consists of three essential parts:
• Electrical power to microwave power conversion
• Absorption antenna that captures the waves
• (Re)conversion to electrical power

Fig 3.4: Microwave Transmitter and Retina

The components include a microwave source, a transmitting antenna and a receiving
antenna. The microwave source consists of an electron tubes or solid-state devices with
electronics to control power output. The slotted waveguide antenna, parabolic dish and
micro strip patch are the most popular types. Due to high efficiency (>95%) and high power
handling capacity, the slotted waveguide antenna seems to be

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The best option for power transmission. The combination of receiving and converting unit
is called retina. The retina is a rectifying antenna that is used to directly convert microwave
energy into DC electricity. It is an antenna includes a mesh of dipoles and diodes for
absorbing microwave energy from a transmitter and converting it into electric power. Its
elements are usually arranged in a multi element phased array with a mesh pattern reflector
element to make it directional. The Rayleigh criterion dictates that any beam will spread
(microwave or laser), become weaker, and diffuse over distance. The larger the
transmitter antenna or laser aperture, the tighter the beam and the less it will spread as a
function of distance (and vice versa). Therefore, the system requires large transmitters
and receivers. The used power density of the microwave beam is normally in the order of
100 W/m2. This is relative low compared to the power density of solar radiation on earth
(1000 W/m2) and chosen this way for safety reasons.

Applications
WPT for Space Solar
The largest application for microwave power transmission is space solar power satellites
(SPS). In this application, solar power is captured in space and converted into electricity.
The electricity is converted into microwaves and transmitted to the earth. The microwave
power will be captured with antennas and converted into electric it y. NASA is still
investigating the possibilities of SPS. One of the problems is the high investment cost due
to the space transport. The current rates on the Space Shuttle run between $7,000 and
$11,000 per kilogram of transported material. Recently the idea of Space Solar Power
caught again the public attention e.g. by the Osama transition team and The Economist.

Fig 3.5: Space Solar Power Satellite

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Power Transfer, Bridging Applications
Using a powerful focused beam in the microwave or laser range long distances can be
covered. There are two methods of wireless power transmission for bridging application.
First is the direct method, from transmitting array to retina. A line of sight is needed and is
therefore limited to short (< 40 km) distances. Above 40 kilometers, huge structures are
needed to compensate for the curvature of the earth. The second method is via a relay
reflector between the transmitter and retina. This reflector needs to be at an altitude that is
visible for both transmitter and retina. Next one bridging applications of WPT are
discussed.
Alaska '21
WPT can be an option for power supply to rural areas. In 1993 was a project presented
about wireless power supply in Alaska. Because of limited infrastructure, hundreds of small
rural communities in Alaska must provide their own electric it y. These systems can be
expensive not standard or just not available. At the moment, the small communities produce
their own power with mainly diesel engines. These produce noise and pollution. Also the
needed fuel has to be transported over long distances. All this results in an electricity price
in excess of $40 /kWh .Cable connections trough water is no option because of ice. With
the help of WPT, the needed power production of the communities can be combined. This
can reduce noise, pollution and transportation of fuel. WPT may be capable of transmitting
electrical energy to Alaska’s remote villages. To investigate these possibilities, a pilot
project was conducted named "Alaska'21”. The system used for the pilot project consisted
of a2.45 GHz phased array design. The distances that should be bridged are between 1 and
15 miles. The status of the project is unknown.

Fig 3.6 :( Alaska’21).

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 Safety Issues
Bio-Effects
A general public perception that microwaves are harmful has been a major obstacle for the
acceptance of power transmission with microwaves. A major concern is that the long-term
exposure to low levels of microwaves might be unsafe and even could cause cancer. Since
1950, there have been thousands of papers published about microwave bio-effects. The
scientific research indicates that heating of humans exposed to the radiation is the only
known effect. There are also many claims of low-level non thermal effects, but most of
these are difficult to replicate or show unsatisfying uncertainties. Large robust effects only
occur well above exposure limits existing anywhere in the world. The corresponding
exposure limits listed in IEEE standards at 2.45 or 5.8 GHz are 81.6 W/m2 and 100 W/m2
averaged over 6 minutes, and 16.3 or 38.7 W/m2 averaged over 30 minutes.

Fig 3.7: Graph Showing Safety Level to Different Range Of Frequencies

This low compared to average solar radiation of 1000 W/m2. A clearly relevant bio-
effect is the effect of microwave radiation on birds, the so-called "fried

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Bird effect". Research is done on such effect at 2.45 GHz. The outcome showed slight
thermal effects that probably are welcome in the winter and to be avoided in the summer.
Larger birds tend to experience more heat stress then small birds.
The overall conclusion of bioeffects research is that microwave exposures are
generally harmless except for the case of penetrating exposure to intense fields far above
existing exposure limits.

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 CHAPTER 4
Transmitters, Antennas and Receivers

4.1: Antennas for Microwave Power Transmission

All antennas can be applied for both the MPT system and communication systems, for
example, Yogi Due antenna, horn antenna, parabolic antenna, micro strip antenna,
phased array antenna or any other type of antenna.
To fixed target of the MPT system, we usually select a large parabolic antenna, for
example, in MPT demonstration in 1975 at the Venus Site of JPL Goldstone Facility and in
ground to ground MPT experiment in 1994-95 in Japan. In the fuel free airship light
experiment with MPT in 1995 in Japan, they changed a direction of the parabolic antenna
to chase the moving airship. In some MPT experiments in Japan, the phased array antenna
was adopted to steer a direction of the microwave beam (FIG. 4.1).
All SPS is designed with the phased array antenna.

Fig 4.1: Phased Array Used In Japanese Field MPT Experiment

4.2: Recent Technologies for Transmitters

The technology employed for generation of microwave Radiation is an important subject

for the MPT system. We need higher efficient generator/amplifier for the MPT system
than that for the wireless communication system. For highly efficient beam collection on
retina array, we need highly stabilized and accurate phase and amplitude of microwaves for
phased array system for the MPT .There is two types of

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Microwave generators/amplifiers. One is a microwave tube (magnetron) and the other is
semiconductor amplifier.
4.3: Magnetron
Magnetron is a crossed field tube in which electrons emitted from the cathode take cyclical
path to the anode. The magnetron is self-oscillatory device in which the anode contains a
resonant RF structure. The magnetron has long history from invention by A. W. Hull in
1921.
The practical and efficient magnetron tube attracted worldwide interest only after
K. Okabe proposed divided anode type magnetron in 1928. Magnetron technologies
received a boost during the World War II, especially with the Japanese Army. The
magnetrons were also useful for microwave ovens. As a result, the magnetron of 500 –
1,000 W is widely in use for microwave ovens in 2.45 GHz, and is a relatively inexpensive
oscillator (below $5). There is a net global capacity of 45.5GW/year for all magnetrons
used in microwave ovens whose production is 50– 55 millions. It was W. C. Brown who
invented a voltage controlled oscillator with a cooker type magnetron in PLL.

4.4: Semiconductor Amplifier

After 1980s, semiconductor devices became dominant in microwave world instead of the
microwave tubes. This was driven by advances in mobile phone networks. The
semiconductor device is expected to Expand microwave applications, for example, phased
array and active integrated antenna (AIA), because of its manageability and mass
productivity. After 1990s, some MPT experiments were carried out in Japan with phased
array of semiconductor amplifiers
.
Typical semiconductor devices for microwave circuits are FET (Field Effect
Transistor), HBT (Hetero junction Bipolar Transistor), and HEMT (High Electron Mobility
Transistor). Present materials for the semiconductor devices are Si for lower frequency
below a few GHz and Gas for higher frequency. It is easy to control phase and amplitude
through the microwave circuits with semiconductor devices, for example, amplifiers, phase
shifters, modulators, and so on. Currently, new materials are under development to enable
semiconductor devices yield increased output power and efficiency.

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4.5: Wireless Power Transmission – Receivers and Rectifiers
Point to point MPT system needs a large receiving area with a retina array because one
retina element receives and creates only a few W. Especially for the SPS, we need a
huge retina site and a power network connected to the existing power networks on the
ground. On contrary, there are some MPT applications with one small retina element such
as RF ID.

Recent Technologies of Retina

The word “retina” is composed of “rectifying circuit” and “antenna”. The retina can receive
and rectify a microwave power to DC. The retina is passive element with a rectifying
diode, operated without any power source. The circuit, especially diode, mainly determines
the RF DC conversion efficiency. Silicon Scotty barrier diodes were usually used for earlier
retina. New devices like Sic and Gann are expected to increase the efficiency. The retina
with FET or HEMT appeared recently. The single shunt full wave rectifier is always used for
the retina. It consists of a diode inserted in the circuit in par all, a λ/4 distributed line, and a
capacitor inserted in parallel. In an ideal situation, 100% of the received microwave power
should be converted into DC power.

Recent Technologies of Retina Array

The retina will be used as an array for high power MPT because one retina element rectifies
a few W only. For usual phased array antenna, mutual coupling and phase distribution are
problems to solve. For the retina array, problem is different from that of the array antenna
because the retina array is connected not in microwave phase but in DC phase. When we
connect two retina in series or in parallel, they will not operate at their optimum power
output and their combined power output will be less than that if operated independently.
This is theoretical prediction.

Efficiency
We classify the MPT efficiency roughly into three stages;

• DC RF conversion efficiency which includes losses caused by beam forming.

• Beam collection efficiency which means ratio of all radiated power to collected
power on a receiving antenna, and
• RF DC conversion efficiency.

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RF DC Conversion Efficiency

The RF DC conversion efficiency of the retina or the CWC is over 80 % of experimental

results as shown. Decline of the efficiency is caused by array connection loss, change of
optimum operation point of the retina array caused by change of connected load, trouble of
the retina, and any losses on the systems, for example, DC/AC conversion, cables, etc.
However, it is easier to realize higher efficiency than that on the other two

Beam Collection Efficiency

The beam collection efficiency depends on the transmitter and receiver aperture areas, the
wavelength, and the separation distance between the two antennas.

Fig 4.2: Efficiency of Retina Element.

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 CHAPTER 5

Recent Technological Trends

There are several technological trends which are going to be concerned for wireless
power transmission which are as follows:

5.1: Retro Directive Beam Control

A microwave power transmission is suitable for a power transmission from/to moving

transmitters/targets. Therefore, accurate target detection and high efficient beam forming
are important. Retro directive system is always used for SPS.

A corner reflector is most basic retro directive system. The corner reflectors consist
of perpendicular metal sheets, which meet at an apex. Incoming signals are reflected back
in the direction of arrival through multiple reflections off the wall of the reflector. Van Atta
array is also a basic technique of the retro directive system. This array is made up of pairs
of antennas spaced equidistant from the centre of the array, and connected with equal
length transmission lines. The signal received by an antenna is re-radiated by its pair, thus
the order of re-radiating elements are inverted with respect to the centre of the array,
achieving the proper phasing for retro directivity.

Usual retro directive system have phase conjugate circuits in each

receiving/transmitting antenna, which play same role as pairs of antennas spaced
equidistant from the centre of the array in Van Atta array. The signal is called a pilot
signal. We do not need any phase shifters for beam forming. The retro directive system
is usually used for satellite communication, wireless LAN, military, and so on.

5.2: Environmental Issues

One of the characteristics of the MPT is to use more intense microwave than that in wireless
communication systems. Therefore, we have to consider MPT safety for humans.

Interaction with Atmosphere

In general, effect of atmosphere on microwaves is quite small. There are absorption and
scatter by air, rain, and irregularity of air refraction ratio. In 2.45 GHz

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and 5.8 GHz, the absorption by water vapor and oxygen Dominate the effect in the air.
Especially, it is enough to consider only absorption by the oxygen in the microwave
frequency. It is approximately 0.007 dB/km. In the SPS case, the amount of total
absorption through the air from space is approximately 0.035 dB.

5.3: Interaction with Space Plasmas

When microwaves from SPS propagate through ionosphere plasmas, some interaction
between microwaves and the ionosphere plasmas occurs. It is well known that refraction,
Faraday rotation, scintillation, and absorption occur between weak microwave used for
satellite communication and the plasmas. However, influence on the MPT system is
negligible. It is nonlinear interaction between intense microwave and the space plasmas that
we have to investigate before the commercial SPS. We theoretically predict that the
following may occur: heating of the plasmas, plasma hall effect, thermal self-focusing effect
of the microwave beam, and three wave interactions and excitation of electrostatic waves in
MHz bands. These interactions don’t occur in existent satellite communication systems
because microwave power is very weak.

Generating power by placing satellites with giant solar arrays in Geosynchronous

Earth Orbit and transmitting the power as microwaves on the earth called Solar Power
Satellites (SPS) will be the largest application of WPT.

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 CHAPTER 6

Applications, Advantages and Future

6.1: Applications

WPT wireless power transfer technology can be applied in a wide variety of applications
and environments. The ability of our technology to transfer power safely, efficiently, and
over distance can improve products by making them more convenient, reliable, and
environmentally friendly. WPT technology can be used to provide:

Automatic Wireless Power Charging

When all the power a device needs is provided wirelessly, and no batteries are required.
This mode is for a device that is always used within range of its WPT power source. When a
device with rechargeable batteries charges itself while still in use or at rest, without requiring
a power cord or battery replacement. This mode is for a mobile device that may be used
both in and out of range of its WPT power source.

Consumer Electronics

Automatic wireless charging of mobile electronics (phones, laptops, game controllers,

etc.) in home, car, office, We If hotspots, while devices are in use and mobile.
Direct wireless powering of stationary devices (flat screen TV‘s, digital picture frames,
home theater accessories, wireless loud speakers, etc.) eliminating expensive custom
wiring, unsightly cables and wall wart power supplies.
Direct wireless powering of desktop PC peripherals: wireless mouse, keyboard, printer,
speakers, display, etc… eliminating disposable batteries and awkward cabling.

6.2: Industrial

Direct wireless power and communication interconnections across rotating and moving
joints (robots, packaging machinery, assembly machinery, machine tools) … eliminating
costly and failure prone wiring. Direct wireless power and communication interconnections
at points of use in harsh environments (drilling, mining, underwater, etc.) … where it is
impractical or impossible to run wires.

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Wireless sensors and actuators, eliminating the need for expensive power wiring or battery
replacement and disposal.

6.3: Transportation

Automatic wireless charging for existing electric vehicle classes: golf carts, industrial
vehicles. Automatic wireless charging for future hybrid and all electric passenger and
commercial vehicles, at home, in parking garages, at fleet depots, and at remote kiosks.
Direct wireless power interconnections to replace costly vehicle wiring harnesses and slip
rings.

Other Applications

a) Direct wireless power interconnections and automatic wireless charging for

implantable medical devices (ventricular assist devices, pacemaker, defibrillator,
etc.).
b) Automatic wireless charging and for high tech military systems (battery powered
mobile devices, covert sensors, unmanned mobile robots and aircraft, etc.).
c) Direct wireless powering and automatic wireless charging of smart cards.

Advantages and Disadvantages

There are so many advantages with this WPT concept, some of those are:

d) Unaffected by the day night cycle, weather or seasons.

e) This is an ecofriendly.
f) It is a boon for the devices which use midrange power.
g) At places where economic competition is not the prime consideration, it can be an
option. Wireless power transmission can supply power to places that are difficult to
reach. Especially small communities in rural areas could be supplied with power
using WPT.
h) First of all the wireless electrical transmission of data removes the need for physical
infrastructure like grids and towers. In this way the cost associated with deploying
towers and cables can be saved.

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 i) During the rains and after natural disasters it is often hard to manage the cables and
towers .by using WPT technology this problem can be eliminated.
j) The transmission and distribution loss associated with traditional electricity grids
can be overcome.
k) Today two words are ruling the world “efficiency” and “speed”. These two words
have become the base for the development in the technology.
l) The electricity generation using microwaves is more environments friendly.
Moreover it does not involve any emission of carbon gases.
m) The monthly electricity bills using conventional electricity supply can be cut to very
low.
n) Use of battery for charging electrical and electronics devices can totally be
eliminated.

Some of the disadvantages are as follows:

1. High capital cost for practical implementation of wireless power transmission.
2. Another potential disadvantage is the interference of the microwaves with the
present wireless communication system.
3. The effect of microwave radiations at high doses received is not suitable to human
health.

Safety and Future Scope

Is WPT Technology Safe?
WPT technology is a non radioactive mode of energy transfer, relying instead on the
magnetic near field. Magnetic fields interact very weakly with biologic a l organism’s people
and animals and are scientifically regarded to be safe. Professor Sir John Penury of
Imperial College London, a world renowned physicist, explains:

The body really responds strongly to electric fields, which is why you can cook
a chicken in a microwave. But it doesn't respond to magnetic fields. As far as we know the
body has almost zero response to magnetic fields in terms of the amount of power it
absorbs." Evidence of the safety of magnetic fields is illustrated by the widespread
acceptance and safety of household magnetic induction cook tops. Through proprietary
design of the WPT source, electric fields are almost completely contained within the source.

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Risk to people or animals. Limits for human exposure to magnetic fields are set by
regulatory bodies such as the FCC, ICNIRP, and are based on broad scientific and
medical consensus.

Future Scope of WPT

MIT's WPT is only 40 to 45% efficient and according to Solace, they have to be twice as
efficient to compete with the traditional chemical batteries. The team's next aim is to get a
robotic vacuum or a laptop working, charging devices placed anywhere in the room and
even robots on factory floors. The researchers are also currently working on the health
issues related to this concept and have said that in another three to five years’ time, they will
come up with a WPT system for commercial use.
WPT, if successful will definitely change the way we live. Imagine cell phones,
laptops, digital camera's getting self-charged! Wow! Let's hope the researchers will be able
to come up with the commercial system soon. Till then, we wait in anticipation! Human
beings or other objects placed between the transmitter and receiver do not hinder the
transmission of power. However, does magnetic coupling or resonance coupling have any
harmful effects on humans? MIT's researchers are quite confident that WPT's 'coupling
resonance' is safe for humans. They say that the magnetic fields tend to interact very
weakly with the biological tissues of the body, and so are not prone to cause any damage to
any living beings.

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 CONCLUSION

Today we do live in the “wireless age”, in which the air that we breathe probably contains
more information than oxygen. However, this is also an age where mobile phones, MP3
players, laptop computers and domestic robots exist alongside old-fashioned power
wires and bulky batteries. Unlike information, electrical energy is still physically confined
to these borderline anachronistic appliances. Overcoming these last obstacles would
finally make this a truly wireless world.

Transfer of power via microwaves has long been the focus of study and
experimentation. In the early 1900s, Nikola Tesla experimented with transmission of
power wirelessly, through microwaves. His work, however, was largely left
unimplemented, as his experiments were vastly ahead of their time and the technology did
not yet exist to make WPT via microwaves feasible. Advances in wireless technologies
since Tesla, however, have made possible that which was not in the early 20th century.
Described in this section are the details of those technologies behind MPT as a mechanism
for WPT.

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 REFERENCES

1. Tesla, N. “Apparatus for transmitting electrical energy.” U.S. patent number

1,119,732, issued in December 1914.
2. Ka-Lai, L., Hay, J. W. and Beard, P. G. W. “Contact-less power transfer.” U.S.
patent number 7,042,196, issued in May 2006. (Splash Power Ltd.,
www.splashpower.com)
3. Hirai, J., Kim, T.-W. And Kawamura, A. “Wireless transmission of power and
information and information for cable less linear motor drive.” IEEE Trans. on
power electronics 15, 21 (2000).
4. G. Landis and R. Cull , “Integrated Solar Power Satellites: An Approach to Low-
Mass Space Power, “Space Power, Vol. 11, No. 3–4, 303–218 (1992);
presented at SPS-91: Power From Space, Aug. 27–30, 1991, Paris France, pp.
225–232
5. www.WPT.com
6. http://www.cse.wustl.edu/~jain/cse574-14/ftp/power.pdf }
7. Electricity Flow Chart 1999, which contains US DOE/EIA data, updating the
Toby Grosz article in this book.)
8. http://ijtir.hctl.org/vol8/IJTIR_Article_201403012.pdf
9. http://www.seminarreports.in/2014/09/wireless-electricity-or-witricity.html
10. http://www.collegelib.com/t-witricity-wireless-electricity-seminar-abstract-
report.html

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