Force system in orthogonal cutting

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

D Different types of forces in turning

D Merchant’s circle diagram
D Velocity relationship in metal cutting
D Measurement of cutting forces.
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CUTTING FORCES IN METAL CUTTING.

We need to determine the cutting forces in turning for

D Estimation of cutting power consumption, which also enables selection of the

power source(s) during design of the machine tools
D Structural design of the machine – fixture – tool system
D Evaluation of role of the various machining parameters ( tool material and
geometry, environment – cutting fluid) on cutting forces
D Study of behaviour and machinability characterisation of the work materials
D Condition monitoring of the cutting tools and machine tools.

Fig.1: Cutting forces in a turning operation.

Compiled by: Jagadeesha T, Assistant Professor, MED, National Institute of Technology, Calicut
In orthogonal cutting, the resultant force R applied to
the chip by tool lies in a plane normal to the tool
cutting edge. This force is usually determined in
experimental work, from the measurement of two
orthogonal components: one in direction of cutting
(known as cutting force FC), the other normal to the
direction of cutting (known as thrust force Ft).
Figure 1 shows all components of forces in turning
operation.

Significance of FC FD Ft

FC: called the main or major component as it is the largest in magnitude. It is also called
power component as it being acting along and being multiplied by VC decides cutting
power (FC.VC) consumption.

FD: may not be that large in magnitude but is responsible for causing dimensional
inaccuracy and vibration.

Ft : It, even if larger than FD is least harmful and hence least significant.

PLOWING FORCE AND SIZE EFFECT.

The resultant too force in metal cutting is distributed over the areas of the tool that
contact the chip and workpiece. No cutting tool is perfectly sharp, and in the idealized
picture as shown in Figure 2 the cutting edge is represented by a cylindrical surface
joining the tool flank and tool face.

Fig.2: Plowing force and contact regions on a cutting tool.

Compiled by: Jagadeesha T, Assistant Professor, MED, National Institute of Technology, Calicut
Observation in past have shown that the radius of this edge varies from 0.005 to
0.03mm for a freshly ground high speed steel tool (HSS). As the tool edge “ plows” its
way through the work material, the force that acts on the tool cutting edge forms only a
small proportion of the cutting force at large values of the undeformed chip thickness hc.
At the small values of hc, however, the force that acts on the tool edge is proportionately
large and cannot be neglected.

Because of high stresses acting near the cutting edge, deformation of the tool material
may occur in this region. This deformation would cause contact between the tool and
new workpiece surface over a small area of the tool flank. Thus, when sharp cutting
tools are used, a frictional force may act in the tool-flank region, this force again forming
a small proportion of the cutting force at high feeds.

Neither the force acting on the tool edge nor the force that may act on the tool flank
contributes to removal of chip and these forces will be referred to collectively as plowing
force. Fp

The existence of the plowing force results in certain important effects and can explain
the so called size effect. This term refers to the increase in specific cutting energy
(energy required to remove a unit volume of metal) at low values of undeformed chip
thickness. For example in Figure 3, the mean specific cutting energy is plotted against
undeformed chip thickness for a slab milling operation. At the relatively small values of
chip thickness occurring in this process, the specific cutting energy ec increases rapidly
with decreasing chip thickness.

Fig.3: Effect of maximum undeformed chip thickness on specific cutting energy

during slab milling, where the material is steel.

Compiled by: Jagadeesha T, Assistant Professor, MED, National Institute of Technology, Calicut
It is thought that the plowing force is constant and therefore becomes a greater
proportion of the total cutting force as the chip thickness decreases. When the total
cutting force is divided by undeformed chip thickness cross sectional are to give ec ,the
portion of ec contributing to chip removal will remain constant , and portion resulting
from plowing force Fp will increases as the chip thickness decreases explains why those
processes such as grinding ( as shown in figure 4) that produces very thin chips require
greater power to remove a given volume of metal.

Fig.4: Approximate values of the specific cutting energy for various material and
operations.

MERCHANT’S CIRCLE DIAGRAM AND ITS USE

In orthogonal cutting when the chip flows along the orthogonal plane, πO, the cutting
force (resultant) and its components FC and FCN remain in the orthogonal plane. Fig. 5
is schematically showing the forces acting on a piece of continuous chip coming out
from the shear zone at a constant speed. That chip is apparently in a state of
equilibrium.

Compiled by: Jagadeesha T, Assistant Professor, MED, National Institute of Technology, Calicut
 Fig.4: Various forces acting on work and tool.

The forces in the chip segment are :

D From work side
FSh- shear force
FshN- Force normal to the shear force
Where Fsh + FshN = R

D From tool side

R’=R ( equilibrium)
R= Fγ+ FγN
Where Fγ = Friction force at chip tool interface
FγN = Force normal to rake face

The circle(s) drawn taking R or R’ as diameter which contains all the force components
concerned as intercepts. The two circles with their forces are combined into one circle
having all the forces contained in that as shown by the diagram called Merchant’s Circle
Diagram (MCD) in figure 6.0.

The significance of the forces displayed in the MCD are

1. Fsh – shear force essentially required to produce or separate chip from the parent
body ( work) by shear. FshN – inherently exists along Fsh
2. Fγ- Friction force at the chip tool interface
3. Fc – main force or power component acting in the direction of cutting velocity

Compiled by: Jagadeesha T, Assistant Professor, MED, National Institute of Technology, Calicut
 Fig.6: MERCHANT’s circle Diagram with cutting forces.

The magnitude of Fsh provides the yield shear strength of the work material under the
cutting condition. The values of Fγ and the ratio of Fγ and FγN indicate interaction like
friction at the chip-tool interface. The force components FC FD Ft are generally obtained
by direct measurement. Again Fc helps in determining cutting power and specific energy
requirement. The force components are also required to design the cutting tool and the
machine tool.

Advantages of Merchant’s diagram

™ Easy, quick and reasonably accurate determination of several other forces from a
few known forces
™ Friction at chip tool interface and dynamic yield shear strength can be easily
determined
™ Equations relating the different forces can be easily derived.

Compiled by: Jagadeesha T, Assistant Professor, MED, National Institute of Technology, Calicut 6
Limitations of use of Merchant’s Circle diagram

MCD is valid only for orthogonal cutting

It is based on single shear plane theory
It gives apparent (not actual) coefficient of friction.
™ Friction at chip tool interface and dynamic yield shear strength can be easily
determined

PROCEDURE TO CONSTRUCT MERCHANT’S CIRCLE DIAGRAM

Suppose, in a simple turning under orthogonal condition given speed, feed, depth of
cut and tool geometry, the only two force components FC Ft are known by experiment
i.e., direct measurement, then how can one determine the other relevant forces and
machining characteristics easily and quickly without going into much equations and
calculations but simply constructing a circle-diagram. This can be done by taking the
following sequential steps

Determine FcN
Draw the tool and the chip in orthogonal plane with the given value of γ0 as
shown in the figure 6
Choose a suitable scale for representing FC FCN in cm.
Draw FC FCN along and normal to Vc as indicated in Figure 6
Draw the cutting force R as the resultant of FC FCN
Draw the circle taking R as diameter
Get Fγ and FγN as intercepts in the circle by extending the tool rake surface
Get the value of Fγ and FγN
For determining Fsh and FshN the value of shear angle has be evaluated
Draw the shear plane with the value of shear angle and then Fsh and FshN as
intercepts.
Get the value of apparent coefficient of friction at the chip tool interface by simple
ratio µ = Fγ / FγN
Get the friction angle δ
Determine the dynamic yield strength of work material

Shear stress = Shear force /shearing area

Shear stress is from MCD

Shear area = hc bc/ sin Ф

Compiled by: Jagadeesha T, Assistant Professor, MED, National Institute of Technology, Calicut 7