Australian Green Tea Production PDF

Production of High Quality Export Green Tea
through Integrated Management

RIRDC Publication No. 09/124
RIRDC Innovation for rural Australia

Production of High Quality
Export Green Tea through
Integrated Management
by John Golding
Paul Roach
Sophie Parks
August 2009
RIRDC Publication No 09/124

RIRDC Project No. PRJ-000501
© 2009 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.
All rights reserved.
ISBN 1 74151 923 3

ISSN 1440-6845
Production of High Quality Export Green Tea through Integrated Management

Publication No. 09/124
Project No. PRJ-000501
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Researcher Contact Details

John Golding
Gosford Horticultural Institute
NSW Department of Primary Industries
Locked Bag 26. Gosford NSW 2250
Phone: (02) 4348 1900

Fax: (02) 4348 1910
Email john.golding@dpi.nsw.gov.au
In submitting this report, the researcher has agreed to RIRDC publishing this material in its edited form.
RIRDC Contact Details

Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
Level 2, 15 National Circuit
BARTON ACT 2600
PO Box 4776
KINGSTON ACT 2604
Phone: 02 6271 4100

Fax: 02 6271 4199
Email: rirdc@rirdc.gov.au.
Web: http://www.rirdc.gov.au
Electronically published by RIRDC in August 2009

Print-on-demand by Union Offset Printing, Canberra at www.rirdc.gov.au
or phone 1300 634 313
ii
Foreword
Green tea is a potential new crop in Australia with significant economic benefits. Green tea is
produced from the leaf of Camellia sinensis var sinensis, which grows well in many parts of
Australia.
This report provides data to support the development of out-of-season export of high quality
green tea to Japan.
This project examined the integration of important pre and postharvest management factors,
such as propagation, shading, nutrition, and postharvest storage techniques to produce high
quality green tea. The project developed methods for quantifying green tea quality which were
applied to a series of pre and postharvest trials.
This report explores and assesses various establishment and production methods. The research
showed that high quality green tea could be produced on the NSW Central Coast. A major
outcome of this project was the demonstration that permanent shading is not necessary to
produce high quality green tea. The temporary application of shading before harvest was
sufficient to increase leaf colour and improve final product quality.
A series of trials determined the optimal propagation methods for producing consistently high
quality green tea plants. The development of a successful technique for the storage of cuttings
allows the efficient use of propagation time, labour and limited availability of cutting material.
Insect pests and diseases were regularly monitored.
The study found no pests or diseases of economic concern to green tea grown in this location.
The establishment of an organic block within the green tea plantation at the NSW DPI
Somersby Research Station demonstrated the feasibility of organic production of high quality
green tea.
During the project, interim findings were presented at a two day Green Tea conference which
was a significant forum for both formal and informal information exchange with over 75
attendees, and was a key extension activity of the project.
Financial support for the project was provided by RIRDC and the Japanese tea company,
Kunitaro Tea and Coffee Company Ltd, which also provided technical support to the project.
NSW Department of Primary Industries and The University of Newcastle also supported this
project.
This report, an addition to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 1,800 research publications, forms
part of our new plant products R&D program, which aims to facilitate the development of new
industries based on plants or plant products that have commercial potential for Australia.
Most of RIRDC’s publications are available for viewing, downloading or purchasing online at
www.rirdc.gov.au. Purchases can also be made by phoning 1300 634 313.
Peter O’Brien
Managing Director
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
iii
Acknowledgments
This project has been a collaborative effort.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to Dr. Vong Nguyen. Vong was instrumental in the
establishment of the green tea plantation at Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara, and at the
Somersby Research Station. Vong’s passion for green tea was a tremendous drive for this
project. Without Vong’s vision, commitment and dedication, this project would not have
succeeded.
We would also especially like to thank Mr Kunitaro Nakamura for the financial and technical
support of Kunitaro Tea and Coffee Company Ltd with this project. We would also like to
express our thanks for assistance from Mr Motomi Ito, Mr Rinta Uchikawa and especially Mr
Akio Onozawa who was based on the NSW Central Coast and has given his full support to this
project.
We also acknowledge the support of NSW Department of Primary Industries for the support of
this project. A number of staff at Gosford Horticultural Institute and within NSW DPI have
significantly contributed to this project. These include:
• Ben Jarvis was fundamental to the smooth running of the green tea plantation and with
all trials.
• Marilyn Steiner and Deborah Kent for their regular pest monitoring and reporting of the
green tea block.
• Len Tesoriero and his plant pathology team for the green tea disease monitoring and
diagnosis work, especially Fiona Lidbetter, Leanne Forsyth and Aida Ghalayini.
• Tony Somers for his contribution to the practical establishment, growing and extension
of the project.
• Joe Ekman for his contribution to the certification and organics section.
• Jonathan Lidbetter for his support at Somersby and contributions to the final report.
• The maintenance and support for the green tea plantation at Somersby Research Station
was assisted by the farm staff with Roy Ward, David Halliday, Wayne Pitt and Matt
Pearse.
• We also thank and acknowledge the support of David Hall (Director Gosford
Horticultural Institute) in supporting the green tea project.
A general thanks and acknowledgement to all the staff at Gosford Horticultural Institute who
assisted and supported this project, particularly during the organising and running of the Green
Tea Conference in July 2006. We also thank Dr. Shashi Satyan and Sarah Johnstone for their
help.
Special thanks also go to Paradise Plants Wholesale Nursery and John Robb (Nursery Manager)
who has been instrumental in the propagation and establishment sections of this project, and
with general assistance and knowledge of green tea.
Dr Paul Roach at the School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcastle
Ourimbah Campus would like to thank and acknowledge the invaluable assistance and
contributions of the University of Newcastle students: Nenad Naumovski, Bich Nhu Le, Dung
Dang Nguyen, Van Quan Vuong and James Krahe. In addition, we acknowledge the assistance
of exchange students, Cecil Dubus and Serena Saint-Cerin from Montpellier University, France.
We also acknowledge the support of the Australian Green Tea Growers Association for their
support of the project and the 2006 Green Tea Conference. In particular we would like to thank
Tony Austin and Audrey Gerber who have been very helpful, assisting the project and liaising
in Victoria.
iv
Abbreviations
A absorbance
AGTGA Australian Green Tea Growers Association Inc.
BFA Biological Farmers of Australia
BLAST basic local alignment search tool
Chl chlorophyll
DMF N,N-dimethylformamide
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
DPI Department of Primary Industries
EA environmental assurance
EC (-)-epicatechin
ECG (-)-epicatechin 3-gallate
EGC (-)-epigallocatechin
EGCG (-)-epigallocatechin 3-gallate
EMS environmental management systems
GCG gallocatechin gallate
Ho hue angle
HAL Horticulture Australia Limited
HPLC high performance liquid chromatography
HRDC Horticultural Research and Development Corporation
IPM integrated pest management
IS internal standard
ISO international organisation for standardisation
IST internal transcribed spacer
JAS Japanese agricultural standards
K potassium
N nitrogen
NIR near infrared
NGOs non-governmental organisations
NSW New South Wales
MAFF Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
MAP mono ammonium phosphate
Mo super molybdenum superphosphate
OH&S occupational health and safety
P phosphorous
PCA-PR pimaricin and rifampicin
PCR polymerase chain reaction
PDA potato dextrose agar
PET polyethylene terephthalate
PPO polyphenol oxidase
RCB registered certifying bodies
rDNA ribosomal DNA
SD standard deviation
TC total catechins
THE theanine
THE / TC ratio of theanine / total catechins
USA United States of America
¥ Japanese yen
v
Abbreviations of Units
cm centimetre(s)
°C degree Celsius
g gram(s)
h hour(s)
ha hectare(s)
kg kilogram(s)
L litre(s)
m metre(s)
mg milligram(s)
mL millilitre(s)
mm millimetre(s)
mM millimolar
min minute(s)
nm nanometer(s)
ppm parts per million
% (v/v) percentage volume for volume
% (w/w) percentage weight for weight
s second(s)
t tonne(s)
μL microlitre(s)
μm micrometre(s)
μM micromole(s)
UV ultraviolet
vi
Contents
Foreword ............................................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgments................................................................................................................................. iv
Abbreviations......................................................................................................................................... v
Abbreviations of Units ....................................................................................................................... vi
Executive Summary ......................................................................................................................... xviii
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Aim and Objectives of the Project................................................................................................. 7
2. Propagation........................................................................................................................................ 8
2.1 Background ................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Media Composition ....................................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Pot / Tray Type............................................................................................................................ 10
2.4 Assessment of Cell Tray Types................................................................................................... 11
2.5 Assessment of Alternative Pot Types.......................................................................................... 12
2.6 Post-harvest Storage of Green Tea Propagation Material ........................................................... 13
2.7 Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 22
3. Establishment .................................................................................................................................. 23
3.1. Bed Formation............................................................................................................................ 23
3.2 Planting Configuration ................................................................................................................ 24
3.3 Planting........................................................................................................................................ 26
3.4 New Varieties Demonstration ..................................................................................................... 31
3.5 Weeds .......................................................................................................................................... 32
4. Assessment of Green Tea Quality .................................................................................................. 42
4.1 Background ................................................................................................................................. 42
4.2 Chemical Constituents of Green Tea........................................................................................... 43
4.3 Near Infrared (NIR) Analysis...................................................................................................... 46
4.4 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) .................................................................. 48
4.5 Effect of Sample Preparation on Chemical Constituents ............................................................ 52
4.6 Other Quality Parameters ............................................................................................................ 53
4.7 Within Plant Variability .............................................................................................................. 56
5. Agronomy......................................................................................................................................... 58
5.1 Shading........................................................................................................................................ 58
5.2 Nutrition .................................................................................................................................... 105
5.3 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 118
6. IPM, Certification and Organics ................................................................................................. 122
6.1 Pest Monitoring and Management ............................................................................................ 122
6.2 Green Tea Diseases and Pathogenesis....................................................................................... 128
6.3 Green Tea Certification and Organics....................................................................................... 139
6.4 Organic Block at Somersby Research Station........................................................................... 147
vii
7. Post-harvest.................................................................................................................................... 149
7.1 Background ............................................................................................................................... 149
7.2 Preliminary Demonstration for Need of Adequate Post-harvest of Green Tea Shoots
and Leaves................................................................................................................................. 151
7.3 Storage Time and Temperature on Leaf Quality - Small Scale Trials ...................................... 154
7.4 Determination of Cooling Rates................................................................................................ 160
7.5 Effect of Storage Time and Temperature in Delaying Processing on Green Tea Quality –
Larger Laboratory Trials ........................................................................................................... 163
7.6 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 169
8. Communication ............................................................................................................................. 171
8.1 Local Industry Days on the NSW Central Coast....................................................................... 171
8.2 Visit to Ovens Valley and Wangaratta (Victoria) ..................................................................... 172
8.3 2006 Australian Green Tea Conference .................................................................................... 173
9. Discussion....................................................................................................................................... 178
10. Implications.................................................................................................................................. 181
11. Recommendations ....................................................................................................................... 182
Extension and Industry Development ............................................................................................. 182
Research and Development ............................................................................................................. 182
Appendix 1 Proceedings of the 2006 Australian Green Tea Conference ..................................... 185
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 185
The Green Tea Industry in NSW..................................................................................................... 187
Kunitaro Aims for Green Tea Development in NSW ..................................................................... 193
Green Tea Research in Victoria ...................................................................................................... 195
Research and Development with Green Tea in the Manjimup Area of Western Australia............. 199
The Tasmanian Green Tea Industry, 1990-2006............................................................................. 206
The Australian Growers Guide: Japanese Green Tea...................................................................... 210
The Production and Consumption of Green Tea in Vietnam .......................................................... 212
RIRDC Project: Production of High Quality Export Green Tea through Integrated Management. 216
Appendix 2 Common Green Tea Weeds ......................................................................................... 227
Appendix 3 Examples of Pest and Disease Reports from Somersby Research
Station, NSW DPI (2004-2007)......................................................................................................... 233
Green Tea Monitoring Report for Somersby Planting Block.......................................................... 233
Green Tea Pest and Disease Monitoring ......................................................................................... 235
Report – December 2006................................................................................................................. 235
Appendix 4 List of Diseases of Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze)........................................ 236
Appendix 5 Japanese Agricultural Standard for Organic Plants................................................. 240
13. References .................................................................................................................................... 248
viii
List of Tables
Table 1.1 World tea production (2005) 1
Table 1.2 World tea importers (2005) 2
Table 1.3 Summary of physiological functions of the components of Japanese style green tea 4
Table 1.4 Comparison of incident solar radiation in Gosford (NSW) with Shizuoka (Japan) 6
Table 2.1 General observations of different potting media performance 9
Table 2.2 General observation of the pot type on suitability for green tea propagation use 10
Table 2.3 General observations of shoot quality in storage at 0, 5, 10 and 20oC during six weeks
storage 14
Table 2.4 Percentage of surviving green tea plants after ten weeks growing in propagation media
after the shoots had been stored for 1, 2, 4 and 6 weeks at 0, 5, 10 and 20oC 15
Table 2.5 Effect of different postharvest packaging materials on the probable potential for striking
of Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green tea shoots stored at 0oC for eight and 17 weeks 19
Table 3.1 Total number of green tea plants per hectare with 1.8m row spacings 24
Table 3.2 Amount of nitrogen fixed per year under varying conditions 37
Table 3.3 Groundcovers for spring / summer (October to January) planting 40
Table 3.4 Groundcovers for autumn / winter (March to June planting) 40
Table 4.1 The content of caffeine, catechins and theanine in Japanese green teas with increasing
price 46
Table 4.2 NIR quality measures and their target levels for high quality Japanese green tea 47
Table 4.3 Comparison of hue angle as measured with the Minolta CR-400 Chroma meter and the
chlorophyll content (μg.cm-2) 55
Table 5.1 Effect of different shade cloth applied six days before harvest on the content of caffeine,
catechins and theanine of first harvest Yabukita (top) and Sayamakaroi (bottom) green
tea at the Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara. (14 October 2004) 60
Table 5.2 Effect of delaying shading application before harvest on the content of caffeine, catechins
and theanine of first harvest Yabukita green tea from Somersby Research Station.
Combined data (all shoot sections) (13 October 2004) 62
Table 5.3 Effect of leaf position in the Yabukita green tea shoot on the content of caffeine,
catechins and theanine of first harvest Yabukita plants grown in the full sun at Gosford
Horticultural Institute, Narara (13 October 2004) 67
Table 5.4 Effect of leaf position in the Sayamakaroi green tea shoot on the content of caffeine,
catechins and theanine of first harvest Sayamakaroi plants grown in the full sun at
Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara (13 October 2004) 67
Table 5.5 Amino acid content of different leaves on the growing shoot in first harvest green tea
(from Kimura, 2006) 67
Table 5.6 Effect of different shade cloth applied six days before harvest on the unprocessed content
of caffeine, catechins and theanine of second harvest Yabukita green tea at the Gosford
Horticultural Institute, Narara. (29 November 2004) 70
Table 5.7 Effect of different shade cloth applied six days before harvest on the unprocessed content
of caffeine, catechins and theanine of second harvest Sayamakaroi green tea at the
Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara. (29 November 2004) 71
Table 5.8 Effect of different shade cloth applied six days before harvest on the content of caffeine,
catechins and theanine of second harvest Yabukita (top) and Sayamakaroi (bottom) green
tea at the Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara. (29 November 2004) 71
Table 5.9 Effect of delays in shading application before harvest on the content of caffeine,
catechins and theanine of second harvest Yabukita green tea from Somersby Research
Station (30 November 2004) 73
Table 5.10 Effect of shade application ten days before harvest on the content of caffeine, catechins
and theanine of third harvest Yabukita green tea from Somersby Research Station (24
January 2005) 74
and theanine of third harvest Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green tea from Gosford
Horticultural Institute, Narara. (24 January 2005) 75
Table 5.12 Effect of shade application five days before harvest on the content of caffeine, catechins
and theanine of fourth harvest Yabukita green tea from Somersby Research Station (28
March 2005) 76
ix
and theanine of fourth harvest Yabukita (top) and Sayamakaroi (bottom) green tea from
Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara (28 March 2005) 77
Table 5.14 Maximum temp. (oC) recorded of green tea leaves within one single layer of 60% shade
cloth applied 9 and 16 days before harvest with no shade cloth (control) in October 2006 83
Table 5.15 Maximum temp. (oC) recorded of green tea leaves within one single layer of 60% shade
cloth, two layers of 60% shade cloth, and with no shade cloth (control) in October 2006 86
Table 5.16 Minimum temp. (oC) recorded of green tea leaves within one single layer of 60% shade
cloth, two layers of 60% shade cloth, and with no shade cloth (control) in October 2006 86
Table 5.17 The effect of different levels of shading on the content of caffeine, catechins and theanine
of Yabukita green tea rows from Somersby Research Station (October 2006) 87
Table 5.18 The effect of different levels of shading on the content of caffeine, catechins and theanine
of Yabukita green tea rows from 2006 second harvest (November 2006) 90
Table 5.19 AF Scores of Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green tea grown with no shade at Somersby
Research Station during 2006/7 99
Table 5.20 Average daily maximum temperatures in the canopy of green tea shoots with different
shading treatments at NSW DPI Narara (September / October 2006) 103
Table 5.21 Subjective assessments of leaf / shoot blackening after 14 days of different shade cloth
treatments at NSW DPI Narara (October 2006) 104
Table 5.22 Subjective assessments of new Yabukita leaf / shoot blackening after 14 days of different
shade cloth treatments at Somersby (October 2006) 105
Table 5.23 Fertiliser and shade treatments applied to green tea plots at Somersby Research Station
(2005) 107
Table 5.24 Approximate amounts of nitrate, ammonium and phosphorus applied in treatments to
individual plants 107
Table 5.25 Effect of fertiliser amendments on some soil nutrient concentrations for Plot 1 at harvest 108
Table 5.28 Effect of fertiliser amendments on macronutrient concentrations of harvested green tea
leaves in Plot 2 109
Table 5.29 Effect of fertiliser amendments on macronutrient concentrations of harvested green tea
leaves in Plot 3 109
Table 5.30 Effect of shading on the macronutrient concentrations of harvested green tea leaves in
Plot 1 109
Table 5.31 Quality characteristics of leaves from mature plants with different fertiliser treatments
(Plot 1) 111
Table 5.32 Effect of fertiliser and shade on green tea constituents of mature Yabukita green tea
plants at Somersby, Plot 1 (2005) 112
Table 5.33 Effect of fertiliser and red shade on immature green tea plant constituents Yabukita green
tea plants, Somersby, Plot 2 (2005) 113
Table 5.34 Total catechins in Yabukita green tea leaves from mature plants with different fertiliser
treatments (Plot 1) 114
Table 5.35 Quality characteristics of leaves from immature plants with different fertiliser treatments
(Plot 2) 114
Table 6.1 Insect pests recorded at the NSW DPI Somersby Research Station green tea plantation
(2004 - 2007) 124
Table 6.2 Generalist predators observed at the Somersby Research Station (2004-2007) 125
Table 6.3 Effect of the application of Eco-Oil® 3 and 7 days before harvest on the content of
caffeine, catechins and theanine of first harvest Yabukita green tea from Somersby
Research Station (October 2006) 128
Table 6.4 Results of basic local alignment search tool (BLAST) analyses of sequenced ITS regions
for selected isolates 131
Table 6.5 Average number of deaths of Sayamakaroi tea cuttings over an 11 week period138
Table 7.1 Effect of storage time and temperature on visual green tea leaf quality 152
Table 7.2 Effect of sealing and the addition of 150 L.L-1 ethylene on SPAD Minolta values on
Yabukita green tea shoot at 20oC for 3 days 158
Table 7.3 Effect delaying processing after harvest (24 and 48 hours after harvest) at 3oC storage on
the content of caffeine, catechins and theanine of first harvest Yabukita green tea from
Somersby Research Station (7 October 2006) 164
x
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Planted area and production of Japanese tea (1883 - 2003) 2
Figure 1.2 Volume (t) of green tea imported into Australia (2000- 2005) 5
Figure 1.3 Value ($ million) of green tea imported into Australia (2000- 2005) 5
Figure 2.1 Comparison of the pot / tray types: Shallow tubes with peat based media and individual
deep tubes with sand based media. 10
Figure 2.2 Different types of cell trays evaluated: Black (left), Silver (middle) and Copper coated
(right) propagation cell trays 11
Figure 2.3 Compressed peat pot / tray trialled as an alternative to standard plastic trays 12
Figure 2.4 Jiffy pots (5 rows x 10 cells) trialled as an alternative to standard plastic trays 12
Figure 2.5 Preparation of green tea cuttings for propagation. Dip in commercial copper solution (top
left), dip in rooting hormone (bottom left) and plant in potting media (bottom right) 13
Figure 2.6 Storage of green tea shoots for four weeks at 5, 10 and 20oC. Shoots were wrapped in
damp newspaper and enclosed in a plastic bag and placed in coolrooms at Gosford
Horticultural Institute, Narara 14
Figure 2.7 Cuttings stored at 0oC (top left), 5oC (top right), 10oC (bottom left) and 20oC (bottom
right) for two weeks 15
Figure 2.8 Healthy young green tea plants ten weeks after propagation 15
Figure 2.9 Preparation of Sayamakaroi green tea cuttings from long term storage at 0oC 16
Figure 2.10 Sayamakaroi green tea cuttings before storage (top left) and after storage at 0oC for six
(top right), twelve (bottom left) and eighteen weeks (bottom right) 16
Figure 2.11 Preparation of green tea shoots for packaging storage trial. Green tea shoots were bundled
(top left) and either wrapped in Hessian material (top right), remained loose (bottom left),
or wrapped in a plastic bag (bottom right) (June 2007) 17
Figure 2.12 Storage of green tea shoots at 0oC (left) followed by assessments after 8 and 17 weeks
(right) 18
Figure 2.13 Assessment of green tea shoots stored in newspaper (left) or plastic bags (right) after 17
weeks at 0oC 19
Figure 2.14 Effect of different postharvest packaging material on the disease score of Yabukita green
tea shoots stored at 0oC for eight and 17 weeks. Each treatment was replicated four times
and the error bars are standard deviations around the mean. (August 2007) 20
Figure 2.15 Effect of different postharvest packaging material on the ‘freshness’ score of Yabukita
green tea shoots stored at 0oC for eight and 17 weeks. Each treatment was replicated four
times and the error bars are standard deviations around the mean. (August 2007) 20
Figure 2.16 Effect of different postharvest packaging material on the disease score of Sayamakaroi
green tea shoots stored at 0oC for eight and 17 weeks. Each treatment was replicated four
times and the error bars are standard deviations around the mean. (August 2007) 21
Figure 2.17 Effect of different postharvest packaging material on the ‘freshness’ score of
Sayamakaroi green tea shoots stored at 0oC for eight and 17 weeks. Each treatment was
replicated four times and the error bars are standard deviations around the mean. (August
2007) 21
Figure 3.1 Trenches (30 cm deep by 50-60 cm wide) in preparation for addition of organic matter
(eg straw) and composted manures before planting 24
Figure 3.2 Single row planting configuration (left) and double row planting configuration (right) 24
Figure 3.3 A single row of Yabukita green tea per bed. Green tea plants 30-50 cm between plants
within a row, and 1.8m between rows 25
Figure 3.4 Two rows of Yabukita green tea per bed 25
Figure 3.5 Different mechanical methods of planting green tea. Motorised self propelled planter
(left) and modified tractor pulled green tea planter (right) 27
Figure 3.6 Establishment of drip irrigation in a new green tea plantation (left) and sub-main (right)
in established plantation 28
Figure 3.7 Symptoms of severe heat / water stress on green tea at Somersby Research Station, NSW
DPI (January 2007) 29
Figure 3.8 A field guide for the management of green tea on the NSW Central Coast was prepared
and adapted from JA Shizuoka Keizaren nishibu somu jimusho (2006) 30
Figure 3.9 New variety evaluation at Somersby Research Station established in 2006 (left) 31
Figure 3.10 Trial green tea varieties at Somersby Research Station, NSW DPI (March 2008) 31
xi
Figure 3.11 Physical control of weeds. Weed control using a self driven rotary hoe in the organic
block at Somersby Research Station 32
Figure 3.12 Selective hand weeding is expensive and time consuming (left). However, hand weeding
is required where post-emergent herbicides cannot be used, as the weeds can often
become embedded within the green tea plants (right) 33
Figure 3.13 Emerging weeds within one week of planting of green tea seedlings. Plastic mulch (right)
helps suppress weeds, but openings in the plastic sheeting allows weeds to grow through 34
Figure 3.14 The use straw mulch during the early stages of establishment and in established green tea
plantations 34
Figure 3.15 Application of graded pine bark mulch using a mechanical spreader 35
Figure 3.16 Application of bark mulch as continuous row in the middle of green tea row 35
Figure 3.17 Application of bark mulch to each individual green tea plant. This is time consuming and
weeds will emerge from between plants (left) 35
Figure 3.18 Effective weed control along edge of green tea bed using post-emergent herbicide.
Herbicide was not applied to the edges of the middle row and note the encroachment of
weeds 36
Figure 3.19 Establishment of green tea with a sorghum cover crop between the green tea rows. The
cover crop provides shelter for the growing green tea 38
Figure 3.20 Sorghum cover crop in an established green tea plantation. This provides shelter and
valuable organic matter when mulched. Sorghum and vetch cover crop (left). The
sorghum provides a trellis for the growing vetch which also fixes atmospheric nitrogen 38
Figure 3.21 Somersby Research Station, NSW DPI Yabukita green tea which were planted in 1999.
Photo on left was taken in 2003; photo on middle was taken in 2006. Single weeds
between rows are easily removed by hand (left) 41
Figure 3.22 Mature green tea canopy excluding light between rows (left), and thick green tea mulch
between rows (right) helps suppress weeds 41
Figure 4.1 The sensory aspect of tea quality is an important determinant of the final price of green
tea. Green tea is constantly tasted throughout the production, processing and marketing
chain 42
Figure 4.2 Sensory assessment of green tea grown and produced at Somersby Research Station,
NSW DPI (November 2006) 43
Figure 4.3 Chemical structures of major green tea catechins 44
Figure 4.4 Chemical structures of methylxanthines 44
Figure 4.5 Chemical structure of L-theanine 45
Figure 4.6 A comparison of the theanine to total catechin ratio in Japanese green teas purchased in
Kyoto Japan, in order of increasing quality and price 45
Figure 4.7 Preparation sample for NIR analysis in Kunitaro quality analysis laboratory 47
Figure 4.8 Chromatogram of a standard solution of 250 μM L- tryptophan (IS), 1 mM L-theanine, 1
mM caffeine, EGC, 0.25 mM EC, 0.25 mM, 1 mM EGCG, 1 mM GCG and 0.25 mM
ECG detected at UV (A) 280 nm and (B) 210 nm 50
Figure 4.9 Chromatogram of a typical green tea sample detected at UV (A) 280 nm and (B) 210 nm 51
Figure 4.10 Comparison of the content of (A) EGC, (B) EC, (C) EGCG and (D) ECG in freshly-
frozen, and dried by microwave, green tea leaf samples grown at Somersby Research
Station and Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara and those of the corresponding
traditionally processed teas (Made Green Teas) 52
Figure 4.11 Comparison of the content of (A) theanine, (B) caffeine, (C) total catechin and (D) the
theanine to total catechin ratio in freshly-frozen, and dried by microwave, green tea leaf
samples grown at Somersby Research Station and Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara
and those of the corresponding traditionally processed teas (Made Green Teas) 53
Figure 4.12 Relationship between Minolta SPAD index and the chlorophyll content of freshly
harvested new season Yabukita green tea leaves. (n = 71) 55
Figure 4.13 Relationship between SPAD Index and green tea leaf total N in freshly harvested new
season Yabukita green tea leaves 56
Figure 4.14 Minolta SPAD measurements on the first fully emerged leaves from twenty individual
shoots from a single Sayamakaroi plant grown under 60% shade at Somersby Research
Station. The average (54.5 units) is highlighted on the right (October 2004) 56
Figure 4.15 Variability in Minolta SPAD measurements between twenty shoots from a single
Yabukita plant at Somersby Research Station on 20 October 2004 57
Figure 5.1 Overhead hail netting (shade cloth) at the NSW DPI Somersby Research Station (2004) 58
xii
Figure 5.2 Application of 60% and 90% shade cloth on Yabukita and Sayamakaori green tea plants
at Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara (October 2004) 59
Figure 5.3 Harvest of individual green tea plants at Gosford Horticultural Institute, NSW DPI 59
Figure 5.4 Minolta SPAD measurements on emerged leaves of Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green tea
shoots at the first fully emerged leaf grown under full sun, 60% or 90% shade at the
Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara. Five shoots from each of the 9 replicates
(individual plants) were recorded. Error bars are standard deviations around the mean.
(October 2004) 59
Figure 5.5 Shade cloth (90%) was applied 5 and 15 days before harvest on Yabukita green tea plants
at the Somersby Research Station (October 2004) 61
Figure 5.6 Different shoot sections for analysis within a single green tea shoot. Section 1 is the
emerging tip and first leaf. Section 2 is the first fully emerged leaf. Section 3 is the
second leaf and Section 4 is the third fully emerged leaf 61
Figure 5.7 Effect of timing of shading on the Minolta SPAD measurements on emerged leaves of
Yabukita green tea shoots at different maturities at Somersby Research Station 62
Figure 5.8 NIR quality analysis of first harvest green tea made from Yabukita green tea at Somersby
Research Station (October 2004). Plants were either (a) not shaded prior to harvest or
shaded (b) 5 days before harvest, or (c) 15 days before harvest 63
Figure 5.9 NIR quality analysis of first harvest green tea made from Sayamakaroi green tea at
Somersby Research Station (October 2004). Plants were either (a) not shaded prior to
harvest or shaded (b) 5 days before harvest, or (c) 15 days before harvest 64
Figure 5.10 Three (left), four (middle) and five (right) leaf stages of Sayamakaroi green tea shoots for
measurement 65
Figure 5.11 Effect of shoot ‘maturity’ on Minolta SPAD measurements on emerged Sayamakaroi
leaves on shoots at different growth stages grown at Narara (full sun) 65
Figure 5.12 Minolta SPAD measurements on emerged leaves of Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green tea
shoots of different growth stages grown at the Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara in
the full sun 66
Figure 5.13 Application of foliar nitrogen (left) spray to drip (right) 68
Figure 5.14 Effect of foliar nitrogen application on Minolta SPAD measurements on emerged leaves
of Yabukita green tea shoots of different growth stages 68
Figure 5.15 Comparison of 60% and 90% shade cloth used at Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara.
November 2004 69
Figure 5.16 Effect of the type of shading on Minolta SPAD measurements on first emerged leaf of
Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green plants grown at Narara. Five replicates of three shoots
each replicate were sampled for Yabukita, and 9 replicates of 3 shoots each for
Sayamakaroi 69
Figure 5.17 Comparison growth of Sayamakaroi green tea plants following application of 60% (left)
and 90% (right) shade cloth 6 days before harvest at Gosford Horticultural Institute,
Narara in November 2004 70
Figure 5.18 Shade cloth (90%) applied at different times before harvest over Yabukita green tea
plants at Somersby Research Station (November 2004) 72
Figure 5.19 Effect of delaying application of shade cloth on Minolta SPAD measurements on first
emerged leaf of Yabukita green plants grown at Somersby Research Station. 6 replicates
of 3 shoots each replicate were sampled. Error bars are standard deviations around the
mean. (30 November 2004) 72
Figure 5.20 Effect of shade cloth on Minolta SPAD measurements on first emerged leaf of Yabukita
green plants grown at Somersby Research Station. Shade cloth was applied ten days
before harvest 73
Figure 5.21 Effect of shade cloth on Minolta SPAD measurements on first emerged leaf of
Sayamakaroi and Yabukita green plants grown at Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara.
8 replicates (individual plants) of Sayamakaroi and 4 replicates (individual plants) of
Yabukita each composed of a 5 shoot sample 74
Figure 5.22 Effect of shade cloth on Minolta SPAD measurements on first emerged leaf of Yabukita
green tea plants grown at Somersby Research Station 76
Sayamakaroi and Yabukita green plants grown at Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara.
8 replicates (individual plants) of Sayamakaroi and 5 replicates (individual plants) of
Yabukita each composed of a 5 shoot sample 77
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Figure 5.24 NSW DPI Somersby Research Station green tea plantation following removal of hail
netting in May 2005 78
Figure 5.25 Coloured shade cloth on Yabukita (left) and Sayamakaroi (right) plants were used at
Gosford Horticultural Institute NSW DPI (October 2005) 78
Figure 5.26 Effect of shade cloth colour on Minolta SPAD values on Yabukita and Sayamakaroi first
true green tea leaves. 60% different coloured shade cloths were applied as a single layer
14 days before the first harvest tea (2005) 79
Figure 5.27 abukita shoots under different coloured shade cloths 79
Figure 5.28 Sayamakaori shoots under different coloured shade cloths. Unshaded control (left), red
(middle) and black linen (right) 80
Figure 5.29 Silver weave shade cloth used to shade Yabukita green tea at Gosford Horticultural
Institute, NSW DPI (October 2005) 80
Figure 5.30 Layout of timing of shading experiment at Somersby Research Station (September /
October 2006). Shading was applied to nine individual plants 9 or 16 days before first
harvest. 81
Figure 5.31 Effect of timing of shading on Minolta SPAD reading on third leaf Yabukita green tea
shoots. Shade was applied 9 and 16 days before sampling at harvest (6 October 2006). 81
shoots 82
shoots 82
Figure 5.34 Leaf temperatures (oC) recorded under single layer of 90% Japanese shade cloth in two
rows (applied 9 and 16 days before harvest) and with no shade cloth83
Figure 5.36 Single layer of 60% shade cloth (September / October 2006) 85
Figure 5.37 Double layer of 60% shade cloth (September / October 2006) 85
Figure 5.38 Yabukita green tea with shade cloth pulled back before harvest showing the differences
in leaf colour between the single layer treatment row (left), unshaded control row
(middle) and double layer treatment row (right) (1 October 2006) 85
Figure 5.39 The effect of the quantity of shading on SPAD Minolta values of Yabukita green tea rows
shade with different levels of black shade cloth applied ten days before harvest (October
2006) 86
Figure 5.40 eaf temp. (oC) recorded within one single layer of 60% shade cloth, two layers of 60%
shade cloth and with no shade cloth (control) (October 2006) 87
Research Station (October 2006). Plants were (a) not shaded, (b) shaded with a single
layer of 60% shade cloth or (c) shaded with two layers of 60% shade cloth ten days prior
to harvest 88
Figure 5.42 Whole row application of different quantities of shade cloth at Somersby Research
Station (November 2006) 89
Figure 5.43 The effect of the quantity of shading on SPAD Minolta values of Yabukita green tea rows
shade with different levels of black shade cloth (November 2006) 89
Figure 5.44 NIR quality analysis of second harvest green tea made from Yabukita green tea at
Somersby Research Station (November 2006) 91
Figure 5.45 Whole row application of shade cloth at different timings at Somersby Research Station
(November 2006) 92
Figure 5.46 The effect of the timing of application of 90% black cloth on SPAD Minolta values of
Yabukita green tea rows shaded 1, 2, 3 and 4 weeks before harvest (November 2006) 92
Figure 5.47a NIR quality analysis of second harvest green tea made from Yabukita green tea at
Figure 5.47b NIR quality analysis of second harvest green tea made from Yabukita green tea at
Figure 5.48 Whole row application of shade cloth at different timings on third harvest green tea
quality at Somersby Research Station (January 2007) 95
Figure 5.49a NIR quality analysis of third harvest green tea made from Yabukita green tea at
Somersby Research Station (January 2007) 96
Figure 5.49b NIR quality analysis of third harvest green tea made from Yabukita green tea at
Somersby Research Station (January 2007) 97
xiv
Figure 5.51 Processing freshly harvested green tea shoots at Somersby Research Station, NSW DPI
(October 2006) 99
Figure 5.52 NIR quality analysis of first (1), second (2) and third (3) harvest 2006/7 green tea made
from unshaded Yabukita (left) and Sayamakaroi (right) green tea at Somersby Research
Station (October, November 2006 and January 2007) 100
Figure 5.53 hading on green tea rows at NSW DPI Somersby (top left). Unshaded green tea shoots in
full sun (top right) 101
Figure 5.54 Severe symptoms of blackening on newly emerging green tea leaves / shoots 101
Figure 5.55a Mechanical Damage. Daily physical mechanical damage with hand broom over shade
cloth 102
Figure 5.55b Suspended Shade. Shade cloth suspended over canopy 102
Figure 5.55c Heat Treatment. Clear plastic sheet surrounding each plant with shade cloth over each
treatment plant to increase shoot temperature 102
Figure 5.55d Trial lay out. Block (replicate) design of mechanical damage experiment at Narara
(September 2006) 102
Figure 5.56 Temperature in the canopy of green tea shoots with different shading treatments at NSW
DPI Narara (September / October 2006) 103
Figure 5.57 Tight, regular and loose fitting shade cloth over individual ‘Yabukita green’ tea plants at
NSW DPI, Somersby 104
Figure 5.58 Experimental lay out of shade cloth tightness experiment at Somersby Research Station
(October 2006) 105
Figure 5.59 pplication of fertilisers to young Yabukita plants (top, bottom left) and mature Yabukita
plants used in the experiment (bottom left) (2005) 106
Figure 5.60 Effect of black shading on the new shoot growth of the first harvest in Plot 1 110
Research Station (Plot 1) (October 2005). Plants were not fertilised and subject to: (a) no
shading or (b) shading 115
Research Station (Plot 1) (October 2005). There was no shade on any fertiliser treatment.
Plants were fertilised with (a) 100 kg.ha-1 nitrate, (b) 180 kg.ha-1 nitrate, (c) 100 kg.ha-1
poultry, or (d) subject to foliar N before harvest 116
Research Station (Plot 1) (October 2005). Shade was applied to all fertiliser treatments.
Plants were fertilised with (a) 100 kg.ha-1 nitrate, (b) 180 kg.ha-1 nitrate, (c) 100 kg.ha-1
poultry, or (d) subject to foliar N before harvest 117
Figure 5.64 Effect of harvest number (time) on green tea final product quality (AF score) in unshaded
Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green tea plants at Somersby Research Station in 2006/7.
Harvest 1 (early October 2006), Harvest 2 (end November 2006), Harvest 3 (late January
2007) 118
Figure 5.65 Theanine to catechin ratio of green tea samples from Yabukita plants grown during the
2004/5 growing season at Somersby Research Station under (■) permanent hail netting or
with added shade cloth for (●) 5 days or (▲) 15 days. Harvest 1 (mid October 2004),
Harvest 2 (beginning of December 2004), Harvest 3 (end of January 2005) and Harvest 4
(mid-March 2005) 119
Figure 5.66 Theanine concentrations in green tea samples from Yabukita plants grown during the
Figure 5.67 The relationship between the theanine content and the theanine/catechin ratios for all
green tea samples from Yabukita plants grown during the 2004/5 growing season at
Somersby Research Station 120
Figure 5.68 The catechin concentration in green tea samples from Yabukita plants grown during the
xv
Figure 6.1 Green tea plantation at Somersby Research Station, NSW DPI (Location - 33 22’ 05.21’’
South, 151 18’ 12.76’’ East, Elevation 240m). Note proximity of organic citrus and
native bushland areas adjacent to the green tea plantation. (Photo: Google Earth) 122
Figure 6.2 Black citrus aphids, Toxoptera aurantii on green tea shoots (top left), detail (top right)
and adult aphid and nymphs (bottom) 123
Figure 6.3 Light brown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana) in young green tea shoots 124
Figure 6.4 Brown looper on young green tea shoot 124
Figure 6.5 Plague thrips, Thrips imaginis (top) and onion thrips, Thrips tabaci (bottom) 125
Figure 6.6 Green lacewing larva feeding on scale 125
Figure 6.8 Hover fly larva feeding on aphids on green tea leaves 126
Figure 6.9 Hippodamia variegata adult 126
Figure 6.10 Application of Eco-Oil® to Yabukita green tea at Somersby Research Station 127
Research Station (October 2006). Plants treated with Eco-Oil® 3 and 7 days before
harvest (left) and unsprayed control (right) 127
Figure 6.12 Yabukita seedling damage by rabbits during establishment. All leaves of the young green
tea plant were stripped from the trunk (left), or the leaves were cut off the stem and left
on the ground (right) 128
Figure 6.13 Collection of green tea pathogens for isolation and identification 130
Figure 6.14 Yabukita green tea plants in greenhouse at Gosford Horticultural Institute following 23
different pathogen infection treatments. Ten replicates per treatment (November 2006) 131
Figure 6.15 Yabukita green tea with fungal inoculum applied to the lower stem 132
Figure 6.16 Yabukita green tea with fungal inoculum applied to leaves 133
Figure 6.17 Disease progress (% mortality) of stem inoculated Yabukita green tea 135
Figure 6.18 Yabukita green tea wilting after stem inoculation with Colletotrichum. (left). Yabukita
green tea with dead side branch after stem inoculation with Colletotrichum isolate
06/541-1C ex. Green Tea (right) 135
Figure 6.19 Older cut leaf of Yabukita green tea inoculated with Pestalotiopsis 136
Figure 6.20 Leaf spots on Yabukita green tea cuttings associated with Colletotrichum and
Pestalotiopsis sp. infections 137
Figure 6.21 Application of fungicide with hand sprayer (left) and grow cuttings in propagation house
at Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara 138
Figure 6.22 Spraying spore suspension and preparation of green tea cuttings for storage at either 0oC
or 20oC 139
Figure 6.23 Applying JAS certification to imported products 145
Figure 6.24 Applying JAS organic certification with RCB to imported products 146
Figure 6.25 Organic block at Somersby Research Station, NSW Department of Primary Industries
(June 2006) 147
Figure 6.26 NIR quality analysis of first harvest green tea made from Yabukita green tea grown in the
organic block at Somersby Research Station (9 October 2006) 148
Figure 6.27 NIR quality analysis of first harvest green tea made from Yabukita green tea grown on an
adjacent conventionally managed block at Somersby Research Station (9 October 2006) 148
Figure 7.1 Tractor driven harvesters are used to mechanically harvest green tea shoots 149
Figure 7.2 Harvesting experimental samples by hand with mechanised cutter for processing at
Somersby Research Station, NSW DPI 150
Figure 7.3 Schematic representation of araicha (crude tea) processing from harvested shoot to
araicha production and final blended product 150
Figure 7.4 Kawasaki green tea pilot processing plant at Somersby Research Station, NSW DPI 151
Figure 7.5 Green tea shoots harvested and stored in plastic open crates stored at 0oC or 20oC 151
Figure 7.7 Measuring respiration rate of freshly harvested Yabukita green tea shoots 152
Figure 7.8 Effect of storage time (up to five weeks storage) and temperature (0oC and 20oC) on
visual green tea leaf quality 153
Figure 7.9 Browning Index of stored Yabukita shoots stored in the dark at either 10oC, 20oC, 30oC
or 40oC for up to 14 days. Error bars are standard deviations around the mean (n = 4) 154
Figure 7.10 Effect of storage temperature and time on third leaf of Yabukita shoot SPAD Minolta
values 155
Figure 7.11 Yabukita leaves after one day storage at 10oC (Left - top left), 20oC (Left - top right),
bottom left 30oC (Left bottom left) and 40oC (Left – bottom right). 155
xvi
Figure 7.12 Yabukita leaves after two days storage (Left) (30oC - left and 40oC – right); seven days
(Middle) at 10oC (top left), 20oC (top right), bottom left 30oC (bottom left) and 40oC
(bottom right) 155
Figure 7.13 Sample of Yabukita green tea shoots stored in the dark at either 0oC or 20oC 156
Figure 7.14 Browning index of stored Yabukita shoots stored in the dark at 0oC and 20oC for up to 14
days 156
Figure 7.15 Visual symptoms of green tea shoots stored in the dark at 0oC and 20oC for 14 days 157
Figure 7.16 Effect of storage temperature and time on third leaf of Yabukita shoot SPAD Minolta
values, on green tea shoots stored in the dark at 0oC and 20oC for up to 14 days. Error
bars are standard deviations around the mean (n = 4) 157
Figure 7.17 Effect of modifying the storage atmosphere (addition of ethylene and sealing storage
container) on green tea visual leaf quality immediately upon removal after three days
storage at 20oC (top) and a further six hours after removal (bottom) 159
Figure 7.18 Plastic crates used for postharvest cooling trials 160
Figure 7.19 Setup of plastic crates used for forced air cooling trails 160
Figure 7.20 Temperatures inside 5kg batches of freshly harvested Yabukita green tea shoots stored at
room temperature. Figure 7.20a (upper) shows the shoots stored in regular passive
storage at room temperature (no active cooling), whilst Figure 7.20b (lower) shows the
shoots stored with an active forced air cooling at room temperature 161
Figure 7.21 Temperatures inside 5kg volumes of freshly harvested Yabukita green tea shoots stored
in a 20oC coolroom. Figure 7.21a (top) illustrates the temperatures inside the crates of
green tea shoots were stored in regular passive storage (no active cooling). Figure 7.21b
(bottom) illustrates the temperatures inside the crates subject to active forced air cooling 162
Figure 7.22 Storage of green tea shoots at room temperature or in coolroom for 24 or 48 hours after
harvest 163
Figure 7.23 Temperature of green tea shoots in the coolroom (Cool 1 and 2) and at room temperature
(RT 1 and 2) during storage before processing (October 2006) 164
Figure 7.24 Yabukita green tea shoots after 48 hours at room temperature. Note the good condition of
the leaves, i.e. no browning. 165
Figure 7.25a NIR quality analysis of first harvest green tea made from non-shaded Yabukita green tea
at Somersby Research Station (October 2006) 165
Figure 7.25b NIR quality analysis of first harvest green tea made from non-shaded Yabukita green tea
at Somersby Research Station (October 2006) 166
Figure 7.26 Storage of green tea shoots at room temperature or in coolroom for 24 or 48 hours after
harvest 167
Figure 7.27 emperature of green tea shoots in the coolroom (Coolroom Tea) and at room temperature
(Room Temperature Tea) during storage before processing of third harvest tea (Jan 2007) 167
Figure 7.28a NIR quality analysis of third harvest green tea made from non-shaded Yabukita green tea
at Somersby Research Station (January 2007) 168
Figure 7.28b NIR quality analysis of third harvest green tea made from non-shaded Yabukita green tea
at Somersby Research Station (January 2007) 169
Figure 8.1 Green Tea Industry Day at ‘Paradise Plants’ Nursery (10 September 2004) 171
Figure 8.2 Green Tea Open Day and Demonstration at Somersby Research Station, NSW
Department of Primary Industries (20 October 2005) 172
Figure 8.3 RIRDC green tea team meeting in Victoria (June 2005) 173
Figure 8.4 Conference program for 2006 Australian Green Tea Conference 175
Figure 8.5 Scenes from 2006 Australian Green Tea Conference, Gosford NSW (6-7 July 2006) 176
Figure 8.6 Tony Austin (Mt. Beauty green tea farmer) being interviewed for local NBN news (7 July
2006) about the Green Tea Conference and green tea growing 177
xvii
Executive Summary
What the report is about
This report documents an integrated approach to producing high quality green tea in Australia.
There exists a large market for out-of-season, high quality Australian green tea in Japan. This
project examines some of the important pre and postharvest management factors such as
propagation, shading, nutrition, and postharvest storage techniques to produce high quality
green tea. Final product quality was fundamental to the aims of this project. Methods for
quantifying green tea quality were developed and applied to a series of pre and postharvest
trials.
Who the report is targeted at

This report is aimed at the emerging green tea industry. There is already a small, established
green tea industry in the Ovens Valley of Victoria, and there is considerable commercial interest
in growing green tea around Australia.
Background
A recent RIRDC project (DAT-31A), identified green tea as a potential new crop with
significant economic benefit. Among other places in Australia, the NSW Central Coast has the
ideal climate for high quality green tea production. A trial plantation (0.8 ha) of Yabukita and
six other promising green tea cultivars was established in 1998 at the Somersby Research
Station at Gosford. The quality of the green tea produced was excellent and very suitable for
export to Japan. In addition, the green tea plants have grown exceptionally well in the local
environment on the Central Coast NSW. However our knowledge of establishing, growing,
harvesting, and handling green tea was limiting the development of this new industry in
Australia. This project investigates factors affecting the production of high quality tea and
involves both pre and postharvest management factors, such as propagation, nutrition, and
shading to produce high quality green tea. A key focus of the project was to improve
communication and information sharing to benefit the Australian green tea industry.
Aims/Objectives
The aim of this project is to investigate and optimise production of high quality green tea for the
Japanese market. The project objectives are:
1. Determine the feasibility of different propagation, establishment and cultivation methods on
green tea production. Investigate weed, insect and disease management.
2. Reliably quantify green tea quality (eg catechin content etc).
3. Optimise management factors such as nutrition and shading level and timing on quality of
fresh leaves of Japanese green tea grown in coastal NSW.
4. Assess the potential for Australian organic green tea production (and IPM).
5. Assess potential postharvest storage options.
6. Facilitate the exchange of information between researchers and industry within Australia.
7. Ensure the adoption of the results and information to the green tea industry.
xviii
Methods used
A range of preharvest and postharvest trials were conducted to optimise green tea production
and quality. Evaluation of different propagation factors such as different potting media, pot type
and other factors. In addition, a series of propagation trials on propagation material were
conducted. Different establishment factors were also investigated.
Methods to quantify green tea quality were developed at the University of Newcastle. These
techniques were applied to examine the effects of shading, nutrition and postharvest on green
tea quality. This research was conducted on the NSW DPI green tea plantation at the Somersby
Research Station, where pests and diseases were also regularly monitored.
Results/Key findings
The key result of this project was to show that permanent shading was not necessary to produce
high quality green tea on the NSW Central Coast. Shading and crop nutrition were extensively
studied during the project and both factors were found to be important in producing high quality
green tea. Temporarily shading green tea plants before harvest generally increased leaf colour
and the quality of green tea produced. However, shading was less effective on second and third
harvest teas, where the green tea quality of these harvests were of poorer quality.
Optimal propagation methods were determined for producing high quality, consistent green tea
plants. The development of a successful cutting storage technique now extends the availability
of cutting material and allows the efficient use of propagation time and labour. Evaluation of a
range of plant establishment techniques showed that some important management factors are
necessary for success in specific situations. For example, establishing a green tea plantation by
using a machine is efficient, but care must be taken with plant size and ensuring weeds are kept
under control. In addition, the use of cover crops was found to be an effective establishment
method as it provided shelter for young plants and organic material for the soil.
Insect pests and diseases were regularly monitored and showed that there were no pests of
economic importance at the Somersby Research Station’s green tea plantation. A range of pests
were regularly found in the crop but these were kept under control by a range of endemic
predatory insects which fed on the insect pests without the need for intervention. For the first
time, green tea diseases were correctly identified and their pathogenesis confirmed. Several
common green tea diseases were isolated and diagnosed using both morphological and
molecular techniques. These diseases were successfully re-infected back into green tea plants
showing pathogenicity of the diseases and their symptoms. This is the first time this has been
conducted with green tea diseases in Australia.
An organic block was established at Somersby Research Station, and the green tea made from
this block was as good (as measured with NIR quality analysis) as conventionally managed
green tea from the same plantation.
Implications for relevant stakeholders

The results of this project have a significant impact for the emerging green tea industry. The
project provided an important forum for the Australian Green Tea industry and future
conferences / meetings are planned. An emerging, profitable and sustainable export-focussed
green tea industry will have significant economic and social benefits for local regional
communities.
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Recommendations
The development of a profitable, sustainable and science-based Australian green tea industry
will rely on rigorous, applied research and co-operation and communication within industry.
There is a need to facilitate technology transfer, communication and co-operation between
growers, grower associations, researchers, governments and industry. The information
generated by this project needs to be further evaluated and refined. This project has identified
additional opportunities for future targeted research to optimise management factors from
establishment to post-harvest to produce high quality Japanese style green tea. A range of
important research, development and extension activities are recommended.
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1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Tea belongs to the group of flowering plants termed Camellias, which are mostly used as garden
ornamentals. Camellia sinensis is one of two subspecies used in tea production worldwide. Tea is now
the most consumed drink in the world after water, with an estimated 18-20 billion cups of tea
consumed every day. There are many different types of tea but they are classified into three major
types depending on their manufacturing process:
1. Green tea - Non-oxidised/fermented and produced by steaming and drying the fresh leaves.
2. Oolong tea - Semi-oxidised/fermented and produced when the fresh leaves are subjected to a
partial fermentation stage before drying.
3. Black tea - Full oxidation before drying.
Approximately 77% of the tea produced and consumed worldwide is black tea, 21% is green tea, and
2% is oolong tea.
Green tea (Camellia sinensis var. sinensis) originated in China where it has been used as a beverage
and medicine since 2,700 BC. Black tea (Camellia sinensis var. assamica) originated in India and was
largely developed by the British as a large plantation crop from about 1835 AD. India, Sri Lanka,
Kenya, Indonesia and Turkey are focussed on black tea production whilst Japan and China are major
green tea producers (Table 1.1).The world’s largest importers of tea are presented in Table 1.2 and
show that although Japan is the eighth largest tea producer in the world, it is also the fourth largest
importer. This indicates there is tremendous potential for green tea exports from Australia to Japan,
particularly with counter-seasonal supply of freshly processed high quality green tea.
This project focussed on the production of high quality green tea for export to the Japanese market.
This introduction will present some background to green tea production and marketing in Japan, and
put into context the Australian green tea industry and the aims of this project.
Table 1.1 World tea production (2005)

Exports Imports
Country Area Production Volume Value Volume Value

(ha) x1,000 (t) (t) x 1,000 (t) x 1,000
($US) ($US)
China 952,500 940,500 282,643 453,672 21,908 25,936
India 500,000 830,700 174,728 377,742 31,061 31,327
Sri Lanka 210,620 308,090 298,909 732,521 7,750 14,823

Kenya 140,000 295,000 284,309 463,726 8,422 6,681
Vietnam 125,000 140,000 99,300 98,900 Nil Nil
Indonesia 115,200 171,410 98,572 116,018 3,924 5,531
Turkey 100,000 202,000 5,929 6,857 2,872 5,205
Bangladesh 54,000 55,627 10,635 12,168 377 641
Japan 49,000 100,000 923 16,732 56,234 193,485
Argentina 40,000 64,000 67,819 40,512 299 789
Source: FAO: http://faostat.fao.org. June 2006
1
Table 1.2 World tea importers (2005)
Exports Imports
Country
Area Production Volume Value Volume Value
(ha) x1,000 (t) (t) x 1,000 (t) x 1,000
($US) ($US)
Western 36 27 77,652 551,740 290,086 819,793
Europe
United N/A N/A 28,528 259,008 156,311 292,019
Kingdom
United N/A N/A 5,876 29,892 99,484 204,881
States
Japan 49,000 100,000 923 16,732 56,234 193,485
United Arab N/A N/A 14,722 43,246 65,826 172,063
Emirates
Australia N/A N/A 650 2,942 14,666 67,182
Source: FAO: http://faostat.fao.org . June 2006
Japanese green tea

Production
Green tea is a major crop in Japan where production significantly increased from the early part of the
1900s until the 1980s (Figure 1.1). Around 100,700 t of green tea was produced in Japan in 2004
(MAFF, 2004). However, in the same year, Japan imported 16,995 t of green tea, valued at ¥4,797
million (A$56 million). The level of green tea imports into Japan is, nonetheless, variable. For
example, in 2001 Japan imported up to 17,739 t of green tea valued at ¥5,695 million (A$76 million)
but only 10,242 t valued at ¥2,655 million (A$35) in 2003.
120000
Production
Area
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
83
89
95
01
07
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
03
18
18
18
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
Figure 1.1 Planted area and production of Japanese tea (1883 - 2003)
(Area in hectares, Production in tonnes)
Types of Japanese green tea

Green tea can be harvested three to four times a year from the same plantation. The first harvested tea
of the year is called ‘ichibancha’, the second harvest ‘nibancha’, the third harvest ‘sambancha’, and
the fourth and final harvest called ‘yonbancha’ or ‘shutouban’. The first harvested tea is the highest
quality and most expensive in Japan. Ichibancha is harvested in the early spring time (May). Tea
2
leaves store high levels of nutrients through the winter, therefore, the ichibancha tea contains high
levels of catechin and theanine.
The price of the Japanese green tea is greatly affected by its quality. For example, the average price for
1’kg of tea produced from the different harvests in 1999 was:
Harvest 1. Ichibancha ¥3,750
Harvest 2. Nibancha ¥1,420
Harvest 3. Sambancha ¥900
Harvest 4. Shutouban ¥330
There are many different types of Japanese style green teas depending on the quality of the tea shoots
at harvest and the processing method used.
Sencha Sencha is the most popular type of tea in Japan. It is produced from ichibancha
and is a particular favourite because of its refreshing flavour with a green note.
Fukamushicha Fukamushicha is the other type of sencha, which is produced from leaves
steamed for a longer time. The colour of liquor is deep green and its taste is
without bitterness. The colour of fukamushicha is lighter and it is easily released
in the water.
Matcha (Tencha) Matcha is the type of tea that is used in the tea ceremony. It is made by grinding
the dried tea leaves called Tencha to a fine powder. Tencha is made in the same
way as gyokuro (below), but by drying without rolling.
Hojicha Hojicha is a roasted tea that is lower grade tea and is made from bancha by
roasting at around 200oC for a few minutes. Houjicha is brown in colour and has
a unique roasted scent and when it is steeped, it has a light golden beer colour.
Hojicha is an aromatic tea, and the taste is totally different from sencha.
Genmaicha This is a mixture of bancha and popped genmai or hulled rice kernels. It makes a
light brown tea with a savoury flavour and is suitable for after meal or with
snacks.
Gyokuro This is the finest tea in Japan, and its taste has a characteristic tender sweet
astringency and flavour. This tea is cultivated in the shade for about two weeks
before harvest.
Bancha. There are two different types of bancha; one is an inexpensive bancha, and
another one is bancha made with traditional method such as Kyo bancha or
Bisaku bancha. Inexpensive bancha is made from low quality tea leaves. It is
much more bitter than sencha but has a refreshing aftertaste.
Human health benefits of green tea

Over the last 15 years, the scientific interest in the potential health benefits of green tea and its
constituents has increased, with over 2,000 scientific papers published in the health-related scientific
literature. Recent human studies suggest that green tea may contribute to: a reduction in the risk of
heart disease and some forms of cancer, as well as having antibacterial and antiviral activity and other
physiological functions (Table 1.3). These studies have largely reported on observations in
populations looking at the risk of diseases in tea drinkers versus non-tea drinkers (epidemiology) or on
basic science using cells cultured in the laboratory or animal models of disease. Dr. Paul Roach at the
University of Newcastle has recently published important work on the cholesterol lowering abilities of
green tea extracts (Bursill et al., 2006 and 2007). This research work is continuing.
3
Table 1.3 Summary of physiological functions of the components of Japanese style green tea
Components Content Functions
catechins 10-18% anti-oxidative action radio protective action
anti-mutagenic action anti-tumour action
enzyme inhibitory action anti-hypercholesterolemic action
anti-hyperglycemic action fat reducing action
anti-hypertensive action anti-ulcer action
anti-bacterial action bowel modulating action
anti-viral action anti-carious action etc.
caffeine 3-4% removal of fatigue and sleepy feeling, diuretic action
vitamin C 150-250 mg% removal of stress, cold prevention
vitamin B 1.4 mg% excitometabolic action of carbohydrates and amino acids
γ-amino butyric 0.1-0.2% anti-hypertensive action
acid
flavonoids 0.6-0.7% halitosis prevention
polysaccharide 0.6% anti-hyperglycemic action
fluoride 4-190 mg% anti-carious action
vitamin E 25-70 mg% anti-oxidative action, aging prevention
theanine 0.6-2% anti-hypertensive action
Green tea consumption

Approximately 600,000 t of green tea is consumed every year in the world. It is about one-fifth of the
total consumption of all kinds of tea. However, the renewed interest in green tea as a health-promoting
drink has lead to increased consumption. Worldwide, total green tea consumption has grown by
approximately 20% in the last 10 years.
The major green tea consuming countries are in East Asia. Only a low percentage of people in Europe,
the U.S.A. and Africa drink green tea. China is the largest green tea-drinking nation. Japan is the
second largest green tea drinking country, where about 80,000 t of green tea is consumed every year.
In Indonesia, 30,000 t is used and in Vietnam 20,000 t is consumed each year.
Japanese green tea consumption

After 1960, along with the rapid economic growth, green tea consumption grew in Japan until 1976. In
1960, total green tea consumption was 752 g per person per year and by 1976, it reached to 955 g.
However, because of changes toward a more Western style diet, green tea consumption in Japan
started decreasing from around 1976. By 1997, total green tea consumption per person dropped to 765
g. Similarly, people started to purchase less green tea. The total green tea purchase was 1,918 g per
household (493 g per person) in 1959, but it dropped to 1,246 g (377 g per person) in 1998. In the
1960s, green tea accounted for 19.8% of total beverages purchased in Japan. In 1998, the percentage
of green tea products purchased dropped to 14.7% of beverages. However, with the introduction of
more convenient packaging of green tea (PET bottles and cans) green tea consumption is again
increasing.
Australian green tea imports

Consumption and interest in green tea has increased in Australia. The Australian Bureau of Statistics
trade figures show that green tea imports have been increasing (Figure 1.2 and 1.3). The volume of
green tea imported to Australia has increased three-fold from 2000 to 2005 and imports were worth
over $7.5 million in 2005. China is the largest supplier of green tea to Australia. Australia produces
approximately 1,000t to 1,500 t of black tea per annum, mainly from Queensland, and very little green
tea. Australia imported 14,666 t of tea, valued at $67 million in 2004 (Table 1.2).
4
1400
1200
Volume of imports (t)

1000
800
600
400
200
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Figure 1.2 Volume (t) of green tea imported into Australia (2000- 2005)
(Source: ABS, June 2006)
8
7
Value of imports ($ million)
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Figure 1.3 Value ($ million) of green tea imported into Australia (2000- 2005)
(Source: ABS, June 2006)
Australian green tea industry

There is currently a commercial green tea industry (over 70 ha) established in the Ovens Valley,
Victoria. The Japanese beverage company, Ito En Australia Ltd, has built a processing plant in the
Ovens Valley, which can process about 120 ha. Ito En Australia Ltd buys green tea from the field at a
specific price through grower contracts.
Kunitaro Australia Pty Ltd is a Japanese tea company, working in NSW, exporting high quality, high
value green tea to Japan. It currently has a 5ha green tea plantation on the NSW Central Coast. The
company would like to develop up to 4,000 ha by 2015.
Environment for growing green tea in Australia

Several regions in Australia have an ideal environment and climate to produce high quality green tea.
The average annual temperature in Shizuoka is 16.1°C with an annual precipitation of 2,326 mm. This
compares to the average minimum temperature of 11°C at Gosford (Central Coast NSW) and an
average maximum temperature of 23°C, where the average rainfall is 1,313 mm per year. The
comparison of average air temperatures of Shizuoka (Japan) and Somersby / Gosford (NSW Central
Coast) is shown in Figure 1.4.
The comparison of solar radiation is presented in Table 1.4 and shows Australia (NSW Central Coast)
has a significantly higher incident solar radiation compared to Shizuoka. This is thought mainly due to
the high level of cloud and fog in Shizuoka during the growing season. The application of shade to the
green tea plantation was originally thought to be necessary for the production of high quality green tea
on the NSW Central Coast. This was investigated in this project.
5
30
Min.C
Max.C
25
Mean.C
Shizuo,M
20
Air temperature, C
15
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Month in Somersby (July in Somersby=January in Shizuoka)

Figure 1.4 Comparison of average air temperatures in Shizuoka (Japan)
with Somersby (NSW Central Coast)
Table 1.4 Comparison of incident solar radiation in Gosford (NSW) with Shizuoka (Japan)
Month Gosford - Gosford - Month Shizuoka -
in Gosford Full daily light 60% daily light in Shizuoka Full daily light
(MJ/m2/day) (MJ/m2/day) (Japan) (MJ/m2/day)
January 22.3 13.4 July 9.1
February 20.1 12.1 August 10.6
March 17.6 10.6 September 11.4
April 14.4 8.6 October 8.8
May 11.0 6.6 November 5.5
June 9.9 5.9 December 7.1
July 10.9 6.5 January 7.7
August 14.3 8.6 February 8.3
September 17.6 10.6 March 10.1
October 20.4 12.2 April 10.5
November 22.1 13.3 May 11.1
December 23.3 14.0 June 11.6
Research and development of Australian green tea

Excellent summaries of the history of the development of green tea in Tasmania and Western Australia
are presented in Appendix 1 (See papers by Brown; Burt & McCarthy). Research and development
programs into green tea production in Australia have been carried out over the last twenty years in
Tasmania (Monks, 1998), Victoria (Gerber, 2004), Western Australia (Burt, 2004) and New South
Wales (Nguyen et al., 2004).
RIRDC has supported several green tea projects in Australia including two publications by Monks
(2000) Market Alternatives for Japanese Green Tea and Japanese Green Tea - Continued
Investigation into Commercial Production and Development in Tasmania. RIRDC also funded a
report by Monks and Baxter (undated) To Continue the Investigation into Commercialisation and
Development of Japanese Green Tea, Camellia sinensis. The Horticultural Research and Development
Corporation (HRDC) and Horticulture Australia Limited (HAL) have supported some important green
tea research projects including Baxter L. B. et al. (1996) Quality Assessment and Market Evaluation of
Tasmanian Green Tea for the South East Asian Market, and Gerber (2005) Production Parameters for
Commercial Green Tea Production in Australia. These projects focussed on the production of green
tea for the Japanese market.
6
The first green tea crop in Australia is harvested during October – December and coincides with the
most important gift market for New Year in Japan and Asia. As the quality of green tea deteriorates
after processing, even with modern storage technologies such as vacuum packaging and nitrogen
flushing, there is a considerable market for the supply of high quality freshly processed green tea into
Japan. Australia is well positioned to exploit this growing consumer demand for green tea both in
Australia and with out-of-season production for export to Japan in a clean environment with high
technical development. However, our knowledge and application of growing, harvesting, handling,
processing and storage of green tea has been limiting the development of this new horticultural
industry.
This project aims to assist the development of a green tea industry in Australia by providing and
extending information and technology to allow a sound basis for the production of high quality green
tea in Australia. This project concentrates on both pre and post-harvest management factors such as
shading, propagation, nutrition, bush management and organic production to produce high quality
green tea.
A feature of the project has been the development of improved communication and information
sharing to benefit the Australian green tea industry. This is highlighted by the successful convening of
the 2006 Australian Green Tea Conference in Gosford from 6-7 July 2006.
1.2 Aim and Objectives of the Project

The aims of this project are to assess and optimise the production and post-harvest management
factors to produce high quality green tea (Camellia sinensis var. sinensis) for the Japanese market.
Specific objectives of the project are to:
1. Determine the feasibility of different propagation, establishment and cultivation methods on

green tea production, weed management and insect and disease management.
2. Reliably quantify green tea quality.
3. Optimise management factors such as nutrition and shading level and timing on quality of fresh
leaves of Japanese green tea grown in coastal NSW.
4. Assess the potential for Australian organic green tea production (IPM).
5. Assess potential harvest and post-harvest storage techniques.
6. Facilitate the exchange of information between researchers and industry within Australia.
7. Ensure the adoption of the results and information to the green tea industry.
7
2. Propagation
2.1 Background
Propagation of green tea is typically done with semi-hard wood vegetative cuttings. Propagation using
vegetative cuttings ensures uniformity of the new plants as the clonal material is derived from known
parent material. Propagation by seed results in genetically diverse populations and, as a consequence,
the green tea plants are not uniform.
Propagation can be done all year around. However, best results seem to be achieved during spring and
summer. Propagation during this time does not require any supplemental heating, thus reducing any
potential heating costs.
Cuttings are usually taken with two nodes, with the lower node normally planted below the potting
media. Callusing occurs within two weeks and root formation within four weeks. In a peat based
media, root formation is normally adequate after eight weeks to allow the plants to be gently pulled
from the tray, with plants ready for planting as early as twelve weeks after propagation.
An important aspect of propagation is the media and type of pot used. These two aspects cannot be
viewed independently. In particular, pot depth affects the moisture holding characteristics and, thus,
air space relationships within the potting medium. An assessment of media composition and pot type
was conducted to optimise propagation success. In addition, a series of post-harvest storage
experiments with the aim of optimising propagation periods of the cutting material were conducted.
2.2 Media Composition

Two types of potting media were trialled:
1. Predominantly sand based media (60% sand, 40% peat).
2. Predominantly peat based media (90% peat, 10% perlite).
Sand based media is used for other Camellia species, which typically remain in the tube for 12 months
before planting out. The peat based media is more frequently used for plants, which do not stay in the
tube very long before planting.
Three aspects of potting media were examined using different media over a range of potting types over
several seasons:
1. The ability of the media to sustain rooting.
2. The ability of the media to sustain plants during both the short (5-6 months) and long term (> 12
months) before planting.
3. The ability of the media to withstand mechanical planting for both young plants (3 months old)
and older plants (> 12 months old).
Observations
The general observations of green tea plant response to the different potting media is summarised in
Table 2.1.
Tray weight
The weight of the media has significant occupational health and safety implications as the tray weight
can be very heavy when filled with media and water. The sand based media trays are heavy (> 5kg),
whereas the peat based media are significantly lighter (about 1 kg). This difference has significant
8
worker safety and welfare implications, and should be incorporated into any production planning
decisions.
Drainage capacity and air filled porosity

The sand based media allows better drainage of water from the pot. This is important if the
environment where the plants are located is uncontrolled, for example, on the ground in a paddock.
The peat based media, whilst better able to hold water, can suffer from water logging. There is better
air filled porosity in the peat based mix allowing better root growth (if not waterlogged).
Drying out
Although having better drainage, the sand based media tended to dry out more slowly than the peat.
Re-wetability
Once the peat based media dried out, it became highly hydrophobic not allowing water to be easily
reabsorbed into the media. Whereas the sand based media was easily re-wettable with irrigation
(without the use of surfactants).
Aeration / root development

Under normal propagation conditions the better aeration of the peat based mix allowed better root
growth throughout the media.
Overall
Plants grown in peat based media were ‘finished’ (ready for planting) more quickly but ‘held’ (for
storage within nursery before planting) with more difficulty. Plants grown in sand based media were
slower to ‘finish’, but were more easily ‘held’ for the longer term, if the plants were not immediately
required for planting (up to 24 months).
Table 2.1 General observations of different potting media performance

Sand based media Peat based media
Short Long Short Long

term term term term
Tray weight issues x 9
(OH&S)
Drainage capacity 9 x
Air filled porosity x 9
Drying out 9 9 9 x?
Re-wetability of media 9 9 9 x
Aeration / Root x 9 9 9
development
Overall x 9 9 x
9 = good, x = poor
9
2.3 Pot / Tray Type
Two main types of tube types were assessed (Figure 2.1):
1. Individual deep tubes with sand based media (42 mm across and 66 mm deep).
2. Shallow tubes with peat based media (50 cell tray, with cells 50 mm deep).
Figure 2.1 Comparison of the pot / tray types: Shallow tubes with peat based media and
individual deep tubes with sand based media.
The two tube types had different media types and were assessed over 12 months and the general
observations of each tube type are summarised in Table 2.2. It is important to recognise the interaction
between media type and pot type in these observations.
Table 2.2 General observation of the pot type on suitability for green tea propagation use
Individual deep tube Shallow 50 cell tray
with sand based media with peat based media
Fill trays X 9
Grade trays 9 x
Removing plants X 9
for planting
Clean up X 9
after planting
Plants per m2 9 x
Overall 9 (long term) 9 (short term)

plant health
9 = good, x = poor
10
Fill Trays
Filling the individual, deep tube with media is labour intensive, whereas the shallow cell tray was
quicker and easier.
Grade trays
Where trays contained plants of different grades (for example, different height / health), the individual,
deep tubes were easily graded / sorted as the individual tubes could be easily removed and replaced.
This was not as easy for the cell trays. These also have a greater soil volume and larger plants can be
grown.
Remove plants for planting

The plants could be more easily removed from the cell tray than the individual tube.
Clean up after planting

The individual, deep tubes were discarded when planting and, consequently, had to be picked up by
hand after planting (22,000 plastic tubes per hectare). The cell trays could be kept on the planter and
stacked on the planter.
Plants per square metre

The individual, deep tubes allow for a greater plant density per unit area, as they are pot / pot, rather
than in a cell tray which has fixed spacings.
Overall plant health

As mentioned previously, the media type and tube type are inter-related. The individual, deep tubes
were filled with sand based media and the cell trays were filled with peat based media. In this case, the
plants for long term holding were best in the individual, deep tubes with sand based media. For short
term production, the cell trays with peat based media were the preferred option.
2.4 Assessment of Cell Tray Types

Three cell tray types were assessed. These different types had the same configuration (Figure 2.2) but
had the following differences:
1. Standard black trays - nursery standard.
2. Silver colour trays – design to reflect sunlight onto the media.
3. Copper coated (brown) trays – designed to promote root pruning.
Figure 2.2 Different types of cell trays evaluated: Black (left), Silver (middle) and Copper coated
(right) propagation cell trays
No significant difference was observed in plant performance between the different tray types.
However, after 12 months use, the copper coated trays disintegrated with handling. It is important that
11
when trays are to be used for longer term storage of plants before planting, that the trays can maintain
their integrity and performance over this extended time.
2.5 Assessment of Alternative Pot Types

Compressed Peat Pots
A range of compressed peat pots were considered as an alternative to the standard tray (Figure 2.3). It
was thought that the compressed peat pots would be quicker to use for production and planting (as the
entire pot could be planted without disturbance of the roots or dispersion of the media). However,
these pots are difficult to manage in the nursery. They are not readily available and the cost of the pots
and trays are prohibitive for large scale commercial production. Future advances in this style of pot
may warrant further investigation.
Figure 2.3 Compressed peat pot / tray trialled as an alternative to standard plastic trays
Jiffy Trays
A range of different pot types were trialled as an alternative to the standard plastic trays:
1. Small paper cell 3 rows x 17 jiffy.
2. Large paper cell 5 rows x 10 jiffy (Figure 2.4).
These trays contained pre-cast plugs containing peat type media wrapped in light paper cells. This
system offered the potential of easier planting as the seedling plug could be easily removed from the
tray and put though the planting machine.
Observation
All cuttings rooted well in both pot types. The small paper cells (Treatment 1) did not contain enough
media to store nutrients or water for commercial use and the high density of plants encouraged disease
in developing plants. The large paper cells (Treatment 2) were good but the paper tended to deteriorate
if left too long in the nursery before planting. In addition, these plugs came pre-prepared with standard
media and it was not possible to alter media type, although alternative media can be arranged for very
large orders.
Figure 2.4 Jiffy pots (5 rows x 10 cells) trialled as an alternative to standard plastic trays
12
2.6 Post-harvest Storage of Green Tea Propagation Material
Background
Propagation of green tea currently involves high levels of labour to rapidly prepare large numbers of
cuttings in a short period of time during the growing season. The propagation material is in an ideal
state (semi-hard) for a limited time. When cuttings are normally taken from a commercial plantation,
this collection of propagation material must coincide with the skiffing timetable so as not to affect
commercial production.
To make more efficient use of time, labour and limited availability of cutting material, a series of post-
harvest trials were conducted to investigate the effect of storage temperature and time on the strike rate
and survival of green tea plants. A full assessment of disease development and fungicides used during
propagation is investigated in the Disease Section (Section 6.24 and 6.25).
2.6.1 Preliminary study on the effect of storage temperature and time on green
tea cuttings for propagation
A range of storage temperatures (0, 5, 10 and 20oC) and storage times (up to 6 weeks) were assessed to
determine if green tea cuttings could be stored for propagation at the later date.
Methods
Mature Yabukita green tea shoots (30 to 40 cm) were cut and collected into approximately 50 shoot
bundles on 21 December 2005. These bundles were wrapped in damp / wet newspaper then loosely
enclosed in a plastic bag. These were then stored at 0, 5, 10 and 20oC for 1, 2, 4 and 6 weeks, before
the cuttings were prepared and ‘struck’ in commercial propagation media at each removal time (Figure
2.5). Each treatment was replicated four times. The success rate of the cuttings to root and establish
were recorded.
Figure 2.5 Preparation of green tea cuttings for propagation. Dip in commercial copper solution
(top left), dip in rooting hormone (bottom left) and plant in potting media (bottom right)
Results
As expected, differences in the response of shoots at different storage temperatures was recorded
(Table 2.3, Figure 2.6). The cooler temperatures resulted in fewer pathogens and better quality shoots
during storage of up to six weeks. However, when the shoots were propagated into potting media after
storage, all cuttings at all storage times and temperatures survived and showed no subsequent
deleterious affects on the success of strike rate (Table 2.4, Figures 2.7 and 2.8).
13
Table 2.3 General observations of shoot quality in storage at 0, 5, 10 and 20oC during six weeks
storage
Time in Storage
Storage 1 week 2 weeks 4 weeks 6 weeks
Temperature
Good quality. Good quality. Good quality.
0oC Good quality, Some symptoms Some pathogens Some pathogens
cut end dry of freezing on tips and on tips and
damage leaves leaves
Good quality. Good quality. Good quality.
5oC Some brown Good quality Some tips fallen Tips brown and
margins on new off some fallen off
leaves
Good quality. Adequate Adequate
10oC Good quality Some tip and quality. quality.
leaf browning Browning of the Browning of the
(10% browning) tips, and fallen tips (50%), and
off fallen off
Adequate Poor quality. Poor quality. All
20oC quality although Most tips and tips and top Poor quality.
some tip and leaves brown leaves brown Shoots dead.
leaf browning and significant (80%).
and pathogens pathogens Significant
pathogens
Figure 2.6 Storage of green tea shoots for four weeks at 5, 10 and 20oC. Shoots were wrapped
in damp newspaper and enclosed in a plastic bag and placed in coolrooms at Gosford
Horticultural Institute, Narara
14
Table 2.4 Percentage of surviving green tea plants after ten weeks growing in propagation
media after the shoots had been stored for 1, 2, 4 and 6 weeks at 0, 5, 10 and 20oC
Time in Storage
Storage Temperature 1 week 2 weeks 4 weeks 6 weeks
0oC 100 100 100 100
5oC 100 100 100 100
10oC 98 98 100 100
20oC 100 100 100 -
Figure 2.7 Cuttings stored at 0oC (top left), 5oC (top right), 10oC (bottom left) and 20oC (bottom
right) for two weeks
Figure 2.8 Healthy young green tea plants ten weeks after propagation
15
2.6.2 Effect of storage time at 0oC on green tea cuttings for propagation
The results of the previous season’s work (Section 2.6.1) demonstrated that green tea cuttings could be
stored for up to six weeks before propagation. This trial examined how long cuttings could be stored at
0oC to ensure successful growth of the cuttings.
Methods
Sayamakaroi green tea cuttings for propagation were cut, bundled and stored at 0oC (Figure 2.9) on 12
December 2006. Cuttings were removed from storage at 6, 12, and 18 weeks, prepared and ‘struck’ in
commercial propagation media at each removal time. Cuttings were also prepared at ‘Time Zero’
(12 December 2006) to compare the effect of storage time. There were four replicates for each
treatment and removal time and at least 50 cuttings were prepared for each replicate.
Figure 2.9 Preparation of Sayamakaroi green tea cuttings from long term storage at 0oC
Observations
Long term storage of Sayamakaroi green tea cuttings at 0oC resulted in some superficial deterioration
of leaf / shoot quality, particularly after 12 weeks storage (Figure 2.10). Botrytis was the main storage
disease in long-term stored cuttings. Although this superficial level of disease did affect the number of
cuttings able to be cut from each shoot, it was not enough to affect the propagation capabilities of the
cuttings and all cuttings struck equally.
Figure 2.10 Sayamakaroi green tea cuttings before storage (top left) and after storage at 0oC for
six (top right), twelve (bottom left) and eighteen weeks (bottom right)
16
2.6.3 Effect of packing material / technique on storage life of green tea cuttings
for propagation
Background
The previous trials (Section 2.6.2) used wet newspaper enclosed in loosely wrapped plastic bags as a
storage unit. However, this storage treatment will result in very high humidity and free water may
contribute to the disease load of the green tea, as free water on the tips and leaf surfaces may
encourage disease growth during storage. Conversely, the green tea wrapped in newspaper could dry
out, leaving the green tea shoots susceptible to desiccation and death. A storage trial was conducted on
two varieties of green tea to assess different packing techniques on disease development during long
term storage at 0oC.
Methods
Green tea shoots (30 to 40 cm) of two varieties (Yabukita and Sayamakaroi) were harvested at
Somersby Research Station on 14 June 2007. Approximately 40 shoots of each variety were randomly
collected into bundles and packed into five packaging treatments (Figure 2.11):
1. Loose. No packing, just loose shoots in plastic storage lugs only (no plastic bag).
2. Wet newspaper wrapped in a plastic bag. 8 sheets of newspaper with 250 mL water to wet
newspaper per treatment. This was then wrapped in thin plastic bag.
3. Plastic bag containing shoots.
4. Wet hessian material wrap (burlap) in 1 m2 pieces. Final total weight 420 g wet weight.
5. Wet hessian material wrap (burlap) in 1 m2 pieces enclosed in a plastic bag. Final total weight 420
g wet weight.
Figure 2.11 Preparation of green tea shoots for packaging storage trial. Green tea shoots were
bundled (top left) and either wrapped in Hessian material (top right), remained loose (bottom
left), or wrapped in a plastic bag (bottom right) (June 2007)
Each treatment was replicated four times and all treatments were stored at 0oC for 8 and 17 weeks.
17
(Figure 2.12).
Figure 2.12 Storage of green tea shoots at 0oC (left) followed by assessments after 8 and 17
weeks (right)
After cold storage, representative shoots from each treatment unit / replicate were assessed for disease,
‘freshness’ and probability of striking with subjective ratings as described below.
Ease subjective rating Freshness subjective rating

1 No disease Most fresh, as harvested
2 Some disease on tips and new leaves Fresh but some loss of turgidity
3 Tip diseased and top 3 leaves infected Some loss of turgor
4 1/3 of leaves infected Significant loss of freshness, would easily
bend back
5 Half total leaves diseased Not fresh. Stem lost significant water
6 All leaves diseased and leaves shed with Stem would not recover from bending to 90º
blackened stems
Propagation potential of the shoots – Subjective rating

Probability that 80% of the cuttings will successfully propagate, according to experienced green tea
propagator (Ben Jarvis).
9 = yes, 80% of the cuttings will likely propagate
x = no, likely that the cuttings will not successfully propagate
Results
The disease associated with the type of packaging used for Yabukita and Sayamakaroi is shown at
Figures 2.13 and 2.15. The results show that all treatments, except the hessian plus plastic bag
treatment, had low levels of disease within each bag, with each treatment having just minor disease on
the tips and new leaves (disease score ≤ 2). The spread and development of disease symptoms within
the green tea shoots only slowly progressed from eight to 17 weeks storage at 0oC. However, there
was significantly more disease in the hessian material that was wrapped in a plastic bag for 17 weeks
storage. Perhaps the conditions within this packaging treatment encouraged the development of the
disease (i.e. high relative humidity and free water on new shoots). The loosely packed shoots without
any packaging developed no disease symptoms, but the shoots in this treatment were exceptionally dry
and desiccated. This is observed in the ‘freshness’ scores in Figures 2.14 and 2.16. Within eight weeks
of cold storage, the shoots stored in the loose packaging were not considered fresh (‘freshness’ score
5) and were very dry. The best packaging treatment for the ‘freshness’ assessment was the shoots
packaged into thick plastic bags (Figure 2.17, right). There was significant decline in ‘freshness’ of the
other packaging treatments with storage time (17 weeks).
18
Figure 2.13 Assessment of green tea shoots stored in newspaper (left) or plastic bags (right)
after 17 weeks at 0oC
Propagation Rating
The shoots in this post-harvest storage trial were not propagated, as the aim of this trial was to
examine the effect of packing technique on disease susceptibility of shoots, rather than success of
propagation. However an experienced green tea propagator (Ben Jarvis) assessed each treatment for its
probable (80%) ability to successfully strike and produce roots. The results are illustrated in Table 2.5
and show that after eight weeks storage at 0oC, all packing treatments (except loosely packed shoots)
had equal potential for successful propagation. However by 17 weeks storage, the plastic bag
packaging was the superior storage treatment for probable striking potential.
Table 2.5 Effect of different post-harvest packaging materials on the probable potential for
striking of Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green tea shoots stored at 0oC for eight and 17 weeks
Yabukita Sayamakaroi
Packaging 8 weeks 17 weeks 8 weeks 17 weeks

Treatment
Loose x x x x
Plastic bag only 9 9 9 9
Hessian only 9 x 9 x
Hessian plus 9 9/x 9 9

plastic bag
Newspaper plus 9 x 9 x
plastic bag
19
6
8 weeks
17 weeks
5
4
Disease Score
0
loose plastic bag hessian only hessian plus newspaper
plastic bag plus plastic
bag
Figure 2.14 Effect of different post-harvest packaging material on the disease score of
Yabukita green tea shoots stored at 0oC for eight and 17 weeks. Each treatment was replicated
four times and the error bars are standard deviations around the mean. (August 2007)
(Disease score: 1 = no disease - 6 = all leaves diseased and leaves shed leaving blackened stem)
6
8 weeks
17 weeks
5
4
Freshness Score
0
bag
Figure 2.15 Effect of different post-harvest packaging material on the ‘freshness’ score of
Yabukita green tea shoots stored at 0oC for eight and 17 weeks. Each treatment was replicated
four times and the error bars are standard deviations around the mean. (August 2007)
(‘Freshness’ score: 1 = fresh, as at harvest - 6 = stem would not recover from bending to 90o)
20
6
8 weeks
17 weeks
5
4
Disease Score
0
bag
Figure 2.16 Effect of different post-harvest packaging material on the disease score of
2007)
(Disease score: 1 = no disease - 6 = all leaves diseased and leaves shed leaving blackened stem)
6
8 weeks
17 weeks
5
4
Freshness Score
0
bag
Figure 2.17 Effect of different post-harvest packaging material on the ‘freshness’ score of
2007)
(‘Freshness’ score: 1 = fresh, as at harvest - 6 = stem would not recover from bending to 90o)
The results show that the package type significantly affected the disease and ‘freshness’ of stored
green shoots. The best packaging treatment for both Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green tea shoots was
21
the plastic bag at 0oC. Other treatments either encouraged too much disease (hessian plus plastic bag),
or the shoots dried out too much (loose packing).
2.6.4 Overall discussion of storage trials

The results of these post-harvest trials of green tea shoots showed it is possible to store propagation
material for up to 18 weeks at 0oC. The best packaging treatment for storage at 0oC for both Yabukita
and Sayamakaroi green tea shoots was found to be a thick plastic bag. This relatively simple
technology will lengthen the period during which the propagation material can be used, providing
flexibility in allowing a more efficient use of labour and resources.
2.7 Discussion
Propagation is an important factor to supply quality plants for establishing green tea plantations. This
study examined a number of important factors relating to the efficient propagation of green tea.
The management of propagation of green tea currently utilises high levels of labour to rapidly prepare
large numbers of cuttings in a short period of time during the growing season. The propagation
material is in an ideal state (semi-hard) for a limited time. The results of these post-harvest storage
trials showed it is possible to store propagation material for up to 18 weeks at 0oC. The best packaging
treatment for storage at 0oC for both Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green tea shoots was found to be a
thick plastic bag. This relatively simple technology will lengthen the propagation time and provide
flexibility allowing a more efficient use of labour and resources. For example, it is now possible to
collect and store propagation material during the regular commercial skiffing timetable. This
propagation material can then be used at convenient times by the nursery manager, making efficient
use of time and limited skilled labour. In these trials, storage time did not affect the strike rate of the
green tea cuttings. However, post-harvest disease development such as Botrytis maybe an issue in the
future. The full assessment of disease development and fungicides used during propagation is
investigated in the Disease Section (Section 6.24 and 6.25).
The observations from assessments of a variety of propagation factors such as media composition, pot
and tray type showed that the selection of media and pot type depends on the end use and expected
timing of planting. Apart from the actual physical success of the green tea plants from the different
propagation combinations, the practical use of different trays / pots is an important consideration of
the selection of different propagation components. For example, tray weight was significant OH&S
and worker welfare issues. In addition the efficient use of mechanised planting equipment will have a
significant factor in pot / tray type to use. There is some potential for different pot types, but the
interaction between media composition and pot type cannot be over-stated when assessing propagation
materials.
22
3. Establishment
Site selection is an important aspect of green tea establishment. The Australian Green Tea Growers
Association has excellent guidelines and criteria for site selection (see Austin et al., 2006). This was
not replicated in this project. Many site preparation activities, such as soil conditioning and irrigation
design and layout, are specific site preparation activities which are unique to each site and were not
investigated in this project.
This chapter describes a number of important aspects in establishing a green tea plantation that were
trialled in this project. These included:
3.1 Bed Formation
3.2 Planting Configuration
3.3 Planting
3.4 New Varieties
3.5 Weed Control
3.1. Bed Formation

Two different bed type systems were assessed: (a) raised growing bed; and (b) flat ground. A raised
growing bed was trialled as other Camellias traditionally tend to be susceptible to water logging (i.e.
their roots cannot tolerate any excess free water). A raised bed (approximately 20 cm high and 1.2 m
wide) was prepared on the light sandy loam soil. This system was used to promote drainage of water
away from the roots. Preparation of the raised bed also facilitated easy application of plastic mulch
which could be laid by the bed forming machine and is commonly used in other horticultural crops.
This was compared to planting the green tea seedlings at the natural ground level.
Observations
1. Drainage and plant growth.
There were no observable differences in growth between the establishment of the green tea plants
within the two bedding systems. Given that this site consisted of a sandy well drained soil with a
natural slope, there was sufficient natural drainage to negate the need for the raised bed.
2. Application of plastic mulch.

The application of plastic mulch with the raised bed was satisfactory. Issues with weed control using
plastic mulch are discussed in Section 3.5.
Planting on flat ground was selected for all future establishments.
For double row plantings, trenches (30 cm deep by 50-60 cm wide) were dug on the flat ground one
month before planting was planned (Figure 3.1). Organic matter (e.g. straw) and composted manures
(30-50 tonnes per ha) or if composted chicken manure (5-6 tonnes per ha) were added into the trench,
mixed and left for about one month. After this time, the soil was returned to the trench with the
compost / organic material to form the most suitable planting bed for green tea.
23
Figure 3.1 Trenches (30 cm deep by 50-60 cm wide) in preparation for addition of organic
matter (eg straw) and composted manures before planting
3.2 Planting Configuration

When fully grown, the canopy of green tea plants in a plantation is maintained at approximately 1.8 m
wide. This can be achieved by either planting as a single row down the centre of the bed, or using two
rows of plants together side by side in the centre of the bed to form a single canopy (Figure 3.2).
These two different planting configurations were assessed.
1.8m 1.8m
30-50cm 40-50cm
50cm
Figure 3.2 Single row planting configuration (left) and double row planting configuration (right)
The number of plants per hectare when plants are planted with different intra-row spacings with 1.8
row spacings is shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Total number of green tea plants per hectare with 1.8m row spacings
Distance between Distance between Total plants
plants along the same plants within the per ha
side of the row double row
Single Row 30 cm Not applicable 18,520
45 cm 12,350
Double Row 60 cm 30 18,520
90 cm 12,530
24
One row per bed
Green tea plants were planted in a single row, 30-50 cm centres and 1.8 m between rows (Figure 3.3).
Using this method, plant density is approximately 18,520 - 11,000 plants per hectare.
1.8m
30-50cm
Figure 3.3 A single row of Yabukita green tea per bed. Green tea plants 30-50 cm between
plants within a row, and 1.8m between rows
Observation
By planting only a single row of plants in each bed, the options for weed control are increased (see
Section 3.5). It is far easier to maintain herbicide control of weeds around the base of the plants in a
single row, rather than two separate rows. This method of planting also makes mechanical planting
easier (see Section 3.3). With the single row configuration it is estimated harvesting can commence
within approximately five years.
Two rows per bed

Green tea plants were planted in double rows (Figure 3.4) with 50 cm between plants and 50 cm
between rows within the bed. A planting density of approximately 22,000 plants per ha is achieved
using this system. Harvest can commence within four years from planting, but by six years after
planting there is generally little difference between single row and double row production.
1.8m
40-50cm
50cm
Figure 3.4 Two rows of Yabukita green tea per bed
Observation
This method of planting two rows of plants in each bed is commonly used to create faster development
of the canopy cover. This hastens the time till full production is achieved. However, one of the main
problems associated with this method is that it greatly limits the variety of weed control measures
which can be employed. This is because as the crop grows, the distance between the plants within the
row is reduced and it is difficult to effectively use herbicides in this area of the bed. In addition, extra
water and infrastructure is required during establishment if a single drip line is used.
25
3.3 Planting
3.3.1 Issues to consider before planting

Tube type
The type of tube stock is a critical factor in successful plant establishment (also see Propagation
Section 2). The decision of which tube type to use will be dependent on several things; including but
not limited to:
• Planting method - The method of planting the green tea plants from the pots can either be by
hand planting or by machine (see Section 3.3.3).
• Budget - If resources allow, larger plants can be used to speed up the establishment process.
• Soil type - Soil type affects the type of planting. For example the design of the planting
machine may be altered to accommodate different soil types. A planting machine designed to
work in sandy soils may not work effectively in other soil types.
After-planting care, such as the use of mulches, irrigation and weed control, are best considered at
planting. Mulches are used to help retain water and suppress weeds. There are numerous different
types of mulches which can be used in green tea establishment (Section 3.5).
Irrigation is essential for green tea establishment and can take many different forms to both water and
feed developing plants (Section 3.3.4).
Weed control is a major issue in the establishment of green tea (especially where organic production is
required). This is discussed in Section 3.5.
3.3.2 Timing of planting

The timing of planting is critical to the success of plant establishment. Planting in autumn or spring is
preferable as both seasons can give adequate time for plants to settle in before the onset of harsh
weather associated with winter and summer. Care must be taken to avoid extreme weather and
westerly winds which can damage newly established plantings. These can be partly overcome with the
use of cover crops which can modify the growing microenvironment (Section 3.5).
3.3.3 Planting methods

Both hand-planting and machine planting are successful methods for the establishment of green tea
plantations.
Hand Planting
Hand planting involving manually marking out row and plant spacings, digging holes and manually
planting plants.
Observation
Hand planting is a slow and labour intensive system. Whilst it is considered that greater attention can
be paid to each plant when hand planting, this benefit is not adequate to offset other factors including
monetary cost of labour, occupational health and safety issues (constant bending) and time required to
complete planting.
It takes approximately 260 person hours to plant 1 ha of tea (double row) by hand. This includes all
associated tasks, such as marking out plant spacing, supervision of the planting team, distribution of
plants to planters and cleaning up trays/tubes after planting. A single row takes about 90 person hours
per ha in planting time alone (excluding any preparation or clean up).
26
Machine Planting
Machine planting uses a specialised (or modified) mechanised planting machine which may operate
under its own power, or as an attachment to a tractor (Figure 3.5).
Figure 3.5 Different mechanical methods of planting green tea. Motorised self propelled planter
(left) and modified tractor pulled green tea planter (right)
Observations on the use of the Planting Machine

A modified planter, borrowed from the Australian Green Tea Growers Association (AGTGA), was
used by John Robb (Figure 3.5). This machine had been modified to suit green tea planting in the
Ovens Valley. John Robb is a member of the AGTGA and this machine can be co-operatively used by
AGTGA members. This machine was used to compare with hand planting.
Machine adjustments
As the machine was designed for green tea planting in the Ovens Valley, several minor adjustments to
the machine were required for planting depth, soil type, plant spacing, tractor speed etc. for use on the
NSW Central Coast. Sandy soils in this region meant that once the machine was set and operational,
only minor upkeep (greased and cleaned periodically to minimize wear) was required.
Plant requirements
When planting long rows (approximately 100 m in length), an important issue was the ability to carry
enough plants on board the tractor to complete a return run. This meant that 800 plants (= 16 trays)
was required to plant four rows with 200 plants per row. These plants had to be carried on the tractor
for each return run.
Plant specifications
It is important that the plants come out of trays smoothly and quickly to make most efficient use of the
machine. For this reason, it was recommended that fresh, young plants be used with this machine. This
means that the plants cannot be too large or too well branched or they ‘stick’ in the machine. The
maximum height of plants that could be planted was approx 250 mm, and plants wider than 75 mm
would frequently stick in the planting cups. Plants in the tray could be trimmed to 200 mm in height to
facilitate easier planting. Indeed it is important to ensure the plants are less than 200 mm in height to
prevent excessive transpiration and drying out after planting. Older plants that are ‘pot-bound’ require
considerable time in preparation for planting and should not be used.
Planting
This machine has a pair of revolving wheels. Each wheel holds four ‘cups’ into which the plants are
placed. These cups push into the earth, open and release the plant into the soil. It then uses a set of
tyres which firm the plants into the ground followed by a set of blades for mounding soil around the
plants once in the ground.
27
With this planting machine, it took approximately 90 hours to plant 1 ha of tea. However, more than
50 hours of this time was used in the installation of the irrigation and preparation of ‘non-ideal pot-
bound’ plants. It is estimated that the actual planting time could be reduced to around 30-40 person
hours per ha without these additional functions.
Issues with the use of efficient mechanical planting:
• Plants need to be graded to ensure efficient planting with this machine. For example, the
maximum height of plants that could be planted was approx 250 mm, and plants wider than
75 mm would frequently stick in the planting cups.
• Plant supply into the planter needs to be uninterrupted.
• Beds need to be weed-free as any weeds tend to interfere with machine operation and reduce
efficiency.
• The firming mechanism on the planting machine (wheel followed by blades) needs to be correctly
adjusted or re-engineered for specific soil types or conditions.
• To be most efficient the machine and its operators (x 3) need to work consistently without
disruption.
3.3.4 Post-planting issues

There are numerous routine horticultural management activities that are required to successfully grow
green tea; irrigation, weed control and mulching, pest and disease management, nutrition etc.
Irrigation and weed control are discussed in this section. A field guide poster for growing green tea on
the NSW Central Coast was adapted from a Japanese growing guide (Section 3.3.5). Pest and disease
control are discussed in the Organics and Certification Section (Section 6).
Irrigation
The single most important factor to successful plant establishment is an effective irrigation system
(Figure 3.6). Irrigation water must be applied in a timely and accurate manner or the young plants can
quickly dry out and never recover.
Drip is the most efficient method of irrigation and can also be used for fertigation (application of
soluble nutrients through the irrigation line). Care must be taken to ensure that the drip lines remain in
very close proximity to the newly planted green tea plants. This is especially important where diurnal
temperature variations cause significant expansion and contraction of the drip lines. This can be
largely overcome with the use of irrigation pins which hold the drip lines in place.
Figure 3.6 Establishment of drip irrigation in a new green tea plantation (left) and sub-main
(right) in established plantation
Observations and Management of Severe Heat and Water Stress

A combination of extreme heat and water stress compounded to result in severe defoliation symptoms
in the green tea plantation at Somersby Research Station on New Years Day 2007. Air temperatures of
28
44oC and lack of irrigation resulted in the symptoms illustrated in Figure 3.7. Note that some rows of
tea (even of the same variety) were more affected than others and when severe, the leaves of most
shoots were dropped by the plant. However, with subsequent adequate irrigation and fertigation, the
green tea plants rapidly recovered and produced high quality tea in the next spring (10 months later).
Figure 3.7 Symptoms of severe heat / water stress on green tea at Somersby Research Station,
NSW DPI (January 2007)
29
3.3.5 Field management guide for growing green tea on the NSW Central Coast
Figure 3.8 A field guide for the management of green tea on the NSW Central Coast was
prepared and adapted from JA Shizuoka Keizaren nishibu somu jimusho (2006)
With permission from JA Shizuoka Economic Alliance
30
3.4 New Varieties Demonstration
A trial block of new tea varieties was established at the Somersby Research Station. Five green tea
varieties were planted in the spring of 2006: ‘Big leaf tea’, ‘Pink leaf tea, Tea variety – one, Tea
variety – two and Tea variety – three (Figure 3.9). Two blocks of five plants per variety were planted.
Also in this block were the standard, Yabukita, Sayamakaroi, Sayamadori, Meiryoku green tea
varieties which were planted at around the same time.
Figure 3.9 New variety evaluation at Somersby Research Station established in 2006 (left)
Observations
All green tea plants have successfully grown and all varieties are performing equally well, with no
observable differences in growth (Figure 3.10). Yield and quality measurements were not conducted
as the plants were too young for meaningful results, but these measurements will be taken in future
years.
‘Big leaf tea’ Pink leaf tea
Tea Variety 1 Tea variety 2 Tea variety 3

Figure 3.10 Trial green tea varieties at Somersby Research Station, NSW DPI (March 2008)
31
3.5 Weeds
Weeds are an important and continual issue in the establishment and growth in green tea plantations.
Weeds not only compete for resources (nutrients, water and light) but can also contaminate harvested
shoots. Weeds are a particularly important problem during establishment as within days of planting,
many weed species rapidly emerge.
A number of aspects of weeds and their control were investigated:

3.5.1. Weed survey
3.5.2. Control methods (physical, chemical and cultural)
3.5.3. Weed control in established plantation.
3.5.1 Survey of green tea weeds

A survey of the major weeds in the NSW DPI Somersby Research Station green tea plantation was
undertaken and is presented in Appendix 2.
The major weeds of concern in NSW DPI Somersby Research Station green tea plantation were:
• Cereals (Triticum spp., Hordeum vulgare, Avena sativa and others)
• Chickweed (Stellaria media)
• Dock (Rumex crispus)
• Farmer’s Friends (Bidens sp.)
• Fat Hen (Chenopodium album)
• Mallows (Malva sp.)
• Patterson’s Curse (Echium plantagineum)
• Perennial Ryegrass (Lolium perenne)
• Sow Thistle (Sonchus oleraceus)
• White Clover (Trifolium repens)
3.5.2 Weed control methods

There are several weed control options in green tea plantations, and can be summarised into three
types of control: (1) physical; (2) chemical; and (3) cultural control.
1. Physical Weed Control

There are numerous methods to control weeds using physical means, such as hand weeding, chipping
with a hoe, rotary hoe, cultivation etc (Figure 3.11).
Figure 3.11 Physical control of weeds. Weed control using a self driven rotary hoe in the
organic block at Somersby Research Station
32
Hand weeding
Hand weeding is expensive, time consuming and physically demanding. In an organic system, it may
be the only practical option. In production systems where herbicides are used, hand weeding may still
be required where the weeds are in close proximity to the green tea plants (Figure 3.12).
Figure 3.12 Selective hand weeding is expensive and time consuming (left). However, hand
weeding is required where post-emergent herbicides cannot be used, as the weeds can often
become embedded within the green tea plants (right)
Mulches
Without the use of a pre emergent herbicide, the best way of preventing weed emergence is the use of
an effective mulch. A range of mulches (wheaten straw, graded pine bark, course leaf mulch and
plastic mulch) were trialled in this project.
When choosing mulch, careful consideration must be given to the price and mulch components (straw,
woodchip, rice hulls etc) and, also, consideration must be given to the method by which the mulch will
be applied. The incorrect application of mulch can be costly and very time consuming. For example, if
straw mulch is not applied thick enough it can blow away. In addition, opportunistic seeds in the
mulch can become weeds in the green tea (see Weeds Survey Appendix 2). Straw mulch is an
effective mulch to suppress weeds and has significant soil building properties (Figure 3.14). However,
about 33.6 tonnes of straw per ha is required to effectively mulch one ha of double spaced green tea
(16.8 tonnes per ha for a singe row) and within two years of application, much of the straw mulch has
been incorporated into the soil and decomposed.
Plastic mulches (plastic sheeting)

Plastic mulches are excellent method to suppress the majority of weeds in a bed, however mulching or
hand weeding may still be required around individual plants where the planting process has punctured
the plastic mulch (Figure 3.13).
33
Figure 3.13 Emerging weeds within one week of planting of green tea seedlings. Plastic mulch
(right) helps suppress weeds, but openings in the plastic sheeting allows weeds to grow
through
Figure 3.14 The use straw mulch during the early stages of establishment and in established
green tea plantations
It is considered that a more expensive mulch material, such as a graded pine bark woodchip, which can
be mechanically applied, will be more cost effective than a cheaper mulch (such as ungraded
woodchip), which must then be applied manually (Figure 3.15). In addition, manual application of
mulch is not cost effective (1 hour per 100m row) and has significant occupational health and safety
issues. The amount of mulch required using continuous application in a double row is 300-360 m3 per
ha (60 cm wide by 5 cm thick by 100 m row), and 180 m3 per ha for a single row (Figure 3.16). The
amount of mulch required for spot application (5 L mulch per plant) is 120 m3 per ha for a double row
configuration and 60 m3 per ha for a single row (Figure 3.17). Even with effective mulching around
young plants, specific and timely attention must also be given to the control of weeds arising in the
inter-row spaces, as these weeds can easily encroach upon the young plants.
34
Figure 3.15 Application of graded pine bark mulch using a mechanical spreader
Figure 3.16 Application of bark mulch as continuous row in the middle of green tea row
Figure 3.17 Application of bark mulch to each individual green tea plant. This is time
consuming and weeds will emerge from between plants (left)
2. Chemical weed control

Pre-emergent herbicides
There are several pre-emergent herbicides available in horticulture to prevent the emergence of weed
seedlings. Typically they are applied to the soil before planting.
Post-emergent herbicides
There are several commonly used post-emergent herbicides in horticulture such as glyphosate, which
kill emerging or established weeds. Glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine) is a common broad-
spectrum, non-selective, post-emergence herbicide effective on annual and perennial plants. The
selection of a post-emergent herbicide depends on the weed specifically requiring control.
35
Use of post-emergent herbicides
Post emergent herbicides can be most useful to control weeds which are directly adjacent to green tea
plants (inter row walkways, along irrigation lines) (Figure 3.18). These herbicides should not be used
where spray drift may impact green tea plants.
Figure 3.18 Effective weed control along edge of green tea bed using post-emergent herbicide.
Herbicide was not applied to the edges of the middle row - note the encroachment of weeds
3. Cultural management strategies to suppress weeds during site preparation and

establishment – The use of ground covers
Suppression of weeds
When properly established, groundcovers suppress weed growth and eliminate the need for constant
herbicide application within the plant row. Herbicides are expensive, labour intensive and carry a risk
of injury to young green tea plants.
Increased water infiltration

Groundcovers reduce evaporation from the soil surface and increase infiltration of water through the
soil profile. Initially, this can cause increased leaching in heavy rainfall areas where soil has low levels
of organic matter. With increased humus content, losses of calcium, magnesium and potassium are
reduced through the ability of humus to hold onto nutrients. Increased water infiltration reduces
overland water flow, so there is less opportunity for surface loss of soil-applied fertilisers. Fertiliser
nutrients can then be held in place within the groundcover, some being taken up by the roots to
become available later as organic matter breaks down. However, leaching of nitrate and sulphate will
continue.
Nitrogen fixation
Nodulated legumes are a useful source of soil nitrogen and are one of the main reasons legume
groundcovers are encouraged. The actual amount of nitrogen fixed by the rhizobia in the root nodule
depends on the host legume -species, the strain of rhizobium, and whether the environment of the soil
is favourable. Hence, at planting it is important to inoculate with the correct strain of rhizobium. Some
legumes, such as cowpeas, fix most nitrogen before flowering. Others such as soybean can fix 90%
during fruiting and maturation. This means slashing or turning under at the correct time is important
with annual legumes. The increasing cost of nitrogen fertilisers makes it more economically attractive
to obtain nitrogen from legumes. This is offset by the cost of phosphate to grow legumes. Legumes
can add about 3% nitrogen to soil, while grasses produce straw that has a high carbon:nitrogen ratio
and is lower in nitrogen. The breakdown of grass and straw requires bacteria to use existing soil
nitrogen, thus reducing the nitrogen available in the soil. However, there could be times when the
groundcover does compete for moisture and nutrients with the tea plants, and this needs correction by
36
additional irrigation and fertiliser and control of vegetation near young tea plants. The amount of
nitrogen that a range of agriculturally important legumes can fix per year is shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Amount of nitrogen fixed per year under varying conditions
Species Nitrogen fixed
(kg.ha-1.year-1)
clovers 20–600
Glycine wightii 250–400
vetch 50–200
lupin 130
pigeon pea 40–90
cowpea 70–240
soybean 20–120
Improve microenvironment for establishing green tea plants

Tall non-spreading groundcovers provide a suitable microenvironment for establishing subtropical
horticultural crops such as green tea. The use of tall non-spreading groundcovers protects establishing
green tea plants from damaging winds, temperature extremes in the soil and surrounding air, and
extreme changes in humidity and soil moisture.
Planting between rows of tall growing species, helps create the right type of micro-environment for the
establishing tea plants (Figure 3.19). If such a groundcover is established for two years it can fill a
critical role while tea canopies grow big enough to provide their own microenvironment. Sorghum and
sudax have been successfully used for this purpose in establishing orchards. Sorghum was trialled in
the establishment of a Yabukita green tea plants. In addition a leguminous species will also add
significant amounts of nitrogen to the soil. A sorghum and vetch combination was trialled
(Figure 3.20). These high-bulk cover crops can be mown, and mulch directed along the tea row by
side-discharge slashing attachments if enough space is available between the rows for machinery
access.
37
Figure 3.19 Establishment of green tea with a sorghum cover crop between the green tea rows.
The cover crop provides shelter for the growing green tea
Figure 3.20 Sorghum cover crop in an established green tea plantation. This provides shelter
and valuable organic matter when mulched. Sorghum and vetch cover crop (left). The sorghum
provides a trellis for the growing vetch which also fixes atmospheric nitrogen
Cover crops for the pre-planting phase

Green manure crops are grown to provide organic matter, which is incorporated in the soil when the
crop is mature. They are an important part of the pre-planting stage of woody horticultural plantings.
High bulk annual legume species include cowpeas, and lupins. Non-legumes such as oats and sorghum
have also been used for this purpose, but unlike legumes they do not provide the bonus of nitrogen
fixation. If they are used for at least one year before planting they can build up organic matter levels
and improve soil structure and fertility. Because green tea has such a high nitrogen requirement,
legumes could be the preferred cover crop species.
38
Summer-growing groundcovers
High bulk annual summer-growing groundcover legumes ideal for this purpose include:
• caloona cowpeas
• lablab
• soybeans
• mungbeans and pigeon peas, either alone or with hybrid forage sorghum, to provide higher bulk
and a better carbon: nitrogen ratio.
Winter-growing groundcovers
Suitable winter-growing groundcovers include:
• lupins
• Namoi woolly-pod vetch
• oats
• ryegrass (oats and ryegrass can be used with lupins or on their own).
Grass: legume combinations

For high bulk, extra production can be obtained by combining grasses like forage sorghum and oats
with legumes like lupins. The legume produces nitrogen to be used by the grass. Reduce the seeding
rates for combinations by about half.
Species sowing guide

The following groundcovers could be useful for establishing green tea plantings in New South Wales.
They include high bulk species suited to the pre-plant or early establishment phase (Table 3.3 and
Table 3.4).
39
Table 3.3 Groundcovers for spring / summer (October to January) planting
Cover Rate Seed cost Fertiliser Remarks
Crop (kg.ha-1) ($)*
Caloona 60 130 - Ideal non-climbing summer
cowpeas legume. This would be the
best option.
Soybean 60 65 500 kg.ha-1 Can be harvested for grain.
Mo super at
sowing
Grasses
Hybrid forage 20 90 200 kg.ha-1 Early sowing preferred. Re-

sorghums MAP at grows after mowing. 50-100
sowing kg.ha-1 urea top-dress after
second mowing
-1
Millet - 20 40 200 kg.ha Sown earlier in spring than
Japanese MAP at sorghums.
sowing
*Approximate seed cost (2003)
Table 3.4 Groundcovers for autumn / winter (March to June planting)

Cover Rate Seed cost Fertiliser Remarks
Crop (kg.ha-1) ($)*
Legumes
Sweet lupin or 60-90 50 - 80 500 kg.ha-1 Mo Slash / turn under at the
NZ blue lupin super at sowing end of flowering
500 kg.ha-1 Mo Establishes quickly in
Namoi woolly- 40-50 120 - 150 super at sowing autumn. Provides good
pod vetch cover to 50 cm high. Dies
off in summer
Grasses
300 kg.ha-1 Establishes quickly. Use
Oats 90-130 130 - 180 MAP Top-dress lower rates when sowing
with 100 kg.ha-1 with a perennial legume.
urea mowing for Regrows after mowing
bulk
Rye - annual. 30 100 MAP Top-dress lower rates when sowing
bulk
Rye - perennial 30 200 MAP Top-dress lower rates when sowing
bulk
*Approximate seed cost (2003)
40
3.5.3 Weed control in established plantations
After the green tea plants have been established (3-4 years after planting), weeds are generally a lesser
issue, as the canopy of the green tea plantation strongly competes for light (Figure 3.21). Weeds that
do make it through the thick dense green tea canopy are easily removed by hand. The addition of the
green tea mulch (stems and leaves) as a result of skiffing the canopy, adds to the weed suppression in
the mature canopy (Figure 3.22).
Figure 3.21 Somersby Research Station, NSW DPI Yabukita green tea which was planted in
1999. Photo on left was taken in 2003; photo on middle was taken in 2006. Single weeds
between rows are easily removed by hand (left)
Figure 3.22 Mature green tea canopy excluding light between rows (left), and thick green tea
mulch between rows (right) helps suppress weeds
41
4. Assessment of Green Tea Quality
4.1 Background
Tea quality is paramount in Japanese green tea, and the ability to judge green tea quality is a very
important job for both tea producers, traders and the retailers. The assessment of green tea quality is
subjective and requires extensive experience and knowledge (Figures 4.1 and 4.2), similar to that of
the wine sommelier. This is an important job as this information becomes the source to set the price of
green tea.
Figure 4.1 The sensory aspect of tea quality is an important determinant of the final price of
green tea. Green tea is constantly tasted throughout the production, processing and marketing
chain
42
Figure 4.2 Sensory assessment of green tea grown and produced at Somersby Research
Station, NSW DPI (November 2006)
4.2 Chemical Constituents of Green Tea

Green tea has many different components which affect the taste and therefore the quality of the tea.
These tea constituents are well characterised and can be useful for the scientific evaluation of tea taste
quality (Caffin et al., 2004), especially in the absence of trained sensory panels. For example, in
Australia it would be difficult to train sensory panels to assess the quality of Japanese style green tea.
The constituents of green tea which are of major importance to the taste of green tea are the catechins,
caffeine and an amino acid unique to tea called theanine. The catechins are prominent compounds
which give green tea its bitter and astringent taste properties (Hara, 2001). Caffeine in green tea is at
levels around a third of those in coffee and is also very bitter which adds to green tea’s sharpness. On
the other hand, theanine has a sweet and brothy (umami) taste which counteracts the astringency and
bitterness of the catechins and caffeine.
The concentrations and interactions of these different constituents in the tea will determine how
intense the tea flavours are. In general, the higher the concentrations of these components within the
tea, the more intense the tea flavours will be. However the balance between these components,
especially between the catechins and theanine is very important for overall taste sensation. For
example, the highly prized and priced ($1 per gram) Japanese ceremonial powdered green tea, matcha
is generally high in theanine compared to other less expensive green teas in Japan.
The following sections will give a brief background to each chemical component and its effect on
green tea quality and taste.
Catechins
The catechins are a group of polyphenols which are very abundant in tea plants. They belong to the
flavonoid group of compounds. The four most common catechins (Figure 4.3) present in fresh green
tea leaves and dried green tea are:
• (-)-epigallocatechin 3-gallate (EGCG)
• (-)-epigallocatechin (EGC)
• (-)-epicatechin 3-gallate (ECG)
• (-)-epicatechin (EC).
The epimerised form of EGCG, gallocatechin gallate (GCG) is also often found in green teas but this
is a product of post-harvest racemisation and is not native to the tea plant (Caffin et al., 2004).
43
(-)-epicatechin (EC) (-)-epigallocatechin (EGC)
(-)-epicatechin-3-gallate (ECG) (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG)

Figure 4.3 Chemical structures of major green tea catechins
Catechins can make up to 30% of the dry weight of fresh tea leaf extracts (Graham, 1992; Fernandez
et al., 2002) and constitute 20-30 % of the dry weight of dried green tea (Wang et al., 2000). The
EGCG is considered as the most important component because it is the most abundant catechin in tea
leaves and in most green teas (Wang et al., 2000; Higdon et al., 2003).
The galloyl catechins (EGCG, ECG) are particularly astringent while the free catechins (EGC, EC) are
far less astringent (Hara, 2001). The ECG can also provide a bitter aftertaste while the slightly sweet
aftertaste of some teas can be due to EGC even at concentrations as low as 0.1% (w/v) in aqueous
solutions (Hara, 2001).
High concentrations of catechins are what differentiate green tea from black and oolong teas. In the
processing of green tea, the enzyme polyphenol oxidase (PPO) is quickly inactivated after harvest
using steam in order to prevent it from oxidising the catechins (Graham, 1992). In contrast, the
processing for black tea stimulates the oxidation of 70% to 90% of the catechins. In the production of
oolong tea, oxidation also occurs but it is stopped before 70% of the catechins are oxidised.
Caffeine
Teas contain several alkaloids called methylxanthines (Figure 4.4) which include caffeine (1,3,5-
trimethylexanthine) and two dimethylxanthines, theophyline and theobromine (Lin et al., 1998).
Theobromine: R1=H, R2= CH3 Caffeine: R1=R2=CH3

Theophylline: R1=CH3, R2=H
Figure 4.4 Chemical structures of methylxanthines
44
Tea leaves contain about 2-4% caffeine (% dry weight) (Graham, 1992), while the caffeine content of
a typical tea beverage prepared from 2-2.5 g of tea leaves is in the range of 20-70 mg per 170 mL
infusion (Caffin et al., 2004). However, theobromine and theophyline constitute a very small
percentage of tea alkaloids, about 0.1% (Graham, 1992). In addition to affecting the taste of tea with
its sharp bitterness, caffeine has mood and cognitive-enhancing properties which adds to its regard as
an important constituent of tea contributing to tea quality (Fernandez et al., 2002; Caffin et al., 2004).
Theanine
The amino acid L-theanine (glutamic γ-ethylamide or 5-N-ethylglutamine) is the major free amino
acid of the soluble nitrogen fraction of tea leaves and accounts for 1-2% of the total dry weight (Juneja
et al., 1999). This amide (Figure 4.5) is unique to tea because of its exceptionally high content in green
tea compared to levels in other reported natural sources of theanine, such as other species of the genus
Camellia and the mushroom Xerocomus badius (Juneja et al., 1999).
L-Theanine
Figure 4.5 Chemical structure of L-theanine
The amino acid theanine is synthesized in the root of the tea plant with the aid of theanine synthetase
and translocated to the developing shoot tips (Ekborg-Ott et al., 1997). Theanine is also a precursor for
the biosynthesis of the catechins in tea leaves (Kito et al., 1968). This conversion is known to be
controlled by light because large quantities of theanine accumulate instead of being converted to
catechins in shaded tea leaves, and result in lower catechin levels than that in unshaded leaves (Kito et
al., 1968).
Theanine is mainly responsible for the brothy, sweet, and umami taste of tea and hence, plays an
important role in green tea quality (Ekborg-Ott et al., 1997). Its taste characteristics are particularly
revered in Japan, where shading is used to increase its content relative to catechins in the high quality
such as in gyokuro.
In a preliminary experiment, we analysed a series of green teas purchased in Kyoto, Japan and found
that the ratio of theanine to total catechins increased as the stated quality and the price of the tea
increased (Figure 4.6). Consistent with the effect of shading on the theanine concentration, the high
quality shaded gyokuro green tea was found to have the highest ratio.
The Theanine/Catechin Ratio in Japanese Teas

of Increasing Quality and Price
4
Theanine/Total Catechins
0
LQ
LQ
Q
Q
Q
Q
H
M
H
H
a
ha
ro
ro
a
a
a
ch
ch
ch
ch
ku
jic
ku
ai
en
en
at
ou
yo
yo
m
M
S
S
en
G
H
G
G
Figure 4.6 A comparison of the theanine to total catechin ratio in Japanese green teas
purchased in Kyoto Japan, in order of increasing quality and price
45
A second series of Japanese green teas were analysed for their levels of caffeine, catechins and
theanine (Table 4.1). In this product line, the THE/TC ratio remains relatively similar, while the
absolute concentrations of its components increase with increasing price.
Table 4.1 The content of caffeine, catechins and theanine in Japanese green teas with
increasing price
Price per Total THE
100g Caffeine EC EGC EGCG ECG Catechins Theanine / TC
($) (TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
6 37.7 9.5 46.2 40.4 7.2 103.3 38.2 0.37
8 41.2 9.3 42.1 41.5 8.5 101.4 48.1 0.47
10 44.0 10.3 47.4 44.2 9.7 111.6 51.0 0.46
12 50.1 12.2 49.4 55.3 11.9 129.0 58.8 0.46
15 48.0 11.3 49.1 53.9 12.2 126.5 53.9 0.43
Each value represents the mean of two replicates per sample. Each sample was analysed in triplicate
Subsequent to this, studies were conducted at NSW DPI Somersby Research Station and the Gosford
Horticultural Institute, Narara on green tea plants to determine the effects of various treatments on the
green tea constituents which are important to the quality of green teas. The concentrations of these
different constituents were determined and used as an index of likely tea flavour intensity. The
theanine/total catechin ratio was also determined as an index of tea flavour balance.
4.3 Near Infrared (NIR) Analysis

An objective measure of green tea quality using near infrared (NIR) analysis is universally accepted as
a measure of green tea quality. Most Japanese green tea producers use the INSTALAB Near Infrared
(NIR) system (Figure 4.7). Although this quality analysis system is universally used, the subjective
sensory assessment is still often the over-riding determinant of quality and price.
46
Figure 4.7 Preparation sample for NIR analysis in Kunitaro quality analysis laboratory
Near infrared (NIR) radiation covers the range of the electromagnetic spectrum between 780 and 2,500
nm. In NIR spectroscopy, the ground up green tea sample (Figure 4.7) is irradiated with NIR radiation,
and the reflected or transmitted radiation is measured. While the radiation penetrates the green tea
sample, its spectral characteristics change through wavelength dependent scattering and absorption
processes. This change depends on the chemical composition of the green tea sample, as well as on its
light scattering properties which are related to the microstructure. (Nicolai et al., 2007). NIR estimates
the quality of a range of green tea quality parameters using a range of complex algorithms and
regression techniques. Advanced multivariate statistical techniques, such as partial least squares
regression are applied to extract the required information from the usually convoluted spectra. From
these calculations, an estimation of the moisture content, total nitrogen, free amino acids, theanine,
dietary fibre, tannin, caffeine and Vitamin C content is made. These quality measures are then
integrated into a single standardised ‘AF score’ which allows comparison of the different green tea
samples (Table 4.2).
Table 4.2 NIR quality measures and their target levels for high quality Japanese green tea
NIR Quality Measure Target level
Moisture > 4.5%
Total nitrogen > 5.5%
Free amino acids > 3.0%
Theanine > 1.5%
Dietary fibre < 20%
Tannin < 14%
Caffeine > 2.5%
Vitamin C > 0.5%
AF Score > 60
Description of selected quality aspects measured with NIR analysis is listed below:
47
Total nitrogen
Total nitrogen is the total amount of nitrogen contained in the protein free amino acids, etc. of the
green tea sample. Total nitrogen has high positive correlation with sensory aspect of green tea. Higher
quality teas contain more total nitrogen and are therefore considered an essential factor for quality.
High quality green tea contains > 7% total nitrogen and lower grade tea is < 3% total nitrogen.
Dietary fibre content

Fibre is the component of the cell wall of green tea. The fibre content is about 12% on soft buds and
increases with growth and age of the leaves until it reaches 35% on mature hard leaves.
Total free amino acids

There are 16 different major free amino acids in green tea. This measure is an estimation of the total of
all free amino acids. Amino acids are considered as the reason of umami of green tea. Umami is now
recognized as one of the five basic tastes sensed by specialized receptor cells present on the human
tongue. Umami is a Japanese word meaning "savoury" or "deliciousness" and thus applies to the
sensation of savouriness, specifically to the detection of the natural amino acid, glutamic acid, or
glutamates. The brothy, sweet taste of green tea is due to amino acids such as theanine (discussed
previously), glutamic acid, and arginine (Nakagawa, 1975).The levels of total free amino acids in good
quality tea is > 7%, whilst the level of total free amino acids in poor quality tea can be 1% total free
amino acids.
NIR quality assessment method

Quality analysis using the Instalab 600 Dickey-John Near Infrared Reflectance Analyser was
conducted on processed green tea from the Somersby Research Station. Samples were prepared for
analysis by grinding the dried processed tea sample in a small electric coffee mill for about 10
seconds. The ground tea sample was then sieved (mesh width of 500 μm) and the sieved powder was
used for NIR analysis.
The ground tea samples were scanned using an Instalab 600 Dickey-John Near Infrared Reflectance
Analyser which measured at discrete wavelength points and analysed using log1/R mathematics. The
sample cup rotated so that 120 readings at 3° intervals were taken and averaged for each wavelength
of incident light. This was conducted by a certified technician in the quality control laboratory at
Kunitaro Tea and Coffee Co. in Kikugawa, Japan.
4.4 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

To measure the important components of green tea, a high performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC) system was developed in Dr. Paul Roach’s laboratory at the University of Newcastle, which
was able to quantify theanine, caffeine and all the major catechins (EC, EGC, ECG, GCG and EGCG)
in the same run.
Sample collection and preparation

For most studies, replicate samples were collected by hand following appropriate design and sampling
procedures which took into account field variability and the fresh leaf samples were frozen at -20°C as
fast as possible. For analysis, these samples were thawed and quickly dried by microwave using a
standardized procedure developed in Dr. Paul Roach’s laboratory at the University of Newcastle.
Sample analysis
One gram of each tea sample (processed or unprocessed) and 5.2 mg of L-tryptophan as internal
standard were brewed in 100 ml of boiling de-ionized water for 20 min and the infusion then cooled
48
on ice for at least 10 min. The infusion was then filtered and transferred to a brown HPLC vial using a
5 ml disposable syringe and 0.45 µm cellulose filter (Alltech, Australia), and injected into the HPLC
system.
Analysis was carried out on a Shimadzu HPLC system (Kyoto, Japan) with the Class-VP 5.03
software and a SCL-10AVP system controller. This HPLC system consisted of a SPD-10A UV-VIS
detector, SIL-10ADVP auto-injector, LS-10ATVP liquid chromatography pump, DGU-1AA degasser
and CTO-10AVP column oven.
The chromatographic separation was performed on a 4µm, 4.6 mm x 250 mm C18 reversed-phase
column (Phenomenex, Castle Hill, NSW) maintained at 25oC. Mobile phase A consisted of 95.5%
(v/v) of orthophosphoric acid 0.2%, 3% (v/v) acetonitrile, and 1.5% (v/v) tetrahydrofuran. Mobile
phase B consisted of 73.5% (v/v) of orthophosphoric acid 0.2%, 25 % (v/v) acetonitrile and 1.5%(v/v)
tetrahydrofuran. Elution of the tea samples was done with: 100% mobile phase A for the first 10 min;
then mobile phase B increased from 0% to 100% in the next 30 min and remain at 100% for 10 min;
after that mobile phase, B decreased from 100% to 0% during the next 10 min; finally, 100 % mobile
phase A for 30 min before the next injection.
Standard curves were prepared for each green tea constituent of interest based on the ratio of the peak
areas of external standards of these constituents to the peak areas of the internal standard plotted
against the corresponding external standard concentrations. Quantification of theanine, caffeine, EC,
EGC, ECG, GCG and EGCG in tea extracts was determined by comparison of the retention time and
the relative absorbance at 210 nm and 280 nm of the tea component peaks (peak areas of the
constituents to the peak areas of the internal standard) relative to the external standard curves. The
concentration of the constituents in the teas was expressed as mg constituent per gram of dried tea
(mg.g-1).
Typical HPLC chromatograms of the external standards are shown in Figure 4.8 and of a green tea
sample in Figure 4.9. In a method validation study, the theanine to total catechin ratio averaged 0.88 ±
0.05 in 30 green teas, 1.54 ± 0.86 in 6 oolong teas and 6.06 ± 1.06 in thirteen black tea samples. This
was consistent with the expected reduction by oxidation of the catechins when going from green to
oolong to black tea without a reduction in theanine content.
49
A mAbs
Data:Z15032A.D01 Method:Z15032A.M01
Chrom:Z15032A.C01 Atten:9
Ch=1
Caffeine EGCG
GCG
400
ECG
200
IS EC
EGC
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
min
B mAbs
Data:Z15032B.D01 Method:Z15032B.M01
Chrom:Z15032B.C01 Atten:11
Ch=2
2000
EGCG GCG
ECG
Caffeine
1000 EC
EGC
IS
Theanine
0 10 20 30 40
min
Figure 4.8 Chromatogram of a standard solution of 250 μM L- tryptophan (IS), 1 mM L-theanine,

1 mM caffeine, EGC, 0.25 mM EC, 0.25 mM, 1 mM EGCG, 1 mM GCG and 0.25 mM ECG detected
at UV (A) 280 nm and (B) 210 nm
50
A mAbs
Data:Z5051A.D01 Method:Z5051A.M01
Chrom:Z5051A.C01 Atten:9
Ch=1
Caffeine
EGCG
400
200
IS
ECG
GCG
EC
EGC
0 10 20 30 40 50
min
B mAbs
Data:Z5051B.D01 Method:Z5051B.M01
Chrom:Z5051B.C01 Atten:11
Ch=2
2000
Caffeine EGCG
EGC
1000
IS EC
ECG
Theaninea
GCG
0 10 20 30 40 50
min
Figure 4.9 Chromatogram of a typical green tea sample detected at UV (A) 280 nm and (B) 210
nm
51
4.5 Effect of Sample Preparation on Chemical Constituents
In order to improve the statistical robustness of the field studies, freshly harvested green tea shoots
were quickly frozen and stored (at -20°C). Before analysis the samples were thawed and quickly dried
by microwave.
A comparison of freshly-frozen leaves (ie frozen samples) to processed teas was made. Figures 4.10
and 4.11 show that the amounts of the different constituents in the freshly-frozen samples correlated
very well with the amounts measured in the traditionally processed teas.
A 30 B 10
9
Content of EGC (mg/g dry weight)
25
Content of EC (mg/g dry weight)

8
7
20
6
15 5
4
10
3
Green Tea Leaves 2 Green Tea Leaves

5
Made Green Teas 1 Made Green Teas
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Samples Samples
C D
60 8
7
Content of EGCG (mg/g dry weight)
Content of ECG (mg/g dry weight)
50
6
40
5
30 4
3
20
Green Tea Leaves 2 Green Tea Leaves
10 Made Green Teas 1 Made Green Teas
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Samples Samples
Figure 4.10 Comparison of the content of (A) EGC, (B) EC, (C) EGCG and (D) ECG in freshly-
frozen, and dried by microwave, green tea leaf samples grown at Somersby Research Station
and Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara and those of the corresponding traditionally
processed teas (Made Green Teas)
* The lines joining the points are there to help in the visual comparison and do not imply any
connection or continuity between the samples
52
A 30 B
35
Content of L- Theanine (mg/g dry weight)
Content of Caffeine (mg/g dry weight)

25 30
25
20
20
15
15
10
10
Green Tea Leaves Green Tea Leaves
5 5
Made Green Teas Made Green Teas
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Samples Samples
C 100
D 0.50
Ratio (Theanine/Total Catechins without GCG)
Content of Total Catechins without GCG
90 0.45
80 0.40
70 0.35
(mg/g dry weight)
60 0.30
50 0.25
40 0.20
30 0.15
20 Green Tea Leaves 0.10 Green Tea Leaves
10 Made Green Teas 0.05 Made Green Teas

0 0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Samples Samples
Figure 4.11 Comparison of the content of (A) theanine, (B) caffeine, (C) total catechin and (D)
the theanine to total catechin ratio in freshly-frozen, and dried by microwave, green tea leaf
samples grown at Somersby Research Station and Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara and
those of the corresponding traditionally processed teas (Made Green Teas)
* The lines joining the points are there to help in the visual comparison and do not imply any
connection or continuity between the samples
All the Pearson correlation coefficients were ≥ 0.78 for the constituents compared, indicating that
there was a strong positive association between each compound in the freshly-frozen leaf samples
compared to the traditionally processed teas. This meant that the newly developed freshly-frozen and
microwave method for the storage and preparation of green tea samples for measuring green tea
constituents could be applied to subsequent field studies to increase the replicates compared to the
single sample normally used for the processed green tea produced at the pilot plant at Somersby
Research Station.
4.6 Other Quality Parameters
Evaluation of techniques for measuring green tea leaf colour

In addition to chemical constituents, leaf colour is an important visual indicator of green tea quality at
harvest. The darker (more green, more leaf chlorophyll) the green tea leaf / shoot, the higher the
53
quality of the processed product. In this project, a number of methods were used to quantify the
‘greenness’ of tea leaves. These included:
1. Minolta SPAD to measure colour index
2. Minolta CR-400 Chroma meter, using the CIELAB (L*, a*, b*) colour space abbreviation and
expressed as Hue angle (Ho)
3. Chlorophyll concentration in leaves.
1. Minolta SPAD-502 Chlorophyll Meter

The Minolta SPAD determines the relative amount of chlorophyll
present by measuring the absorbance at two wavelength regions.
Chlorophyll has characteristic absorbance peaks in the blue (400-500
nm) and the red (600-700 nm) regions, with no transmittance in the
near-infrared region. The SPAD measures the absorbance of the leaf
in the red and near-infrared regions, and then uses the two
transmittances to calculate a numerical value which is proportional to
the amount of chlorophyll in the leaf.
2. Minolta CR-400 Chroma meter

The Minolta CR-400 Chroma meter, using the CIELAB (L*, a*, b*)
colour space abbreviation and expressed as Ho is the international
standard method in post-harvest physiology to measure colour of
horticultural produce. This was trialled for use as a measure of
chlorophyll and ‘green-ness’ on green tea leaves.
3. Chlorophyll Content
The chlorophyll (Chl) content of green tea leaves was determined by
N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) extraction of the leaves and spectroscopy (Inskeep and Bloom, 1984).
DMF is a convenient solvent for Chl extraction since it is effective on intact leaves and chlorophyll is
stable in DMF.
The simultaneous equations necessary for quantifying chlorophyll a (Chl a), chlorophyll b (Chl b), or
total Chl in DMF in the absence of other chlorophyllous pigments are:
Chl a = 12.70A664.5 - 2.79A647; Chl b = 20.70 A647 - 4.62A664.5; total Chl = 17.90A647 + 8.08A664.5, where
A = absorbance in 1.00 cm cuvettes and Chl = milligrams per litre (Inskeep and Bloom, 1984).
Evaluation of Methods of Leaf ‘Green-ness’

Shading of the green tea plants was used to increase the chlorophyll concentration, hence green colour
of leaves, so that these evaluation methods could be evaluated.
Minolta CR-400 Chroma meter

Table 4.3 compares the use of the Minolta CR-400 Chroma meter with the actual chlorophyll content
of the leaf and shows different non-destructive measures can be used to differentiate leaf colour
quality. The Minolta SPAD also showed a higher mean index under shade.
54
Table 4.3 Comparison of hue angle as measured with the Minolta CR-400 Chroma meter and
the chlorophyll content (μg.cm-2). The standard error around the mean is shown in brackets. (n
= 5)
Shading treatment Chlorophyll concentration Hue angle as measured by
(μg.cm-2) Minolta CR-400 Chroma meter
Row A
Shade (80%) 65.9 (1.9) 130.6 (0.64)
No shade 48.8 (1.6) 125.4 (0.30)
Row B
Shade (80%) 66.6 (1.8) 128.5 (0.16)
No shade 56.4 (1.9) 126.5 (0.46)
Minolta SPAD-502 Chlorophyll Meter

The Minolta SPAD method was compared with the analysis of chlorophyll and showed there was a
linear relationship between Minolta SPAD and chlorophyll content in Yabukita green tea leaves
(Figure 4.12). The use of the Minolta SPAD was preferred to chlorophyll analysis because it is quick,
non-destructive and easy to use, and highlights that the Minolta SPAD Index is a useful indicator of
leaf colour quality. This technique was used extensively in agronomic and shading studies (Section 5).
0.8
0.7 y = 0.0093x - 0.0154

Chlorophyll concentration (ug/mm2)
R2 = 0.8359
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
SPAD Index
Figure 4.12 Relationship between Minolta SPAD index and the chlorophyll content of freshly
harvested new season Yabukita green tea leaves. (n = 71)
Leaf and Shoot Nitrogen Status

Leaf total nitrogen (N) concentration is an important indicator of green tea quality. Developing tools
for on-farm measurement of leaf N will be important for the development of the industry. Some
literature indicates that the Minolta SPAD can give very good correlations to leaf nitrogen in some
agricultural situations (Prost and Jeuffroy, 2007; Singh et al., 2007). However the results presented in
Figure 4.13 shows that the SPAD index was not a good indicator of N status of harvested green tea
leaves. Comparison of chlorophyll and total N was not carried out and further work is required to
assist the on-farm management of N in green tea crops.
55
5
Leaf total N (%)

3
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
SPAD Index
Figure 4.13 Relationship between SPAD Index and green tea leaf total N in freshly harvested
new season Yabukita green tea leaves
4.7 Within Plant Variability

The variability of quality (leaf colour) within a single plant was investigated by measuring the Minolta
SPAD readings on the first fully emerged leaf of twenty shoots within the same single Sayamakaroi
grown under 60% shade at Somersby Research Station in October 2004. The results are presented in
Figure 4.14 and show that the average was 54.5 units with a standard deviation about the mean of 7.5.
The range of values ranged from 33.4 – 65.4 units. This is a wide range of readings from the same
plant, highlighting the need for adequate sampling and replication for the measurement of leaf SPAD
Minolta readings.
70
60
50
SPAD units
40
30
20
10
0
1
2
4
5
7
8
e
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
A v 20
ag
er
Figure 4.14 Minolta SPAD measurements on the first fully emerged leaves from twenty
individual shoots from a single Sayamakaroi plant grown under 60% shade at Somersby
Research Station. The average (54.5 units) is highlighted on the right (October 2004)
A similar study with a single Yabukita plant at Somersby Research Station was conducted on 20
October 2004. The variability in Minolta SPAD measurements between twenty shoots from the sample
Yabukita plant are shown in Figure 4.15. Individual leaves from ‘5-leaf shoots’ were individually
measured (1 = first fully emerged leaf, 2 = second leaf, 3 = third leaf, 4 = fourth leaf).
56
80
70
60
50
SPAD units
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
80
70
60
50
SPAD units
40
30
20
10
0
1 234 123 41 2 34 12 3 412 3 41 23 4 12 34 1 234 1 2 341 23 4 123 4
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Average
Figure 4.15 Variability in Minolta SPAD measurements between twenty shoots from a single
Yabukita plant at Somersby Research Station on 20 October 2004. Individual leaves from ‘5-leaf
shoots’ were individually measured (1 = first fully emerged leaf, 2 = second leaf, 3 = third leaf, 4
= fourth leaf). The average (and standard deviation around the mean) of each leaf of all twenty
shoots is shown in the last position (bottom right)
57
5. Agronomy
The production of high quality green tea requires significant agronomic management and input. This
section reports on the research conducted on two important management factors to produce high
quality green tea; shading and nutrition.
5.1 Shading
As discussed in Section 1, it was thought that the application of shading over the crop would be a
significant factor in growing high quality green tea (Figure 1.4) as there is a higher level of incident
solar radiation on the NSW Central Coast, when compared to Shizuoka (Japan). In addition, the
production of some specialist high quality green teas in Japan (such as gyokuro), are shaded for
several weeks before harvest. Therefore, hail netting (50% shading) was initially established over the
NSW DPI Somersby Research Station at the time of establishing the green tea planting in 1998. This
was later removed in May 2005 to compare true shading treatments with full sun exposure.
This section will describe and discuss the results from the shading trials conducted during the project;
i.e. growing seasons 2004/5, 2005/6 and 2006/7.
5.1.2 2004/5 Shading Experiments

The shading experiments at NSW DPI Somersby Research Station during the 2004 season were
conducted under established 50% hail netting (Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1 Overhead hail netting (shade cloth) at the NSW DPI Somersby Research Station
(2004)
5.1.2.1 Effect of shading quality of 2004 first harvest green tea

Methods
Different shade cloths (60% and 90% shading) were applied six days before harvest to individual
mature green tea plants at the Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara (Figure 5.2). The Narara green
tea site did not have any shade covering (Figure 5.2). Ten individual plants (replicates) of Yabukita
and five individual plants (replicates) of Sayamakaori were used as treatment units. Unshaded plants
were treated as controls for both varieties.
Harvest of individual plants occurred on 14 October 2004 (Figure 5.3) and Minolta SPAD
measurements on the first fully emerged leaf were taken (Section 4.6). Shoot samples were frozen for
later chemical analysis.
58
Figure 5.2 Application of 60% and 90% shade cloth on Yabukita and Sayamakaori green tea
plants at Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara (October 2004)
Figure 5.3 Harvest of individual green tea plants at Gosford Horticultural Institute, NSW DPI
Results
The results of the Minolta SPAD measurements on Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green tea shoots grown
under full sun, 60% or 90% shade at the Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara are presented in Figure
5.4. The results show that the shade treatments increased the Minolta SPAD values (leaf green-ness) in
both varieties.
70
60
50
SPAD units
40
30
20
10
0
Sayamakaroi Sayamakaroi Sayamakaroi Yabukita Yabukita 60% Yabukita 90%
No shade 60% shade 90% shade No shade shade shade
Figure 5.4 Minolta SPAD measurements on emerged leaves of Yabukita and Sayamakaroi
green tea shoots at the first fully emerged leaf grown under full sun, 60% or 90% shade at the
Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara. Five shoots from each of the 9 replicates (individual
plants) were recorded. Error bars are standard deviations around the mean. (October 2004)
59
The effect of applying the different shade cloths to the content of caffeine, catechins and theanine of
2004 first harvest Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green tea is presented in Table 5.1. The results show that
the shading treatments reduced the levels of total catechins and increased the levels of theanine in both
varieties, resulting in an increase in the theanine / total catechin ration of the shaded treatments.
Table 5.1 Effect of different shade cloth applied six days before harvest on the content of
caffeine, catechins and theanine of first harvest Yabukita (top) and Sayamakaroi (bottom)
green tea at the Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara. (14 October 2004)
Total THE
Caffeine EC EGC EGCG ECG Catechins Theanine / TC
(TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
Yabukita
No 21.6 3.4 15.3 30.6 4.9 54.1 18.1 0.33

shade
60% 22.9 3.1 12.9 30.6 4.2 50.7 21.2 0.42
90% 23.3 3.0 11.8 29.6 4.0 48.4 20.5 0.42
Sayamakaroi
No 23.3 3.0 13.7 28.8 4.8 50.3 16.9 0.33

shade
60% 24.9 2.9 11.8 26.5 4.3 45.4 19.2 0.42
90% 28.8 2.8 11.2 30.0 4.8 48.7 20.8 0.43
Each value represents one replicate or the mean of two replicates per sample.
Each sample was analysed in triplicate
5.1.2.2 Effect of timing of the shade application on quality of 2004 first harvest
tea at the Somersby Research Station
Methods
The green tea plantation at the Somersby Research Station was already covered with 50% hail netting
over the entire block (Figure 5.1). Shade cloth (90%) was applied five and 15 days before harvest over
three adjoining rows of Yabukita (Figure 5.5). ‘Unshaded’ Yabukita plants were treated as controls.
There were six replicates of each treatment.
Minolta SPAD measurements were taken from the leaves of different leaf stages (first and second,
third and fourth leaf stages) (Figure 5.6). Shoot samples were frozen for later chemical analysis. Green
tea was harvested and processed at Somersby Research Station on 14 October 2004.
60
Figure 5.5 Shade cloth (90%) was applied 5 and 15 days before harvest on Yabukita green tea
plants at the Somersby Research Station (October 2004)
Figure 5.6 Different shoot sections for analysis within a single green tea shoot. Section 1 is the
emerging tip and first leaf. Section 2 is the first fully emerged leaf. Section 3 is the second leaf
and Section 4 is the third fully emerged leaf
Results
The results of the Minolta SPAD measurements are presented in Figure 5.7 and show that the leaves of
the first section (youngest leaves) were the lowest Minolta SPAD readings (less green). However,
shading increased the levels of Minolta SPAD readings. This was not true of the other shoot sections,
where there was no difference between shaded and non-shaded treatments.
61
70
60
50
SPAD units
40 control
5 days
30 15 days
20
10
0
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4
Figure 5.7 Effect of timing of shading on the Minolta SPAD measurements on emerged leaves
of Yabukita green tea shoots at different maturities at Somersby Research Station. Individual
leaves from ‘5-leaf shoots’ were individually measured (1 = first fully emerged leaf, 2 = second
leaf, 3 = third leaf, 4 = fourth leaf). Five shoots from each of the 6 replicates were measured.
Error bars are standard deviations around the mean. (12 October 2004)
Table 5.2 shows the results of the combined data of all the shoots on the content of caffeine, catechins
and theanine of the processed green tea quality from the 2004 first harvest green tea at the Somersby
Research Station. The data shows there was a significant increase in the level of theanine in the
longest shade treatment (15 days before harvest). The level of catechins remained similar, but the large
increase in theanine with the shading treatments resulted in significant increase in the theanine to total
catechin ratio of the shaded treatments.
Table 5.2 Effect of delaying shading application before harvest on the content of caffeine,
catechins and theanine of first harvest Yabukita green tea from Somersby Research Station.
Combined data (all shoot sections) (13 October 2004)
Total THE
(TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
No 23.5 3.3 13.4 23.2 3.2 43.1 26.6 0.62
shade
5 days 30.6 3.2 11.7 28.1 4.0 47.0 38.9 0.83
15 days 33.5 2.8 8.8 28.5 4.1 44.2 61.3 1.39
Each value represents the mean of two replicates per sample. Each sample was analysed in triplicate
Yabukita Final Product Quality

The results of the NIR analysis of the first harvest Yabukita green tea processed from the different
timings of shading application are shown in Figure 5.8. The results show that shading increased the
quality of the final product and with the greatest increase in quality as a result of the earliest
applications of shade. The AF score for the non-shaded second harvest Yabukita green tea was AF 26
(overall rank 4), whilst there AF score for shading applied 15 days before harvest was AF 35 (overall
rank 3).
62
(a) No shade
Near Infrared (NIR) Quality Analysis of Aracha Tea
Quality Content Rank low less normalmore high Target
Moisture 3.3% 3 > 4.5%
Total nitrogen 4.7% 3 > 5.5%
Free amino acids 2.4% 4 > 3.0%
Theanine 1.4% 4 > 1.5%
Dietary fibre 22.0% 4 < 20%
Tannin 12.6% 1 < 14%
Caffeine 2.3% 3 > 2.5%
Vitamin C 0.36% 4 > 0.5%
AF Score 26 point 4 > 60
AF Score 26
Dietary fibre 22.0% Total nitrogen 4.7%
Free amino acids

Theanine 1.4%
2.4%
(b) 5 days before harvest (c) 15 days before harvest

Near Infrared (NIR) Quality Analysis of Aracha Tea Near Infrared (NIR) Quality Analysis of Aracha Tea
Quality Content Rank low less normalmore high Target Quality Content Rank low less normalmore high Target
Moisture 2.7% 4 > 4.5% Moisture 3.1% 3 > 4.5%
Total nitrogen 5.0% 3 > 5.5% Total nitrogen 5.2% 3 > 5.5%
Free amino acids 2.6% 3 > 3.0% Free amino acids 3.0% 2 > 3.0%
Theanine 1.5% 2 > 1.5% Theanine 1.7% 2 > 1.5%
Dietary fibre 21.9% 3 < 20% Dietary fibre 21.0% 3 < 20%
Tannin 11.7% 1 < 14% Tannin 11.7% 1 < 14%
Caffeine 2.2% 3 > 2.5% Caffeine 2.6% 3 > 2.5%
Vitamin C 0.35% 4 > 0.5% Vitamin C 0.30% 4 > 0.5%
AF Score 29 point 3 > 60 AF Score 35 point 3 > 60
AF Score 29 AF Score 35
Dietary fibre 21.9% Total nitrogen 5.0% Dietary fibre 21.0% Total nitrogen 5.2%
Free amino acids Free amino acids

Theanine 1.5% Theanine 1.7%
2.6% 3.0%
Figure 5.8 NIR quality analysis of first harvest green tea made from Yabukita green tea at
Somersby Research Station (October 2004). Plants were either (a) not shaded prior to harvest
or shaded (b) 5 days before harvest, or (c) 15 days before harvest
63
Sayamakaroi Final Product Quality
The results of the NIR analysis of the first harvest Sayamakaroi green tea processed from the different
timings of shading application are shown in Figure 5.9. The results show that shading increased the
quality of the final product and with the greatest increase in quality as a result of the earliest
applications of shade. The AF score for the non-shaded first harvest Sayamakaroi green tea was AF 26
(overall rank 4), whilst there AF score for shading applied 15 days before harvest was AF 37 (overall
rank 3).
(a) No shade
Moisture 3.2% 3 > 4.5%
Theanine 1.3% 4 > 1.5%
Tannin 12.7% 1 < 14%
Caffeine 2.3% 3 > 2.5%
Vitamin C 0.35% 4 > 0.5%
AF Score 26
Free amino acids

Theanine 1.3%
2.3%

Tannin 11.7% 1 < 14% Tannin 11.8% 1 < 14%

2.7% 3.0%
Figure 5.9 NIR quality analysis of first harvest green tea made from Sayamakaroi green tea at
Somersby Research Station (October 2004). Plants were either (a) not shaded prior to harvest
or shaded (b) 5 days before harvest, or (c) 15 days before harvest
64
5.1.2.3 Distribution of chlorophyll within Sayamakaori new green tea shoots
Methods
third and fourth leaf stages, Figure 5.6) on Sayamakaroi green tea shoots at the 4-, 5- and 6-leaf stage
(Figure 5.10). Four replicates (individual plants) of five shoots each replicate were measured on 11
October 2004.
Figure 5.10 Three (left), four (middle) and five (right) leaf stages of Sayamakaroi green tea
shoots for measurement
Results
The results of the Minolta SPAD measurements on the different leaf stages and within each leaf stage
are illustrated in Figure 5.11. The results show that the leaves away from the growing tip are greener
than the newly emerged shoot. In addition the Minolta SPAD index of the newly emerged leaf on the
4-leaf stage shoot was higher than the same leaf in the 6-leaf shoot. The 4-leaf / shoot is the target
maturity for optimum green tea harvest.
70.0
60.0
50.0
SPAD units
40.0 4 leaf
5 leaf
30.0 6 leaf
20.0
10.0
0.0
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4 Section 5
Figure 5.11 Effect of shoot ‘maturity’ on Minolta SPAD measurements on emerged

Sayamakaroi leaves on shoots at different growth stages grown at Narara (full sun). Individual
leaves from ‘5-leaf shoots’ were individually measured (1 = first fully emerged leaf, 2 = second
leaf, 3 = third leaf, 4 = fourth leaf). Five shoots from each of the 4 replicates (individual plants)
were measured (11 October 2004)
65
5.1.2.4 Comparison of fresh Yabukita and Sayamakaroi 2004 first harvest green
tea shoots
Methods
third and fourth leaf stages) on Sayamakaori and Yabukita green tea shoots at the 5-leaf stage (Figure
5.6). All plants were grown at the Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara in the full sun. Five
replicates (individual plants) of five shoots per replicate were measured on 13 October 2004. Shoot
samples were frozen for later chemical analysis (Section 4.4).
Results
The results of the Minolta SPAD readings of the different leaf stages of Yabukita and Sayamakaroi
leaves is presented in Figure 5.12 and shows that the youngest section (Section 1) had the lowest
SPAD reading. In all cases in this experiment, the Sayamakaroi had higher Minolta SPAD readings
than Yabukita.
70
60
50
SPAD units
40
Sayamakaroi
Yabukita
30
20
10
0
Figure 5.12 Minolta SPAD measurements on emerged leaves of Yabukita and Sayamakaroi
green tea shoots of different growth stages grown at the Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara
in the full sun. Individual leaves from ‘5-leaf shoots’ were individually measured (1 = first fully
emerged leaf, 2 = second leaf, 3 = third leaf, 4 = fourth leaf). 5 replicates of 5 shoots each
replicate (13 October 2004)
The results of the effects of the leaf position on the content of caffeine, catechins and theanine in the
first harvest Yabukita and Sayamakaroi plants grown in the full sun at Gosford Horticultural Institute,
Narara are presented in Tables 5.3 and 5.4. The results show that in general the chemical components
(caffeine, catechins and theanine) in both varieties decline with the different leaves down the growing
shoot. The youngest shoot (leaf section 1) had the highest levels of caffeine, total catechins and
theanine, while the oldest shoot section (section 4) had the lowest concentrations of these compounds.
However it is interesting to note that the theanine to total catechins ratio remains relatively stable
across the different leaf / shoot sections.
66
Table 5.3 Effect of leaf position in the Yabukita green tea shoot on the content of caffeine,
catechins and theanine of first harvest Yabukita plants grown in the full sun at Gosford
Horticultural Institute, Narara (13 October 2004)
Total THE
Leaf Caffeine EC EGC EGCG ECG Catechins Theanine / TC
Position (TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
Leaf 1 28.0 3.0 10.8 47.8 6.6 68.4 22.7 0.33 ±
± 2.9a ± 0.3a ± 1.02a ± 7.6a ± 1.0a ± 8.3a ± 4.6a 0.13a
Leaf 2 22.2 4.1 15.7 37.90 3.9 61.6 25.5 0.40 ±
± 1.4b ± 0.5b ± 1.6b ± 4.8a ± 0.4b ± 6.8a ± 0.6a 0.09a
Leaf 3 16.6 3.3 14.6 37.5 3.4 58.9 17.7 0.30 ±
± 1.9c ± 0.2a ± 1.9b ± 5.7a ± 1.1b ± 7.8b ± 2.7a 0.13a
Leaf 4 13.3 3.3 13.3 27.2 2.8 46.7 15.1 0.32±
± 1.9c ± 0.4a ± 2.5ab ± 4.6b ± 0.8b ± 6.7c ± 3.2b 0.13a
Each value represents the mean ± SD of five replicates per sample.
Values not sharing a superscript letter in the same column are significantly different at p<0.05.
Table 5.4 Effect of leaf position in the Sayamakaroi green tea shoot on the content of caffeine,
catechins and theanine of first harvest Sayamakaroi plants grown in the full sun at Gosford
Horticultural Institute, Narara (13 October 2004)
Total THE
Leaf Caffeine EC EGC EGCG ECG Catechins Theanine / TC
Position (TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
Leaf 1 35.3 4.0 12.9 48.9 9.0 74.9 22.7 0.30 ±
± 3.9a ± 0.3a ± 0.9ab ± 2.9a ± 2.0a ± 8.3a ± 3.2a 0.13a
Leaf 2 30.7 4.2 14.8 33.3 5.5 57.8 22.7 0.38 ±
± 2.1b ± 0.2a ± 0.5a ± 4.0b ± 0.8b ± 5.2b ± 3.4a 0.09a
Leaf 3 19.5 3.7 14.9 28.7 4.3 ± 51.7 20.6 0.39 ±
± 2.2c ± 0.3a ± 2.0a ± 2.2bc 0.4bc ± 4.2b ± 3.2a 0.13a
Leaf 4 13.7 2.8 10.0 21.7 2.9 37.4 12.2 0.32 ±
± 2.1c ± 0.7b ± 2.4b ± 5.1c ± 0.7b ± 8.0c ± 2.7b 0.13a
Each value represents the mean ± SD of five replicates per sample.
Values not sharing a superscript letter in the same column are significantly different at p<0.05
A similar study examining the amino acid content of different leaf numbers in first harvest green tea in
Japan is summarised in Table 5.5. Kimura (2006) reports there is a gradient of amino acids down the
green tea shoot, with the highest concentration in the first leaf, and the lowest in the fifth leaf.
Table 5.5 Amino acid content of different leaves on the growing shoot in first harvest green tea
(from Kimura, 2006)
Leaf position number Amino acid content (%)
First leaf 3.51%
Second leaf 3.05%
Third leaf 2.77%
Fourth leaf 1.69%
Fifth leaf 1.32%
67
5.1.2.5 Effect of foliar nitrogen application on green tea leaf colour
A small scoping experiment was conducted on ten Yabukita plants at Somersby. Five individual plants
were sprayed eight days before harvest with a nitrogen foliar spray (ammonium nitrate / urea, 42%
w/v) until ‘leaf drip’ (Figure 5.13). Five unsprayed plants were treated as controls. Minolta SPAD
readings of fully emerged leaves from different sections (five shoots per plant) were measured of five
leaf shoots were recorded on 13 October 2004.
Figure 5.13 Application of foliar nitrogen (left) spray to drip (right)
Results
There was no increase in Minolta SPAD readings following application of foliar nitrogen eight days
before harvest (Figure 5.14).
70
60
50
SPAD units
40
No Nitrogen
Plus Nitrogen
30
20
10
0
Figure 5.14 Effect of foliar nitrogen application on Minolta SPAD measurements on emerged
leaves of Yabukita green tea shoots of different growth stages. Individual leaves from ‘5-leaf
shoots’ were individually measured (Section 1 = first fully emerged leaf, Section 2 = second
leaf, Section 3 = third leaf, Section 4 = fourth leaf). Five replicates with 5 shoots each replicate.
Error bars are standard deviations around the mean. (October 2004)
68
5.1.2.6 Effect of different shade cloth types on 2004 second harvest tea
Methods
Different shade cloths (60% and 90% shading) were applied six days before harvest to individual
mature green tea plants at the Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara (Figure 5.15). Five individual
plants (replicates) of Yabukita, and nine individual plants (replicates) of Sayamakaori were used as
treatment units. Unshaded plants were treated as controls for both varieties. Harvest of individual
plants occurred on 29 November 2004 and Minolta SPAD measurements on the first fully emerged
leaf of three shoots per plant were measured. Shoot samples were frozen for later chemical analysis.
Figure 5.15 Comparison of 60% and 90% shade cloth used at Gosford Horticultural Institute,
Narara. November 2004
Results
The results of the effects of the different types of shade cloths applied six days before harvest to
Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green plants grown at Narara on the Minolta SPAD readings is presented
in Figure 5.16. The results show the most shaded treatment (90% shade) resulted in higher Minolta
SPAD values in both varieties. This is illustrated in Figure 5.17, where the shaded green tea plants
were visibly greener than non-shaded treatments.
70
60
50
SPAD units
40
30
20
10
0
No shade 60% shade 90% shade No shade 60% shade 90% shade
Yabukita Sayamakaroi
Figure 5.16 Effect of the type of shading on Minolta SPAD measurements on first emerged leaf
of Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green plants grown at Narara. Five replicates of three shoots
each replicate were sampled for Yabukita, and 9 replicates of 3 shoots each for Sayamakaroi.
Error bars are standard deviations around the mean. (29 November 2004)
69
Figure 5.17 Comparison growth of Sayamakaroi green tea plants following application of 60%
(left) and 90% (right) shade cloth 6 days before harvest at Gosford Horticultural Institute,
Narara in November 2004
The effect of the different shade cloths on the content of caffeine, catechins and theanine of second
harvest Yabukita and Sayamakaroi fresh green tea shoots at the Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara
is presented in Tables 5.6 and 5.7. The results of the Yabukita shoots showed that shading increased
the levels of caffeine and some catechins (such as EC and EGC), but shading had no significant effect
on the level of total catechins and theanine. Overall the theanine to total catechin ratio was
significantly greater in the shaded plants then the non-shaded shoots, but there was no difference
between the shaded treatments (Table 5.6). Similarly with the Sayamakaroi green tea shoots, caffeine
and EGC increased with shading. There was also a significant increase in theanine (and the theanine to
total catechin ratio) with shading the Sayamakaroi green tea shoots (Table 5.7).
Table 5.6 Effect of different shade cloth applied six days before harvest on the unprocessed
content of caffeine, catechins and theanine of second harvest Yabukita green tea at the
Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara. (29 November 2004)
Total THE
(TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
No 19.3 ± 4.4 ± 14.3 ± 32.2 ± 4.4 ± 55.4 ± 13.5 ± 0.24 ±
shade 1.0 a 0.5 a 2.78 a 2.9 a 0.4 a 3.3 a 7.0 a 0.12 a
60% 24.1 ± 3.2 ± 11.2 ± 30.0 ± 4.4 ± 48.8 ± 23.1 ± 0.47 ±
0.5 b 0.6 b 1.55 b 7.6 a 1.1 a 10.6 a 11.7 a 0.17 b
90% 24.7 ± 3.3 ± 10.4 ± 28.9 ± 4.4 ± 46.9 ± 23.8 ± 0.51 ±
1.3 b 0.4 b 1.33 b 3.2 a 0.3 a 4.8 a 2.4 a 0.10 b
Each value represents the mean ± SD of five replicates per sample. Values not sharing a superscript
letter in the same column are significant different at p <0.05
70
Table 5.7 Effect of different shade cloth applied six days before harvest on the unprocessed
content of caffeine, catechins and theanine of second harvest Sayamakaroi green tea at the
Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara. (29 November 2004)
Total THE
(TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
No 20.0 ± 3.9 ± 13.8 ± 26.8 ± 4.5 ± 49.1 ± 13.6 ± 0.28 ±
shade 0.3 a 0.4 a 1.3 a 5.5 a 0.78 a 7.9 a 4.9 a 0.14 a
60% 24.2 ± 4.1 ± 10.4 ± 31.6 ± 4.4 ± 50.5 ± 23.7 ± 0.47 ±
1.0 b 0.3 a 0.6 b 4.4 a 0.46 a 5.4 a 4.3 b 0.15 b
90% 24.2 ± 3.9 ± 10.6 ± 26.5 ± 4.3 ± 45.3 ± 25.9 ± 0.57 ±
1.8 b 0.6 a 2.3 b 5.3 a 0.91 a 8.9 a 5.5 b 0.18 b
Each value represents the mean ± SD of five replicates per sample. Values not sharing a superscript
letter in the same column are significant different at p <0.05
The effects of the different shade cloth the content of caffeine, catechins and theanine of second
harvest Yabukita and Sayamakaroi are shown in Table 5.8. The results show the levels of theanine in
Sayamakaroi increased with shading and greatly affected the theanine to total catechin ratio.
Table 5.8 Effect of different shade cloth applied six days before harvest on the content of
caffeine, catechins and theanine of second harvest Yabukita (top) and Sayamakaroi (bottom)
green tea at the Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara. (29 November 2004)
Total THE
(TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
Yabukita
No 21.8 2.8 12.0 33.8 5.0 53.6 15.1 0.28

shade
60% 20.9 2.7 12.0 30.0 4.2 49.8 15.4 0.31
90% 27.1 2.6 11.3 33.6 4.2 51.7 18.6 0.36
Sayamakaroi
No 23.9 3.2 14.2 41.2 6.6 65.2 12.7 0.20

shade
60% 25.5 2.8 12.5 34.0 5.1 54.4 14.3 0.26
90% 32.0 2.8 10.9 34.3 5.0 53.0 24.1 0.46
Each value represents one replicate or the mean of two replicates per sample. Each sample was
analysed in triplicate
71
5.1.2.7 Effect of timing of the shade application on the 2004 second harvest tea
Methods
Shade cloth (90%) was applied five and 15 days before harvest over three adjoining rows of Yabukita
(Figure 5.18). Unshaded Yabukita plants were treated as controls. There were six replicates of each
treatment. Green tea harvest was conducted on 30 November 2004.
Minolta SPAD measurements were taken from the first fully emerged leaf on the 5-leaf shoot. Three
shoots were measured for each individual plant (replicate). Shoot samples were frozen for later
chemical analysis.
Figure 5.18 Shade cloth (90%) applied at different times before harvest over Yabukita green tea
plants at Somersby Research Station (November 2004)
Results
Figure 5.19 shows that the longest period of shading over the Yabukita green tea plants (15 days)
resulted in the highest the Minolta SPAD readings in the second harvest tea in 2004.
70
60
50
SPAD units
40
30
20
10
0
No shade 5 days 15 days
Figure 5.19 Effect of delaying application of shade cloth on Minolta SPAD measurements on
first emerged leaf of Yabukita green plants grown at Somersby Research Station. 6 replicates
of 3 shoots each replicate were sampled. Error bars are standard deviations around the mean.
(30 November 2004)
72
The effects of different timings of shade cloth on the content of caffeine, catechins and theanine of
second harvest Yabukita green tea from Somersby Research Station are presented in Table 5.9. The
data shows that total catechin content is reduced with increasing shade treatment, while the level of
theanine increases. As a consequence the theanine to total catechins ratio increases with increasing
duration of shade.
Table 5.9 Effect of delays in shading application before harvest on the content of caffeine,
catechins and theanine of second harvest Yabukita green tea from Somersby Research Station
(30 November 2004)
Total THE
(TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
No 25.6 3.5 14.9 43.9 7.2 69.5 15.2 0.22
shade
5 days 28.0 2.7 11.5 34.3 5.4 53.9 19.7 0.37
15 days 28.4 2.8 12.3 30.0 4.6 49.7 23.1 0.47
Each value represents one replicate per sample. Each sample was analysed in triplicate.
5.1.2.8 Effect of shading on 2004/5 third harvest green tea at Somersby Research
Station
Methods
Shade cloth (90%) was applied ten days before harvest over three adjoining rows of Yabukita.
Unshaded Yabukita plants were treated as controls. There were six replicates of each treatment. Green
tea harvest was conducted on 25 January 2005. Minolta SPAD measurements were taken from the first
fully emerged leaf on the 5-leaf shoot. Five shoots were measured for each individual plant (replicate).
Results
The effect of shading on the Minolta SPAD readings in shaded third harvest Yabukita green tea shoots
is presented in Figure 5.20 and show that shading increased the levels of leaf green-ness.
70
60
50
SPAD units
40
30
20
10
0
No Shade Shade
Yabukita green plants grown at Somersby Research Station. Shade cloth was applied ten days
before harvest. Six replicates of 5 shoots each replicate were sampled. Error bars are standard
deviations around the mean. (24 January 2005)
73
Table 5.10 describes the effect of shading on the content of caffeine, catechins and theanine of third
harvest Yabukita green tea from Somersby Research Station. The results show that shading decreased
the levels of total catechins and increased the levels theanine, hence the theanine to total catechin ratio
was higher in the shaded treatment.
Table 5.10 Effect of shade application ten days before harvest on the content of caffeine,
catechins and theanine of third harvest Yabukita green tea from Somersby Research Station
(24 January 2005)
Total THE
(TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
No 17.4 3.1 16.6 33.3 5.0 57.9 10.3 0.18
shade
10 days 20.1 2.7 14.2 27.9 4.4 49.2 12.9 0.26
Each value represents one replicate per sample. Each sample was analysed in triplicate
5.1.2.9 Effect of shading on 2004/5 third harvest green tea at Gosford

Methods
Shade cloth (90%) was applied ten days before the third harvest over individual plants of Yabukita
and Sayamakaroi at Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara. Adjoining unshaded plants were treated as
controls. There were four replicates of Yabukita and eight replicates of Sayamakaroi. Green tea
harvest was conducted on 25 January 2005. Minolta SPAD measurements were taken from the first
Shoot samples were frozen for later chemical analysis.
Results
The results of the Minolta SPAD measurements on first emerged leaf of Sayamakaroi and Yabukita
green plants grown at Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara are presented in Figure 5.21. The results
show that in this experiment, shading only had minor affects on the third harvest Minolta SPAD
readings.
70
60
50
SPAD units
40
30
20
10
0
No Shade Shade No Shade Shade
Sayamakaroi Yabukita
Sayamakaroi and Yabukita green plants grown at Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara. 8
replicates (individual plants) of Sayamakaroi and 4 replicates (individual plants) of Yabukita
each composed of a 5 shoot sample. Error bars are standard deviations around the mean. (24
January 2005)
74
The results of the shade application on the content of caffeine, catechins and theanine of third harvest
Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green tea are presented in Table 5.11. The data shows there was an
increase in the level of theanine in Sayamakaroi plants due to shading. The levels of total catechins
remained the same (or declined) with shading in both varieties.
catechins and theanine of third harvest Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green tea from Gosford
Horticultural Institute, Narara. (24 January 2005)
Total THE
(TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
Yabukita
No 17.4 3.1 16.6 33.3 5.0 57.9 10.3 0.18

shade
Plus 20.1 2.7 14.2 27.9 4.4 49.2 12.9 0.26
shade
Sayamakaroi
No 16.9 2.8 13.4 27.5 4.4 48.1 9.6 0.20

shade
Plus 20.1 2.7 14.4 24.5 4.0 45.7 16.2 0.35
shade
5.1.2.10 Effect of shading on fourth 2004/5 harvest green tea at Somersby

Research Station
Methods
Shade cloth (90%) was applied ten days before harvest over three adjoining rows of Yabukita.
Unshaded Yabukita plants were treated as controls. There were six replicates of each treatment. Green
tea harvest was conducted on 28 March 2005. Minolta SPAD measurements were taken from the first
Results
The effects of shade cloth on Minolta SPAD measurements on first emerged leaf of Yabukita plants
grown at Somersby Research Station for the fourth harvest green tea are presented in Figure 5.22. The
data shows the shading treatment had higher levels of Minolta SPAD units than the untreated control.
There were no differences in the contents of caffeine, catechins and theanine of fourth harvest
Yabukita green tea between shaded and non-shaded plants (Table 5.12).
75
70
60
50
SPAD units
40
30
20
10
0
No Shade Shade
Yabukita green tea plants grown at Somersby Research Station. Shade cloth was applied ten
days before harvest. Six replicates of five shoots each replicate were sampled. Error bars are
standard deviations around the mean. (28 March 2005)
Table 5.12 Effect of shade application five days before harvest on the content of caffeine,
catechins and theanine of fourth harvest Yabukita green tea from Somersby Research Station
(28 March 2005)
Total THE
(TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
No 19.8 8.6 50.6 30.2 7.8 97.2 19.2 0.20
shade
5 days 19.8 8.5 46.0 35.9 9.7 100.1 19.2 0.19
5.1.2.11 Effect of shading on fourth 2004/5 harvest green tea at Gosford

Methods
Shade cloth (90%) was applied ten days before the fourth harvest over individual plants of Yabukita
and Sayamakaroi at Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara. Adjoining unshaded plants were treated as
controls. There were 5 replicates of Yabukita and eight replicates of Sayamakaroi. Green tea harvest
was conducted on 28 March 2005. Minolta SPAD measurements were taken from the first fully
emerged leaf on the 5-leaf shoot. Five shoots were measured for each individual plant (replicate).
Shoot samples were frozen for later chemical analysis.
Results
The results of the effect of shade cloth on Minolta SPAD measurements on first emerged leaf of
Sayamakaroi and Yabukita green plants grown at Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara are shown in
Figure 5.23. Ten days shading increased the Minolta SPAD readings in Sayamakaroi, but not in the
Yabukita shoots.
The effect of shade application ten days before harvest on the content of caffeine, catechins and
theanine of 2004/5 fourth harvest Yabukita and Sayamakaroi is presented in Table 5.13, and shows
little difference between shaded and non-shaded fourth harvest tea.
76
70
60
50
SPAD units
40
30
20
10
0
No Shade Shade No Shade Shade
Sayamakaroi Yabukita
Sayamakaroi and Yabukita green plants grown at Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara. 8
replicates (individual plants) of Sayamakaroi and 5 replicates (individual plants) of Yabukita
each composed of a 5 shoot sample. Error bars are standard deviations around the mean. (28
March 2005)
catechins and theanine of fourth harvest Yabukita (top) and Sayamakaroi (bottom) green tea
from Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara (28 March 2005)
Total THE
(TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
Yabukita
No 19.4 7.3 45.3 25.6 7.7 85.9 21.9 0.25

shade
Plus 24.4 7.5 48.6 33.0 9.7 98.8 22.8 0.23
shade
Sayamakaroi
No 20.5 8.8 50.3 32.6 9.3 101.0 19.7 0.20

shade
Plus 25.0 9.0 51.3 33.3 9.2 102.8 19.2 0.19
shade
77
The overhead hail netting over the green tea plantation at the NSW DPI Somersby Research Station
was removed in May 2005 to compare true shading treatments with full sun exposure (Figure 5.24).
All future experiments at the Somersby Research Station were unshaded, unless otherwise stated.
Figure 5.24 NSW DPI Somersby Research Station green tea plantation following removal of hail
netting in May 2005
5.1.3.1 Effect of coloured shade cloth on Minolta SPAD readings

Different coloured shade cloths have been shown to have range of physiological effects on plant
growth and metabolism and are widely used in many different areas of horticulture (Perez et al.,
2006). Preliminary experiments were conducted in 2005 to examine the effect of different coloured
shade cloth on Minolta SPAD indices.
Methods
Individual Yabukita green tea plants were covered with silver, black, blue shade cloth, whilst
Sayamakaroi green tea plants were covered with red shade cloth and thick black linen. Shade was
applied on 10 October 2005. Unshaded adjoining Yabukita and Sayamakaroi plants were used as
controls (Figure 5.25). Three replicates (blocks) of individual plants of both Yabukita and
Sayamakaroi plants were used at Gosford Horticultural Institute NSW DPI. Green tea shoots samples
were harvested from the treatments 14 days after application of shade cloth (25 October 2005) and the
SPAD Minolta colour measured.
Figure 5.25 Coloured shade cloth on Yabukita (left) and Sayamakaroi (right) plants were used
at Gosford Horticultural Institute NSW DPI (October 2005)
78
Results
The results of the Minolta SPAD measurements on the first true leaf on green tea shoots harvested
from plants shaded with different coloured shade cloth are shown in Figures 5.26, 5.27 and 5.28.
These results show that the type of shading did not positively affect the SPAD values.
Results from the previous section (Section 5.1.2) showed that the application of shading before harvest
improved green tea quality, but would the complete absence of light further improve the quality? The
shoots under the black linen cloth (complete shade) were completely stunted with blackened tips
(Figure 5.28). There was no new growth.
60
50
40
SPAD units
30
20
10
0
Yabukita Yabukita Yabukita Yabukita Sayamakaroi Sayamakaroi Sayamakaroi
Control (no Silver Shade Black Shade Blue Shade Control (no Cloth Red Shade
shade) shade)
Figure 5.26 Effect of shade cloth colour on Minolta SPAD values on Yabukita and Sayamakaroi
first true green tea leaves. 60% different coloured shade cloths were applied as a single layer
14 days before the first harvest tea (2005). Error bars are standard deviations around the mean
(n = 3)
Figure 5.27 Yabukita shoots under different coloured shade cloths. Unshaded control (top left),
black (top right), blue (bottom left) and silver (bottom right)
79
Figure 5.28 Sayamakaori shoots under different coloured shade cloths. Unshaded control (left),
red (middle) and black linen (right). Note severe stunting and blackening of shoots under black
linen cloth
Other observations
The silver shade cloth had a more open weave, which resulted in the emerging green tea shoots
penetrating the silver weave, rather than remaining under the cloth (Figure 5.29).
Figure 5.29 Silver weave shade cloth used to shade Yabukita green tea at Gosford Horticultural
Institute, NSW DPI (October 2005). Note penetration of newly emerged shoots through the
cloth
80
5.1.4.1 Effect of timing of shade application on 2006 first harvest green tea
quality – Individual plants
Methods
Individual Yabukita plants were treated as treatment units and were shaded with 90% black shade
cloth, nine and 16 days before harvest (October 2006). Non-shaded plants were labelled and
considered controls. Three rows of mature Yabukita plants at Somersby Research Station were
considered blocks and three plants within rows were treated as replicates (Figure 5.30). A total of nine
replicates (individual plants). Five shoots from each individual plant were taken as samples for
Minolta SPAD determination.
Figure 5.30 Layout of timing of shading experiment at Somersby Research Station (September
/ October 2006). Shading was applied to nine individual plants 9 or 16 days before first harvest.
Control plants were not shaded
Results - Minolta SPAD

The effect of shading on the Minolta SPAD index of Yabukita green tea leaves shaded for 9 and 16
days before 2006 first harvest are shown in Figure 5.31. There were increases in leaf Minolta SPAD
readings with increasing duration of shading. The unshaded control plants had the lowest Minolta
SPAD readings (25 units) and the longest shading time (16 days of shade before harvest) had the
highest Minolta SPAD index (48 units).
60
50
40
SPAD units
30
20
10
0
No Shade 9 days shade 16 days shade
Figure 5.31 Effect of timing of shading on Minolta SPAD reading on third leaf Yabukita green
tea shoots. Shade was applied 9 and 16 days before sampling at harvest (6 October 2006).
Error bars are standard deviations around the mean (n = 9)
81
5.1.4.2 Effect of timing of shade application on 2006 first harvest green tea
quality – Whole row shading
Methods
Black shade cloth (90%) was applied 16 days (20 September) and nine days (27 September) before
2006 first harvest. An adjacent unshaded row was treated as the control. Each row was a treatment
unit, but five individual plants within each row acted as pseudo replicates. Five shoots from each
individual plant were samples for Minolta SPAD determination. Samples were taken five days before
harvest and at harvest. The green tea was processed at Somersby Research Station and final product
quality determined on 6 October 2006 (Section 4.3)
Results
Minolta SPAD
Figures 5.32 and 5.33 illustrate the Minolta SPAD index for the different timings of green tea
application at different sampling times. Both sampling times show that both the nine and 16 days
shading treatments increased the Minolta SPAD index (i.e. increased / darker green colour), compared
to the unshaded control plants.
60
50
40
SPAD units
30
20
10
0
tea shoots. Shade was applied 5 and 12 days before sampling (5 days before harvest, 2
October 2006). Error bars are standard deviations around the mean (n = 5)
60
50
40
SPAD Units
30
20
10
0
tea shoots. Shade was applied 9 and 16 days before sampling at harvest (6 October 2006).
Error bars are standard deviations around the mean (n = 5)
82
Temperature monitoring within canopy
The temperatures within the green tea canopies of the different treatments were monitored during the
growing season. The temperature loggers were placed in the top of the canopy and were equivalent to
the growing green tea shoots to be harvested.
The results show that the temperature within the non-shaded green tea plants were warmer than the
shaded controls (Figure 5.34), indicating the shade cloth was providing some cooling to the canopy.
On average the maximum temperature in the canopy of the shaded treatments were 27oC, whilst the
temperature in the unshaded canopy was 30oC (Table 5.14).
40
35
30
25
Temperature
no shade
20 16 days shade
9 days shade
15
10
0
0
9
Days
Figure 5.34 Leaf temperatures (oC) recorded under single layer of 90% Japanese shade cloth in
two rows (applied 9 and 16 days before harvest) and with no shade cloth. Temperature loggers
were commenced with addition of second shade cloth (27 September 2006)
Table 5.14 Maximum temp. (oC) recorded of green tea leaves within one single layer of 60%
shade cloth applied 9 and 16 days before harvest with no shade cloth (control) in October 2006
Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Control 29 31 34 28 29 36 24 27 35
Shade 1 26 27 30 25 26 33 22 25 31
Shade 2 28 26 28 24 29 31 21 26 30
Final product quality

The results of the NIR analysis of the first harvest green tea processed from the shading treatments are
presented in Figure 5.35. The results show that shading had a positive effect on final product quality.
The AF score for the non-shaded Yabukita green tea was 64, whilst for the tea shaded for nine days
the AF score was 109 and for the tea shaded for 16 days was AF 72.
83
a. No shade
Quality Content Rank low less normal more high Target
Moisture 3.5% 3 > 4.5%
Theanine 2.5% 1 > 1.5%
Tannin 11.0% 1 < 14%
Caffeine 2.5% 3 > 2.5%
Vitamin C 0.45% 3 > 0.5%
AF Score 64 1 64 point 60pt

AF Score 64
Total nitrogen 6.3% 0.90 6.3% 0.07
Free amino acids 4.4% 0.73 4.4% 0.06
Theanine 2.5% 0.83 2.5% 0.03
Dietary fibre 19.2% 0.63 19.2% 0.12
1.00
Theanine 2.5% Free amino acids 4.4%
b. 9 days shade c. 16 days Shade

Quality Content Rank low less normal more high Target Quality Content Rank low less normal more high Target
Tannin 9.0% 1 < 14% Tannin 9.4% 1 < 14%
AF Score 109 1 ####### 60pt AF Score 72 1 72 point 60pt

Total nitrogen 7.0% 1.00 7.0% 0.07 Total nitrogen 6.7% 0.96 6.7% 0.07
Free amino acids 5.7% 0.95 5.7% 0.06 Free amino acids 4.6% 0.77 4.6% 0.06
Theanine 3.4% 1.00 3.4% 0.03 Theanine 2.7% 0.90 2.7% 0.03
Dietary fibre 17.2% 0.70 17.2% 0.12 Dietary fibre 18.5% 0.65 18.5% 0.12
1.00 1.00
Theanine 3.4% Free amino acids 5.7% Theanine 2.7% Free amino acids 4.6%
Somersby Research Station (October 2006). Plants were (a) not shaded, (b) shaded for 9 days
or (c) shaded for 16 days prior to harvest
84
5.1.4.3 Effect of quantity of shading on 2006 first harvest green tea quality –
Whole row shading
Methods
Rows of Yabukita green tea plants were shaded on 22 September 2006 with a single layer of 60%
shade cloth (Figure 5.36), or a double (folded over) layers of 60% shade cloth (Figure 5.37). An
unshaded row acted as a control. Harvest occurred 10 days later and samples were taken for Minolta
SPAD, phenolic analysis and processing (2 October). Each row was a treatment unit, but five initial
plants within each row acted as pseudo replicates. Five shoots from each individual plant were
samples for Minolta SPAD determination.
Figure 5.36 Single layer of 60% shade cloth (September / October 2006)
Figure 5.37 Double layer of 60% shade cloth (September / October 2006)
Results
The visual colour of the shaded green tea treatments are illustrated Figure 5.38. This clearly shows
visual differences in green colour between treatments. The shaded green teas were significantly darker
green than the unshaded tea (middle row).
Figure 5.38 Yabukita green tea with shade cloth pulled back before harvest showing the
differences in leaf colour between the single layer treatment row (left), unshaded control row
(middle) and double layer treatment row (right) (1 October 2006)
Minolta SPAD
The visual observations in Figure 5.38, are supported with the Minolta SPAD measurements of green
tea leaves from the different shade treatments (Figure 5.39), where the single layer SPAD index was
85
greater than the no shade treatment and the two layers shade SPAD index was greater than the single
layer.
50
40
30
SPAD units
20
10
0
No Shade Single layer Two layers
Figure 5.39 The effect of the quantity of shading on SPAD Minolta values of Yabukita green tea
rows shade with different levels of black shade cloth applied ten days before harvest (October
2006). Error bars are standard deviations around the mean (n = 5)
Temperature monitoring within the canopy

The results show that the temperatures within the non-shaded green tea plants were warmer than the
shaded controls (Figure 5.40). On average the maximum temperature in the canopy of the single and
double layer treatments were 5.4oC and 9.0oC respectively, cooler than the non-shaded green tea plants
(Table 5.15). Conversely the night temperatures were only slightly warmer in the shaded treatments
(Table 5.16).
Table 5.15 Maximum temp. (oC) recorded of green tea leaves within one single layer of 60%
shade cloth, two layers of 60% shade cloth, and with no shade cloth (control) in October 2006
Day Day Day Day Day Average difference
0 1 2 3 4 from unshaded control
Control 35 30 38 31 37
1 layer 29 28 32 26 29 5.4oC cooler
2 layers 28 25 29 23 26 8.0oC cooler
Table 5.16 Minimum temp. (oC) recorded of green tea leaves within one single layer of 60%
shade cloth, two layers of 60% shade cloth, and with no shade cloth (control) in October 2006
Day Day Day Day Day Average difference
0 1 2 3 4 from unshaded control
Control 8.8 6.9 8.0 5.2 5.4
1 layer 9.6 7.5 8.7 5.8 6.1 0.7oC warmer
2 layers 9.8 7.2 9.1 6.1 6.1 0.8oC warmer
86
40
No Shade
1 layer
35
2 layers
30
Temperature (C)
25
20
15
10
0
0
5
Time (days)
Figure 5.40 Leaf temp. (oC) recorded within one single layer of 60% shade cloth, two layers of
60% shade cloth and with no shade cloth (control) (October 2006)
The effect of different levels of shading on the content of caffeine, catechins and theanine of Yabukita
green tea rows from Somersby Research Station are presented in Table 5.17. The results show that
there was a large amount of variation between samples, but the levels of theanine were significantly
highest in the two layer treatment. The level of theanine in the two layers was over double that of the
single layer and non-shaded treatment. This is also reflected in the theanine to total catechin ratio,
which also significantly increased with the more shading.
Table 5.17 The effect of different levels of shading on the content of caffeine, catechins and
theanine of Yabukita green tea rows from Somersby Research Station (October 2006)
Total THE
(TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
No 23.6 5.6 4.9 58.6 7.6 76.7 48.7 0.75±
shade ±6.7 a ±3.4 a ±4.8 a ±34.7 a
±5.2 a ±36.1 a ±17.1 a 0.37 a
1 layer 23.1 5.3 6.4 67.3 6.0 84.9 48.9 0.58±
x 60% ±9.7 a ±3.7 a ±4.0 a ±14.6 a ±2.4 a ±21.5 a ±36.8 a 0.39 a
2 layers 27.2 8.0 2.4 71.8 3.8 86.1 108.9 1.56±
x 60% ±10.1 a ±4.1 a ±2.2 a ±33.2 a ±2.5 a ±33.8 a ±41.5 b 0.74 b
Each value represents the mean ± SD of three or four replicates per sample. Values not sharing a
superscript letter in the same column are significantly different at p<0.05
Final Product Quality

The results of the NIR analysis of the first harvest green tea processed from the shading treatments are
shown in Figure 5.41. The results show that shading had a significant positive effect on final product
quality. The AF score for the non-shaded Yabukita green tea was 55, whilst there was no difference in
the AF scores between the single layer (AF 75) and double layer (AF 73) of 60% shading 10 days
before harvest. It is interesting to note that there was no difference between the shaded treatments in
the levels of theanine as measured on the final processed tea by NIR (as compared to Table 5.17).
87
a. No shade
Quality Content Rank low less normal more high Target
Moisture 1.7% 5 > 4.5%
Theanine 2.2% 1 > 1.5%
Tannin 12.1% 1 < 14%
Caffeine 2.7% 3 > 2.5%
Vitamin C 0.46% 3 > 0.5%
AF Score 55 0.916666667 55 point 60pt

AF Score 55
Total nitrogen 5.9% 0.84 5.9% 0.07
Free amino acids 3.9% 0.65 3.9% 0.06
Theanine 2.2% 0.73 2.2% 0.03
Dietary fibre 19.1% 0.63 19.1% 0.12
1.00
Theanine 2.2% Free amino acids 3.9%
b. Single layer of 60% shade cloth c. Double layer of 60% shade cloth
Quality Content Rank low less normal more high Target Quality Content Rank low less normal more high Target
Tannin 11.2% 1 < 14% Tannin 10.3% 1 < 14%
AF Score 75 1 75 point 60pt AF Score 73 1 73 point 60pt

Total nitrogen 6.4% 0.91 6.4% 0.07 Total nitrogen 6.5% 0.93 6.5% 0.07
Free amino acids 4.6% 0.77 4.6% 0.06 Free amino acids 4.6% 0.77 4.6% 0.06
Theanine 2.6% 0.87 2.6% 0.03 Theanine 2.6% 0.87 2.6% 0.03
Dietary fibre 17.9% 0.67 17.9% 0.12 Dietary fibre 18.2% 0.66 18.2% 0.12
1.00 1.00
Theanine 2.6% Free amino acids 4.6% Theanine 2.6% Free amino acids 4.6%
Somersby Research Station (October 2006). Plants were (a) not shaded, (b) shaded with a
single layer of 60% shade cloth or (c) shaded with two layers of 60% shade cloth ten days prior
to harvest
88
5.1.4.4 Effect of different shading two weeks before 2006 second harvest
Methods
Different levels of shading were applied to Yabukita green tea rows at Somersby Research Station on
13 November 2006, two weeks before the second 2006 harvest (Figure 5.42):
a. control, no shade cloth
b. single layer of 60% black shade cloth
c. two layers of 60% black shade cloth
d. two layers of 90% black shade cloth
The levels of SPAD Minolta were measured on the third leaf of five shoots. This was replicated on
five different plants within the row. Green tea was harvested on 26 November 2006, and processed on
the same day.
Figure 5.42 Whole row application of different quantities of shade cloth at Somersby Research
Station (November 2006)
Results
Minolta SPAD
The Minolta SPAD index for the different levels of shade is illustrated in Figure 5.43. The level of
shading generally increased the SPAD index of any shading treatment above the unshaded control,
although the results were not as clear as the first harvest (Figure 5.39)
70
60
50
SPAD units
40
30
20
10
0
Control - No 60% x 1 Layer 60% x 2 Layers 90% x 1 Layer 90% x 2 Layers
shade
Figure 5.43 The effect of the quantity of shading on SPAD Minolta values of Yabukita green tea
rows shade with different levels of black shade cloth (November 2006). Error bars are standard
deviations around the mean (n = 5)
The effect of the different levels of shading on the content of caffeine, catechins and theanine of
Yabukita green tea rows from the 2006 second harvest tea is presented in Table 5.18. The data shows
no consistent effects of shading on the chemical components.
89
Table 5.18 The effect of different levels of shading on the content of caffeine, catechins and
theanine of Yabukita green tea rows from 2006 second harvest (November 2006)
Total THE
(TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
No 49.9 3.1 2.6 44.8 5.6 56.1 64.9 1.18±
shade ±13.9 a ±0.7 a ±1.1 a ±10.2 a ±10.2 a ±12.0 a ±13.9 ab 0.23 a
1 layer 57.4 14.3 5.9 52.4 9.4 82.0 57.9 0.71±
x 60% ±14.3 a ±7.8 ±3.8 ±21.0 a ±2.7 a ±6.6 c ±14.3 a 0.21 b
2 layers 51.2 17.6 7.1 22.4 10.8 57.9 51.2 0.90±
x 60% ±23.2 a ±8.1 ±5.8 ±10.8 b ±4.2 ab ±21.5 ab ±23.2 a 0.38ab
1 layer 78.4 14.6 6.9 40.0 13.5 75.0 78.4 1.10±
x 90% ±27.3 a ±10.1 ±6.3 ±8.1 a ±8.9 ab ±18.3 bc ±27.3 b 0.47ab
2 layers 62.0 19.7 9.8 38.8 18.4 87.2 62.0 0.72±
x 90% ±21.8 a ±17.0 ±9.8 ±7.5 a ±13.9 b ±34.7 c ±21.8 ab 0.10 b
Each value represents the mean ± SD of three or four replicates per sample. Values not sharing a
superscript letter in the same column are significantly different at p<0.05
The results of the NIR analysis of the second harvest green tea processed from the shading treatments
are shown in Figure 5.44. The results show that the second harvest was significantly inferior quality to
the first harvest (Figure 5.41). Shading only had a beneficial effect on final product quality with the
higher levels of shade (double layers of 60% and 90% shade). The AF score for the non-shaded
second harvest Yabukita green tea was 19, whilst there AF scores for the 60% double layers was AF
26 and double layer 90% was AF 39.
90
a. No Shade b. Single layer (60%)
Tannin 13.8% 2 < 14% Tannin 12.2% 1 < 14%

1.8% 1.9%
c. Double layer of 60% shade cloth d. Double layer of 90% shade cloth
Tannin 9.9% 1 < 14% Tannin 9.4% 1 < 14%

2.5% 3.4%
Figure 5.44 NIR quality analysis of second harvest green tea made from Yabukita green tea at
Somersby Research Station (November 2006). Plants were either (a) not shaded, (b) shaded
with a single layer of 60% shade cloth, (c) shaded with two layers of 60% shade cloth or (d)
shaded with two layers of 90% shade cloth two weeks prior to harvest
91
5.1.4.5 Effect of timing of shade cloth application of green tea quality for 2006
second harvest
Methods
Different timings of 90% shading were applied to Yabukita green tea rows at Somersby Research
Station for the 2006 second harvest. Shading was applied 1, 2, 3 and 4 weeks before harvest. These
treatments were applied to complete rows and compared to unshaded control row (Figure 5.45). The
levels of SPAD Minolta were measured on the third leaf of five shoots. This was replicated on five
different plants within the row. Green tea was harvested and processed at Somersby Research Station
on 27 November 2006.
Figure 5.45 Whole row application of shade cloth at different timings at Somersby Research
Station (November 2006)
Results
Minolta SPAD
The Minolta SPAD index for the different timings of shade application for the second harvest is
illustrated in Figure 5.46. All shading increased the SPAD index, and interesting the application one
week before harvest had the highest SPAD index.
60
50
40
SPAD units
30
20
10
0
Control - No 1 week 2 weeks 3 weeks 4 weeks
shade
Figure 5.46 The effect of the timing of application of 90% black cloth on SPAD Minolta values of
Yabukita green tea rows shaded 1, 2, 3 and 4 weeks before harvest (November 2006). Error
bars are standard deviations around the mean (n = 5)
92
The results of the NIR analysis of the second harvest green tea processed from the different timings of
shading application are shown in Figure 5.47a and 5.47b. The results confirm that the second harvest
was significantly inferior quality to the first harvest (Figure 5.41). Shading did increase the AF rank
from four to three, but the greatest beneficial effect on final product quality with the earlier
applications (longest periods) of shade. The AF score for the non-shaded second harvest Yabukita
green tea was AF 26 (overall rank 4), whilst there AF score for shading applied 28 days before harvest
was AF 37 (overall rank 3).
(a) no shade
Moisture 3.0% 3 > 4.5%
Theanine 1.3% 4 > 1.5%
Tannin 13.5% 2 < 14%
Caffeine 2.6% 3 > 2.5%
Vitamin C 0.43% 3 > 0.5%
AF Score 26
Free amino acids

Theanine 1.3%
2.4%
Figure 5.47a NIR quality analysis of second harvest green tea made from Yabukita green tea at
Somersby Research Station (November 2006). Plants were not shaded prior to harvest (a)
93
Tannin 10.5% 1 < 14% Tannin 11.0% 1 < 14%

2.8% 2.8%
(d) 21 days before harvest (e) 28 days before harvest

Tannin 9.5% 1 < 14% Tannin 8.5% 1 < 14%

2.8% 3.5%
Figure 5.47b NIR quality analysis of second harvest green tea made from Yabukita green tea at
Somersby Research Station (November 2006). Plants were shaded with 90% black shade cloth:
(b) 7 days before harvest, (c) 14 days before harvest, (d) 21 days before harvest, or (e) 28 days
before harvest
94
5.1.4.6 Effect of timing of shading on 2006/7 third harvest green tea processed
quality
Methods
Black shade cloth (90%) was applied to rows of mature Yabukita green tea plants at different times (2,
4, 6, 8 and18 days) before the fourth 2006/7 harvest. Each row was considered a single replicate. The
six day treatment was further investigated where half the row was shaded with the usual black shade
cloth, whilst the other half of the row was shaded with red shade cloth (Figure 5.48). Harvest was on
23 January 2007, where the green tea was immediately processed at the Somersby Research Station.
Figure 5.48 Whole row application of shade cloth at different timings on third harvest green tea
quality at Somersby Research Station (January 2007)
Results
The results of the NIR analysis of the third harvest green tea processed from the different timings and
type of shading are shown in Figure 5.49a and 5.49b. The results show that the green tea produced
from the third harvest was of very poor quality. The unshaded control Yabukita green tea final product
quality was only AF score 11 (rank 5). Shading produced inconsistent results in its effect on final
product quality, although the shading that was applied the longest (18 days before third harvest) gave
the best quality processed green tea (AF score 21, rank 3).
Black shade cloth was compared to red shade cloth and applied eight days before harvest. The black
shade cloth produced a final AF score of 16, whilst the red shade cloth produced tea with an AF score
of 11. These results are only preliminary and more work is required to confirm these observations.
95
(a) No shade
Moisture 2.5% 4 > 4.5%
Theanine 0.5% 5 > 1.5%
Tannin 10.7% 1 < 14%
Caffeine 1.7% 4 > 2.5%
Vitamin C 0.36% 4 > 0.5%
AF Score 11
Free amino acids

Theanine 0.5%
1.0%
(b) 2 days of shade before harvest (c) 4 days of shade before harvest
Tannin 10.6% 1 < 14% Tannin 10.8% 1 < 14%

1.0% 0.7%
Figure 5.49a NIR quality analysis of third harvest green tea made from Yabukita green tea at
Somersby Research Station (January 2007). Plants were not shaded (a) (control) or shaded
with 90% black shade cloth: (b) 2 days before harvest, or (c) 4 days before harvest
96
(d) 6 days shading with black shade cloth (e) 6 days shading with red shade cloth
Tannin 11.4% 1 < 14% Tannin 12.0% 1 < 14%

1.6% 1.0%
(f) 8 days shading with black shade cloth (g) 18 days shading with black shade cloth
Tannin 11.0% 1 < 14% Tannin 8.8% 1 < 14%

1.1% 2.3%
Figure 5.49b NIR quality analysis of third harvest green tea made from Yabukita green tea at
Somersby Research Station (January 2007). Plants were shaded: (d) 6 days before harvest with
red shade cloth, (e) 6 days before harvest with 90% black shade cloth (f) 8 days before harvest,
or (g) 18 days before harvest with 90% black shade cloth
97
5.1.5 2007 Shading Experiment
Methods
Black shade cloth (90%) was applied to rows of mature Yabukita green tea plants at three different
times (2, 7 and 14 days) before first harvest. Each row was considered a single replicate. Harvest was
on 10 October 2007, where the green tea was immediately processed.
Final product quality

The results of the NIR analysis of the 2007 first harvest Yabukita green tea processed from the
shading treatments are shown in Figure 5.50. The results show that shading had a positive effect on
final product quality. The AF score for the non-shaded Yabukita green tea was 23 (overall AF rank 4),
whilst for the tea shaded for 7 days the AF score was 29 (overall AF rank 3) and for the tea shaded for
16 days was AF 35 (overall AF rank 3).
(a) no shading (b) 2 days shading

Tannin 15.9% 4 < 14% Tannin 15.9% 4 < 14%

2.0% 2.1%
(c) 7 days shading (d) 14 days shading

Tannin 14.9% 3 < 14% Tannin 14.1% 3 < 14%

2.4% 2.7%
Somersby Research Station (October 2007). Plants were not shaded (control) (a), or shaded
with 90% black shade cloth: (b) 2 days before harvest, (c) 7 days before harvest, or (d) 14 days
before harvest
98
5.1.6 Comparison of Harvest Times on Final Product Quality
Harvest time has a significant effect on the quality of harvested green tea. Processing of the freshly
harvested green tea samples at Somersby Research Station is shown in Figure 5.51. The full NIR
analysis of the 2006/7 harvests from unshaded Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green tea processed is
shown in Figure 5.52. This is summarised in Table 5.19 and shows a significant reduction in AF score
with harvest time in both varieties.
Table 5.19 AF Scores of Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green tea grown with no shade at
Somersby Research Station during 2006/7
Harvest time Yabukita Sayamakaroi
Harvest one (3 October 2006) 64 58
Harvest two (28 November 2006) 26 23
Harvest three (25 January 2007) 11 11
Figure 5.51 Processing freshly harvested green tea shoots at Somersby Research Station,
NSW DPI (October 2006)
First Harvest
1a. Yabukita 1b. Sayamakaroi
Tannin 11.0% 1 < 14% Tannin 12.0% 1 < 14%

4.4% 4.0%
99
Second Harvest
Quality Content Rank low less normalmore high Target Quality Content Rank low less normal more high Target
Tannin 13.5% 2 < 14% Tannin 13.4% 2 < 14%

2.4% 2.1%
Third Harvest
Tannin 10.7% 1 < 14% Tannin 12.2% 1 < 14%

1.0% 0.9%
Figure 5.52 NIR quality analysis of first (1), second (2) and third (3) harvest 2006/7 green tea
made from unshaded Yabukita (left) and Sayamakaroi (right) green tea at Somersby Research
Station (October, November 2006 and January 2007)
100
5.1.7 Effect of Mechanical Damage to Shoots on Green Tea Quality
5.1.7.1 Background
The exposure of the freshly growing green tea tips to shade cloth can result in intermittent browning /
blackening of the tips (Figures 5.53 and 5.54).
The aim of these experiments was to examine the conditions in which the new leaf margin blackening
occurs with shade cloth. We examined mechanical damage in two ways:
1. mechanical damage per se; and
2. tightness of the shade cloth over the canopy.
In addition we examined if the leaf damage due to excessive temperatures or was it purely mechanical
injury.
Figure 5.53 Shading on green tea rows at NSW DPI Somersby (top left). Unshaded green tea
shoots in full sun (top right). Shaded green tea shoots with symptoms of damage on margins
of leaves and shoots (lower)
Figure 5.54 Severe symptoms of blackening on newly emerging green tea leaves / shoots
101
5.1.7.2 Assessment of mechanical damage on green tea quality
Methods
Mature Sayamakaroi and Yabukita green tea plants at the Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara were
used in this trial. Five treatments were applied on 26 September 2006 (Figure 5.55):
1. heavy shade cloth covering tea plants

2. heavy shade cloth suspended above tea canopy
3. heat treatment (clear plastic sides to increase bush temperature) with shade cloth covering the top
4. mechanical damage - daily physically shake / damage leaves with hand broom, and
5. control = no shade, or mechanical treatment
The treatments were blocked as replicates, with individual plants as single treatment units. The five
blocks containing one replicate for each treatment consisted of two varieties; two blocks of Yabukita
and three blocks of Sayamakaroi plants. All shade treatments were applied on 26 September 2006.
Temperature loggers recorded the leaf temperature in each treatment within three replicates.
Figure 5.55a Mechanical Damage. Daily Figure 5.55b Suspended Shade. Shade cloth
physical mechanical damage with hand suspended over canopy
broom over shade cloth
Figure 5.55c Heat Treatment. Clear plastic Figure 5.55d Trial lay out. Block (replicate)
sheet surrounding each plant with shade design of mechanical damage experiment at
cloth over each treatment plant to increase Narara (September 2006)
shoot temperature
102
The amount of damage on the green tea plants shaded with the treatments was scored separately by
three independent assessors on 10 October 2006 with the following subjective scale:
0= couple of leaves or less damage
1= couple and few more leaves damage- patchy
2= considerable damage distributed across plant
3= most serious damage
A sample of green tea shoots (484 cm2) were harvested from each treatment and the Minolta SPAD
determined from five representative shoots and the dry matter of the sample determined. Each block
(5) was considered a replicate.
Results
Temperature
As expected, the plastic covering of the green tea plants increased the temperature within the green tea
canopy. The temperatures of green tea plants subject to the plastic were generally always greater than
the other treatments (Figure 5.56). On average the green tea shoots in the heat treatment were over 1oC
warmer than the no shaded (full sun) treatments (Table 5.20). The temperature under the suspended
shade cloth was similar to the full sun treatment indicating the data loggers were shaded within the
canopy.
40
No Shade
Suspended
35 Regular
Heat
30 Mechanical
25
Temperature (C)
20
15
10
0
10
11
12
13
14
0
1
Time (days)
Figure 5.56 Temperature in the canopy of green tea shoots with different shading treatments at
NSW DPI Narara (September / October 2006)
Table 5.20 Average daily maximum temperatures in the canopy of green tea shoots with
different shading treatments at NSW DPI Narara (September / October 2006)
Treatment Average maximum
temperature (oC)
Plastic cover (heat) 28.6
No shade 27.4
Suspended 27.4
Regular 26.7
Mechanical 25.5
103
There was no difference in the level of leaf / shoot blackening between treatments (Table 5.21). The
degree of leaf blackening in the mechanical damage treatment was greater, but considering the tender
growing tips were ‘damaged’ with a brush over the shade cloth everyday, the damage symptoms were
relatively minor.
Table 5.21 Subjective assessments of leaf / shoot blackening after 14 days of different shade
cloth treatments at NSW DPI Narara (October 2006). The standard deviations for the mean of
replicates and assessors are shown in brackets
Treatment Blackening score Minolta SPAD Shoot dry weight (%)
1. control = no treatment 0 (0.0) 32.1 (7.7) 23.8 (0.5)

2. suspended shade 0 (0.0) 34.4 (6.6) 22.5 (0.5)
3. regular shade 0.2 (0.4) 38.9 (5.2) 22.4 (0.6)
4. plastic cover 0 (0.0) 37.8 (4.3) 21.9 (0.3)
5. mechanical damage 0.6 (0.5) 33.0 (6.4) 24.0 (1.2)
5.1.7.3 Effect of ‘tightness’ of the shade cloth covering the green tea canopy
Background
The application of shade cloth over the green tea rows has been associated with the blackened margins
of the new shoot / leaf growth. Shade cloth is normally draped over the green tea plants, and on the
experimental scale, the shade cloth is loosely attached to the stems / plants with large pegs. This trial
examined the effect of the tightness of attachment of the shade cloth over the green tea plants.
Methods
Mature Yabukita green tea plants at the NSW DPI Somersby Research Station were treated with four
treatments of shade cloth tightness (Figure 5.57) on 27 September 2006:
1. very tight shade cloth
2. normal - regular (semi-tight) fitting shade cloth
3. very loose shade cloth
4. no shade cloth
Figure 5.57 Tight, regular and loose fitting shade cloth over individual ‘Yabukita green’ tea
plants at NSW DPI, Somersby
Five rows of ‘Yabukita’ green tea plants were used for this trial with each row acting as a replicate
(block). The treatments were then randomly allocated to individual plants within each row
(Figure 5.58).
104
Figure 5.58 Experimental lay out of shade cloth tightness experiment at Somersby Research
Station (October 2006)
The amount of damage on the green tea plants shaded with the treatments was scored separately by
three independent assessors on 10 October 2006 with the following subjective score:
0= couple of leaves or less damage
1= couple and few more leaves damage- patchy
2= considerable damage distributed across plant
3= most serious damage
Results
The data in Table 5.22 shows that the tightness of the shade cloth affects the degree of damage on the
new leaf / shoot growth; with the very tight shade cloth containing the most damage and the loosely
draped shade cloth and no shade cloth at all, having the least damage.
Table 5.22 Subjective assessments of new Yabukita leaf / shoot blackening after 14 days of
different shade cloth treatments at Somersby (October 2006). The standard deviations for the
mean of replicates and assessors are shown in brackets
Treatment Blackening score
1. very tight shade cloth 2.3 (0.7)

2. normal - regular fitting shade cloth 1.1 (0.7)
3. very loose shade cloth 0.7 (0.6)
4. no shade cloth 0 (0.0)
5.2 Nutrition
5.2.1 Effects of fertiliser source and shading on green tea quality
Introduction
As the green tea industry develops in Australia it is important that the crop is grown efficiently in
terms of fertiliser and water use which aims to protect the environment and the industry in the long
term. This may become a challenge as high quality green tea is associated with a high nitrogen
concentration in tea leaves which is usually achieved by applying high rates of nitrogen fertiliser. In
Japan this practice has resulted in problems of soil acidity (Yokota et al., 2005).
Nitrogen supply and light are important factors affecting the nitrogen concentration in green tea plants.
As an alternative to heavy fertiliser use, shading can be used to increase the nitrogen concentration in
105
tea (Morita and Tuji, 2002). Understanding how these techniques can be used to produce high quality
tea under Australian conditions will assist the industry to grow and to protect the production
environment.
This section examines the effects of some nitrogen containing fertilisers on the 2005 first harvest of
green tea and the effect of shading on the 2005 first and second harvest of green tea. To evaluate these
effects macronutrient concentrations (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) in tea leaves and the soil
nutrients nitrate, ammonium and phosphorus were measured.
Methods
Treatments were applied to Yabukita green tea plants at the Somersby Research Station, NSW DPI,
during the 2005 growing season. The tea plants were growing in a yellow earth and sandy loam with a
pH 5.7 and were watered with a trickle irrigation system.
Fertiliser treatments were applied 20 days prior to the first harvest in late October 2005 and applied at
two thirds of the initial rate 20 days prior to the second harvest in early December 2005 (Figure 5.59).
Shade (80% shade cloth) was directly placed on top of some plants one or two weeks before the first
and second harvest.
Figure 5.59 Application of fertilisers to young Yabukita plants (top, bottom left) and mature
Yabukita plants used in the experiment (bottom left) (2005)
Within the plantation three plots were delimitated. The fertiliser and shading treatments used for each
plot are described in Table 5.23. Within each plot there were three replicates of each treatment.
106
Table 5.23 Fertiliser and shade treatments applied to green tea plots at Somersby Research
Station (2005)
Treatments Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 3
Plant age (years) 5 3 3
Poultry fertiliser 30 m3.ha-1 15 m3 ha-1 15, 30 m3.ha-1
Complete 90, 180 kg.ha-1 45, 90 kg ha-1 0

fertiliser NPKS
(10:4:6:16)
Worm castings 0 0 15 m3.ha-1
Foliar worm tea 0 0 250 ml.plant-1

(100ml L-1)
Foliar nitrate 250 ml.plant-1 0 0
(KNO3 5g.L-1)
Shading (80%) 1, 2 weeks 0 0

black or red
shade
At harvest all new growth was removed. Leaves were oven dried at 60oC, then weighed ground and
analysed for total nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). Three soil sample cores were
sampled to a depth of 18 cm underneath the canopy of each plant. These were combined, dried at
50oC, ground and analysed for Bray Phosphorus, KCl extractable ammonium (NH4) and KCl
extractable nitrate (NO3).
Fresh green tea samples from each treatment (four replicates per treatment) were taken and
immediately frozen for later HPLC analysis (Section 4.4). Data analysis by standard ANOVA
techniques and LSD Post-Hoc Test.
Results and Discussion

The amount and form of N, and the amount of P, delivered to plants by fertiliser treatments in this
study is shown in Table 5.24. This shows that the dominant source of N is nitrate in poultry manure
and ammonium in the synthetic fertiliser (Multigro®). The greatest amount of nitrate delivered to
plants was provided by the poultry treatments. The greatest amount of ammonium delivered to plants
was provided by the synthetic fertiliser. Poultry manure at the rate of 15 and 30 m3.ha-1 and synthetic
fertiliser at the rate of 90 and 180 kg.ha-1 delivered a similar range of P to soil.
Table 5.24 Approximate amounts of nitrate, ammonium and phosphorus applied in treatments
to individual plants
Fertiliser Source NO3 NH4 P
(g.plant-1) (g.plant-1) (g.plant-1)
NPKS (Multigro®) 45 kg.ha-1 0.00 0.460 0.18
Poultry manure 15 m3.ha-1 1.18 0.005 0.41
Foliar nitrate 5g KNO3.L-1 0.53 0.000 0.00
Worm castings source A 15 m3.ha-1 0.60 0.004 0.11
Worm castings source B 15 m3.ha-1 0.50 0.014 0.12
Foliar worm tea Not measured
107
Poultry manure was effective at significantly increasing soil nitrate in Plot 1 (Table 5.25). Similarly,
the highest rate of synthetic fertiliser was effective at increasing soil ammonium for Plot 1. Lower
fertiliser treatment rates used for the younger plants in Plot 2 did not change soil nitrate or ammonium
levels (Table 5.26). Poultry and worm product treatments appeared to increase soil nitrate in Plot 3
however the effects were not significant (Table 5.27). Interestingly the worm products generally
increased soil ammonium in this plot. Phosphate levels were not significantly affected by fertiliser
treatments in any plot.
Table 5.25 Effect of fertiliser amendments on some soil nutrient concentrations for Plot 1 at
harvest
Fertiliser treatment NO3 NH4 P
(mg.kg- (mg.kg-1) (mg.kg-
1 1
) )
No fertiliser 26.3 18.3 492
Foliar nitrate 23.5 14.8 503
NPKS (Multigro®) 90 kg.ha-1 21.6 23.8 507
Poultry manure 30 m3.ha-1 79.2 17.0 526
LSDa **33.6b ***13.61 n.s.d
c
a
Least Significant Difference, b Significant (P<0.01), c Significant (P<0.001), d Not Significant
harvest
Fertiliser treatment NO3 NH4 PO4
(mg.kg- (mg.kg- (mg.kg-
1 1 1
) ) )
LSDa n.s.b n.s. n.s.
a
Least Significant Difference, b Not Significant
harvest
Fertiliser treatment NO3 NH4 PO4
(mg.kg- (mg.kg- (mg.kg-
1 1 1
) ) )
Foliar worm liquid A + Poultry manure 15 m3.ha-1 41.1 13.33 333
Foliar worm liquid B + Poultry manure 15 m3.ha-1 48.1 12.53 357
Worm castings A + Poultry manure 15 m3.ha-1 66.8 9.93 357
Worm casting B + Poultry manure 15 m3.ha-1 56.3 11.67 287
LSDa n.s.b **2.15c n.s.
a
Least Significant Difference, b Not Significant, c Significant (P<0.01)
In this study soil amendments generally did not affect the concentration of macronutrients in new leaf
growth of first harvest tea. Similarly, foliar nitrate and the two foliar worm liquids, did not affect the
levels of macronutrients in leaves. An exception was increased P in leaves associated with poultry
manure and synthetic fertiliser (90 kg.ha-1) treatments for Plot 2 (Table 5.28). Generally the
concentrations of N, P and K in leaves indicate that the tea plants were well supplied with these
nutrients at the time of harvest (Willson, 1975a, b). Further, levels of P in leaves indicate that P supply
is perhaps too high. A mean concentration of 0.64% P was determined in plants treated with 30 m3ha-1
108
of poultry manure in plot 3 (Table 5.29). This is high considering that the optimum level of P in new
tea growth is 0.4% (Willson et al., 1975).
Table 5.28 Effect of fertiliser amendments on macronutrient concentrations of harvested green

tea leaves in Plot 2
Fertiliser treatment N (%) P (%) K (%)
No fertiliser 3.900 0.481 1.800
LSDa n.s.b ***0.03c n.s.
a
Least Significant Difference, b Not Significant, c Significant (P<0.001)
Table 5.29 Effect of fertiliser amendments on macronutrient concentrations of harvested green

tea leaves in Plot 3
Fertiliser treatment N P (%) K (%)
(%)
No fertiliser 4.033 0.470 1.900
Foliar worm liquid A + Poultry manure 15 m3.ha-1 3.733 0.603 1.867
Foliar worm liquid B + Poultry manure 15 m3.ha-1 3.867 0.450 2.000
Worm castings A + Poultry manure 15 m3.ha-1 3.800 0.563 1.933
Worm casting B + Poultry manure 15 m3.ha-1 4.300 0.567 1.967
LSDa n.s.b n.s. n.s.
a
Least Significant Difference, b Not Significant
Shading was effective at increasing macronutrient concentrations for harvests 1 and 2 (Table 5.30). In
particular, at the first harvest, shading with 80% black shade netting for two weeks significantly
increased N, P and K in leaves compared to shading for one week or no shade. Red shade applied prior
to the second harvest was not as effective as black shade in increasing the N and K concentration of
leaves. Shading has been shown previously to increase leaf N in green tea (Morita and Tuji, 2002).
However shading may be associated with a reduction in yield. Shading did not significantly reduce the
yield of new growth in this study but there appears to be a trend of reduced growth as shading
increased from one to two weeks (Figure 5.60).
Table 5.30 Effect of shading on the macronutrient concentrations of harvested green tea leaves
in Plot 1
Shading treatment N (%) P (%) K (%)
Harvest 1
No shade 3.553 0.436 1.667
Black shade 1 week 4.000 0.490 1.913
Black shade 2 weeks 4.173 0.513 2.087
LSDa **0.242b **0.034 b **0.136 b
Harvest 2
No shade 3.714 0.447 2.019
Red shade 2 weeks 3.853 0.435 2.120
Black shade 2 weeks 4.355 0.462 2.399
LSDa ***0.211 c n.s.d ***0.107 c
a
Least Significant Difference, b Significant (P<0.01), c Significant (P<0.001) d Not Significant
109
300
250
Dry weight of new growth/plant (g)

200
150
100
50
0
0 1 2
Time shaded (w ee ks)
Figure 5.60 Effect of black shading on the new shoot growth of the first harvest in Plot 1
The nitrogen concentration in new tea leaves needed for optimum yield of 4.1% was achieved in this
study. Yields would not be expected to increase beyond these nitrogen levels. However, the level of
nitrogen in leaves desired for high quality Japanese green tea (as much as 6%) was not achieved. As
the rate of nitrogen containing fertiliser is increased leaf nitrogen levels can also increase (but not
always) and, at excessive amounts, yield will be reduced (Willson, 1975a).
Great care will be required in the production of tea if a high nitrogen concentration in leaves is
desired. Irrigated soils in Australia are at risk of acidification and need treatment with lime (Lacy and
Conyers, 2004). Soil acidification is associated particularly with ammonium-based nutrition. The use
of ammonium-based nutrition in tea production could be minimised particularly in the knowledge that
transport of nitrate derived nitrogen to young tea leaves is more rapid than ammonium derived
nitrogen (Morita et al., 1998).
5.2.2 Effect of fertiliser treatment on green tea quality
There were no strong trends in terms of fertiliser impact on tea quality in mature or immature plants in
this study. The average chemical composition of the major green tea chemical components; caffeine,
EC, EGC, EGCG, GCG, ECG, total catechins, theanine and the theanine / total catechin ratio are
shown in Tables 5.31 – 5.35.
110
Table 5.31 Quality characteristics of leaves from mature plants with different fertiliser
treatments (Plot 1)
Quality Treatment Mean Standard
Component (mg.g-1) Deviation
EGCG No fertiliser 44.48 38.62
Foliar N 43.07 31.96
180 kg.ha-1 nitrate 35.88 15.76
100 kg.ha-1 nitrate 70.64 13.77
100 kg.ha-1 poultry 44.05 25.06
Total 47.70 28.05
Theanine No fertiliser 56.27 32.46

Foliar N 82.52 63.53
180 kg.ha-1 nitrate 71.90 34.44
100 kg.ha-1 nitrate 100.36 22.73
100 kg.ha-1 poultry 66.15 37.02
Total 76.60 44.57
Caffeine No fertiliser 49.96 30.59

Foliar N 27.49 29.00
180 kg.ha-1 nitrate 66.19 52.92
100 kg.ha-1 nitrate 59.73 36.91
100 kg.ha-1 poultry 45.92 31.52
Total 46.17 36.07
Total No fertiliser 201.40 92.86

Catechins
Foliar N 179.94 124.20
180 kg.ha-1 nitrate 215.61 84.98
100 kg.ha-1 nitrate 285.11 69.98
100 kg.ha-1 poultry 175.85 124.59
Total 205.08 111.79
Theanine / No fertiliser 0.30 0.18

Total Catechin Foliar N 0.63 0.62
ratio 180 kg.ha-1 nitrate 0.38 0.23
100 kg.ha-1 nitrate 0.37 0.11
100 kg.ha-1 poultry 0.43 0.19
Total 0.45 0.37
111
Table 5.32 Effect of fertiliser and shade on green tea constituents of mature Yabukita green tea plants at Somersby, Plot 1 (2005)
Treatment Caffeine EC EGC EGCG* GCG ECG Total Catechins Theanine THE / TC
(TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 dry weight)
No fertiliser 51.95 6.45 78.71 27.47 3.61 67.11 183.35 59.93 0.35±0.21
a
+ No Shade ±39.98 ±5.16 ±3.44 ±26.98 ±2.59 ±82.50 ±75.98 ±31.80
No fertiliser 47.99 19.94 71.04 61.50 43.05 23.92 219.45 52.62 0.25±0.19
+ 60% Shade ±27.03 ±22.02 ±28.01 ±46.19ab ±39.37** ±22.41 ±121.69 ±39.80
100 kg.ha-1 nitrate 71.71 69.43 100.94 72.79 6.14 96.34 345.64 84.96 0.25±0.08
+ No Shade ±20.59 ±18.72 ±40.00 ±3.34b ±5.70 ±95.37 ±37.03 ±18.41
100 kg.ha-1 nitrate 53.75 42.54 72.69 69.57 16.56 53.50 254.86 108.06 0.43±0.08
b
+ 60% Shade ±43.38 ±21.56 ±41.51 ±17.18 ±7.58 ±22.53 ±63.17 ±21.87
180 kg.ha-1 nitrate 66.86 26.94 86.40 46.91 7.79 18.51 186.55 75.73 0.41±0.04
±7.85a
112
+ No Shade ±65.41 ±18.40 ±14.51 ±4.10 ±2.77 ±10.45 ±4.16

180 kg.ha-1 nitrate 65.53 23.75 85.99 24.85 2.81 107.29 244.69 68.09 0.36±0.27
+ 60% Shade ±37.95 ±16.93 ±38.77 ±16.26a ±2.55 ±80.73 ±119.99 ±43.67
100 kg.ha-1 poultry 50.08 16.99 30.46 48.63 9.90 16.22 122.21 51.99 0.42±0.17
+ No Shade ±35.56 ±7.41 ±23.96 ±26.23ab ±4.41 ±18.41 ±57.43 ±30.49
100 kg.ha-1 poultry 41.77 52.09 70.37 39.48 10.60 56.97 229.50 80.32 0.44±0.24
+ 60% Shade ±29.12 ±83.52 ±22.42 ±24.99a ±6.35 ±71.31 ±153.69 ±39.66
Foliar N 14.96 55.84 89.56 61.61 14.4 12.80 234.21 80.86 0.34±0.13
+ No Shade ±8.58 ±33.04 ±64.34 ±22.08b ±15.87 ±15.39 ±118.39 ±45.53
Foliar N 36.90 13.14 51.59 29.17 4.52 40.82 139.24 83.77 0.86±0.76
+ 60% Shade ±35.70 ±11.13 ±40.26 ±32.15a ±5.45 ±68.97 ±119.25 ±77.54
* For EGCG, values not sharing a superscript letter are significantly different (p<0.05)
** T his value for GCG is significantly different (p<0.05) from all other values for GCG
Table 5.33 Effect of fertiliser and red shade on immature green tea plant constituents Yabukita green tea plants, Somersby, Plot 2 (2005)
Treatment Caffeine EC EGC EGCG* GCG ECG Total Catechin Theanine THE/TC
(TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 dry weight)
No fertiliser 21.63 28.75 77.22 28.56 5.06 6.38 145.97 61.63 0.42±0.28
+ no shade ±6.46 ±8.64 ±44.82 ±9.30a ±1.69 ±2.20 ±66.66 ±18.46
No fertiliser 38.98 20.41 50.42 62.23 27.14 24.02 184.22 72.53 0.39±0.29
+ red shade cloth ±11.91 ±14.52 ±25.87 ±24.68bc ±23.37 ±8.81 ±97.25 ±28.37
50 kg.ha-1 nitrate 44.88 37.01 54.03 55.34 7.75 22.73 176.87 61.67 0.35±0.31
+ no shade ±20.80 ±24.17 ±44.35 ±20.09ac ±4.05 ±17.47 ±110.12 ±34.66
50 kg.ha-1 nitrate 45.86 67.35 53.77 90.72 21.20 34.99 268.03 111.52 0.42±0.41
+ red shade cloth ±34.85 ±48.85 ±30.56 ±38.80b ±5.28 ±16.89 ±140.40 ±56.92
100 kg.ha-1 nitrate 39.08 28.10 52.54 44.01 12.67 24.05 161.37 76.67 0.48±0.65
ac
±19.92 ±8.35 ±57.67 ±23.53 ±6.59 ±10.78 ±106.93 ±69.97
113
+ no shade
100 kg.ha-1 nitrate 34.66 30.66 59.94 27.38 35.99 44.91 198.88 77.02 0.39±0.27
+ red shade cloth ±12.40 ±20.41 ±18.39 ±7.47a ±42.53 ±44.44 ±133.23 ±35.92
*For EGCG, values not sharing a superscript letter are significantly different (p<0.05)
Table 5.34 Total catechins in Yabukita green tea leaves from mature plants with different
fertiliser treatments (Plot 1)
Treatment Mean Standard
(mg.g-1) Deviation
No fertiliser 201.40 92.86
Foliar N 285.11 69.98
180 kg.ha-1 nitrate 215.61 84.98
100 kg.ha-1 nitrate 179.94 124.20
100 kg.ha-1 poultry 175.85 124.59
Table 5.35 Quality characteristics of leaves from immature plants with different fertiliser
treatments (Plot 2)
Quality Treatment Mean Standard
Component (mg.g-1) Deviation
EGCG No fertiliser 51.87 26.26
50 kg.ha-1 nitrate 65.96 29.93
100 kg.ha-1 39.02 21.12
nitrate
Total 52.24 27.37
Theanine No fertiliser 69.18 25.48

50 kg.ha-1 nitrate 76.62 45.83
100 kg.ha-1 76.78 59.59
nitrate
Total 73.74 42.98
Caffeine No fertiliser 33.64 13.21

50 kg.ha-1 nitrate 45.17 23.63
100 kg.ha-1 37.76 17.42
nitrate
Total 38.38 18.21
Total Catechins No fertiliser 172.45 69.81

50 kg.ha-1 nitrate 204.22 106.43
100 kg.ha-1 172.62 60.04
nitrate
Total 182.13 79.03
Theanine / No fertiliser 0.43 0.14

Total Catechin 50 kg.ha-1 nitrate 0.40 0.14
ratio 100 kg.ha-1 0.40 0.27
nitrate
Total 0.41 0.18
114
The results of the NIR analysis of the first harvest green tea processed from the different shading and
nutrition treatments from the mature Yabukita plants (Plot 1) are presented in Figures 5.61, 5.62 and
5.63 and confirm the data in the other sections that in this trial.
No fertiliser treatment
(a) No Shade (b) Plus shade
Tannin 15.9% 4 < 14% Tannin 15.9% 4 < 14%

1.2% 1.4%
Somersby Research Station (Plot 1) (October 2005). Plants were not fertilised and subject to:
(a) no shading or (b) shading
115
No shading
(a) 100 kg.ha-1 nitrate (b) 180 kg.ha-1 nitrate
Tannin 16.8% 5 < 14% Tannin 16.5% 5 < 14%

1.7% 1.3%
(c) 100 kg.ha-1 poultry (d) Foliar N

Tannin 14.3% 3 < 14% Tannin 13.6% 2 < 14%

1.5% 1.6%
Somersby Research Station (Plot 1) (October 2005). There was no shade on any fertiliser
treatment. Plants were fertilised with (a) 100 kg.ha-1 nitrate, (b) 180 kg.ha-1 nitrate, (c) 100 kg.ha-
1
poultry, or (d) subject to foliar N before harvest
116
Addition of shade cloth
(a) 100 kg.ha-1 nitrate (b) 180 kg.ha-1 nitrate
Tannin 14.8% 3 < 14% Tannin 14.9% 3 < 14%

1.3% 1.9%
(c) 100 kg.ha-1 poultry (d) Foliar N

Tannin 14.7% 3 < 14% Tannin 14.6% 3 < 14%

1.6% 1.6%
Somersby Research Station (Plot 1) (October 2005). Shade was applied to all fertiliser
treatments. Plants were fertilised with (a) 100 kg.ha-1 nitrate, (b) 180 kg.ha-1 nitrate, (c) 100
kg.ha-1 poultry, or (d) subject to foliar N before harvest
117
5.3 Discussion
A number of agronomic and environmental factors (such as shading, nutrition, season etc) combine to
significantly affect final green tea quality.
Harvest time was critical to final product quality. This is summarised in Figure 5.64 and shows the
considerable decline in quality represented by the AF score of unshaded Yabukita and Sayamakaroi
green tea with successive harvests during the 2006/7 season. The AF scores approximately halved
with each successive harvest. The first harvest tea is the best quality (AF score > 50) and therefore the
most important and critical to manage. It is essential to maximise the quality from this harvest, and
reinforces the need to optimise agronomic inputs such as nutrition and to prevent any factors such as
frost which can significantly affect first harvest green tea quality.
70
Yabukita
Sayamakaroi
60
50
40
AF Score
30
20
10
0
1 2 3
Harvest Number
Figure 5.64 Effect of harvest number (time) on green tea final product quality (AF score) in
unshaded Yabukita and Sayamakaroi green tea plants at Somersby Research Station in 2006/7.
Harvest 1 (early October 2006), Harvest 2 (end November 2006), Harvest 3 (late January 2007)
During the 2004/5 growing season, green tea grown at the Somersby Research Station was
permanently under hail netting (50% shade). There were four harvests during the 2004/5 growing
season: Harvest 1. Ichibancha (mid-October), Harvest 2. Nibancha (beginning of December), Harvest
3. Sambancha (end of January 2005) and Harvest 4. Shutouban (mid-March 2005). To determine the
quality of the green tea between harvests, additional shade cloth was also applied at different times
and levels before harvest and processing.
A summary of the theanine to total catechin ratios as determined by HPLC of the 2004/5 season is
illustrated in Figure 5.65 and shows the theanine to total catechin ratio decreased from over 0.6 at the
first harvest in the spring to under 0.2 at the fourth harvest in autumn 2005. This is consistent with the
Japanese valuing the first spring tea harvest for its very high quality. It was also found that 90%
shading for 15 days before harvest gave a theanine to total catechin ratio of 1.4 which was similar to
the gyokuro medium quality and matcha high quality teas in our survey of teas purchased in Kyoto,
Japan (Figure 4.6). By this measure, high quality green tea can be produced in Australia (at least at the
NSW Central Coast), similar to tea produced in Japan.
118
1.6
Theanine/Catechin Ratio
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4
Harvest 2004-2005
Figure 5.65 Theanine to catechin ratio of green tea samples from Yabukita plants grown during
the 2004/5 growing season at Somersby Research Station under (■) permanent hail netting or
with added shade cloth for (●) 5 days or (▲) 15 days. Harvest 1 (mid October 2004), Harvest 2
(beginning of December 2004), Harvest 3 (end of January 2005) and Harvest 4 (mid-March 2005)
Figure 5.66 shows a pattern for the theanine content of the different teas which is similar to that of the
theanine to total catechin ratio (Figure 5.65) and increases in the theanine content were very highly
reflected in an increased theanine to total catechin ratio (Figure 5.67). Therefore changes in the
theanine content appeared to be the main driver behind changes in the theanine to total catechin ratio
with variation in theanine explaining 84% of the variation in the theanine to total catechin ratio.
Nonetheless, there were some increases in the total catechin content from the first to the fourth harvest
(Figure 5.68) which could also explain some of the decrease in the theanine to total catechin ratio over
the subsequent harvests.
The Minolta SPAD results showed that in general, shading increased the leaf colour (Minolta SPAD)
with longer periods of darker shading improving the Minolta SPAD index. However the positive
effects of shading on Minolta SPAD index decreased with harvest time.
70
60
Theanine (mg/g)
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4
Harvest 2004-2005
Figure 5.66 Theanine concentrations in green tea samples from Yabukita plants grown during
the 2004/5 growing season at Somersby Research Station under (■) permanent hail netting or
with added shade cloth for (●) 5 days or (▲) 15 days. Harvest 1 (mid October 2004), Harvest 2
(beginning of December 2004), Harvest 3 (end of January 2005) and Harvest 4 (mid-March 2005)
119
1.6
Theanine/Catechin Ratio
1.4 y = 0.0229x - 0.0972
2
1.2 R = 0.8433
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0
Theanine (mg/g)
Figure 5.67 The relationship between the theanine content and the theanine/catechin ratios for
all green tea samples from Yabukita plants grown during the 2004/5 growing season at
Somersby Research Station
120
100
Catechins (mg/g)
80
60
40
20
0
1 2 3 4
Harvest 2004-2005
Figure 5.68 The catechin concentration in green tea samples from Yabukita plants grown
during the 2004/5 growing season at Somersby Research Station under (■) permanent hail
netting or with added shade cloth for (●) 5 days or (▲) 15 days. Harvest 1 (mid October 2004),
Harvest 2 (beginning of December 2004), Harvest 3 (end of January 2005) and Harvest 4 (mid-
March 2005)
There was no effect of the different coloured shade cloths on the Minolta SPAD leaf colour in the
2005 first harvest. As different coloured shade cloths are used in other areas of horticulture due to their
effects on plant physiology and metabolism, more work is required to examine any changes in final
product quality constituents.
The 2006/7 growing season confirmed the previous seasons’ results. The non-shaded (ie grown in full
sun) tea produced very high quality green tea (Rank 1 = AF scores 55 and 64). The addition of shading
before harvest further increased leaf Minolta SPAD levels and improved final quality, where theanine
levels appeared to be a key component of final product quality. Shading also improved the quality of
late harvested tea, but the effects of shading on later harvests are not as pronounced as those on first
harvest green tea. But in general, the highest shading treatments and longest shading periods can both
significantly increase final green tea quality.
120
Nutrition
This work showed that poultry fertiliser can be effective at increasing soil nitrate and ammonium
based fertiliser effective at increasing soil ammonium at the location of the experiment. In this
experiment, the rates of fertilisers used were not enough to increase leaf N, P or K, nor have any
significant impact on tea quality in mature or immature plants. Although tea leaf N did not reflect the
increase in soil nitrogen nutrition it significantly increased in response to shading. Phosphorus was
generally higher than optimum in leaves highlighting the importance of good fertiliser management in
the production of green tea. More work is required to maximise nitrogen in tea leaves without
compromising soil health.
The use of organic sources of nitrogen, especially in soluble form for application through a fertigation
system is essential for the development of organic high quality tea.
121
6. IPM, Certification and Organics
This section describes the integrated pest management (IPM) and the certification requirements for
growing and marketing organic green tea.
IPM is a management system that involves monitoring and evaluating the pest and disease issues
within a crop then applying the most appropriate solution. It is important to recognise that a solution to
one pest or disease problem may affect other pests or diseases in the wider green tea plantation. The
interaction of pests within a green tea block must be recognised and considered with any potential
management plan. This section discusses results and issues related to:
6.1 Pest monitoring and management
6.2 Disease monitoring and pathogenesis
6.3 Organics and certification options for growing and marketing green tea.
6.1 Pest Monitoring and Management

The basis of IPM is monitoring. Monitoring for quantifying the likelihood of pests becoming a
problem commenced in the green tea plantation at the Somersby Research Station (Figure 6.1) from
September 2004 and was on-going to the end of 2007. The plantation was irregularly monitored
during this three year period depending on the growing season, with more intensive monitoring
occurring during spring and early summer when growth was rapid.
Insect pest monitoring was carried out and reported by the following collaborators:
• Marilyn Steiner, Entomologist. Gosford Horticultural Institute, NSW DPI, now with ‘Biocontrol
Solutions’, Mangrove Mountain NSW;
• Deborah Kent, Entomologist. Gosford Horticultural Institute, NSW DPI, and
• Len Tesoriero, Plant Pathologist. Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute NSW DPI.
Native
bushland Organic
citrus
Green
Tea Organic
citrus
RIRDC Native
Ornamentals bushland
Trial Plots
Figure 6.1 Green tea plantation at Somersby Research Station, NSW DPI (Location - 33 22’
05.21’’ South, 151 18’ 12.76’’ East, Elevation 240m). Note proximity of organic citrus and native
bushland areas adjacent to the green tea plantation. (Photo: Google Earth)
122
6.1.1 Insect pests
Green tea plantations are attacked by a broad range of pests in Asia; however the crop at the Somersby
Research Station site remained relatively pest-free during the monitoring period. The green tea
plantation was monitored during the growing season. Examples of the pest and disease reports
generated from the project are presented in Appendix 3.
Throughout the three year project, no insect pest was found to be widespread or significantly
damaging and thus no spraying was required. The main insect pests that were recorded in the
plantation were predominantly citrus pests, which could be explained by the proximity of the
plantation to unsprayed citrus blocks (Figure 6.1). The most common insect pest was the Black citrus
aphid, Toxoptera aurantii (Figure 6.2), which was found scattered throughout the plantation at low
incidence levels during the monitoring surveys. Aphid feeding causes the margins of new leaves to
curl and where aphid numbers were high the aphids moved down on the stems of the plants.
A summary of insect pests recorded during the monitoring; when they were seen, what part of the
plant was affected and any damage symptoms noted is presented in Table 6.1.
Figure 6.2 Black citrus aphids, Toxoptera aurantii on green tea shoots (top left), detail (top
right) and adult aphid and nymphs (bottom)
123
Table 6.1 Insect pests recorded at the NSW DPI Somersby Research Station green tea
plantation (2004 - 2007)
Common name Scientific name Present in Where and symptoms
plantation
Black citrus aphid Toxoptera aurantii September - New shoots; leaf
(Figure 6.2) December; March margins curled
Light brown apple moth Epiphyas September - New growth;
(Figure 6.3) postvittana December; March webbed, folded or
rolled with shot hole
damage
Brown looper Pholodes December; March New growth
(Figure 6.4) sinistraria
Armoured scale Hemiberlesia rapax September; March Stems and some
– greedy scale leaves; visible decline
in stem growth
Onion thrips Thrips tabaci December New leaves
(Figure 6.5)
Plague thrips Thrips imaginis November New leaves
(Figure 6.5)
Soft brown and March; October Stems
pink wax scale
Snails March; September - Older leaves near
October mulch
White wax scale Ceroplastes September One plant
destructor
Mealybug March; November One plant each time
Stem girdler September One plant
(Caterpillar)
New non pest mite Tuckerella March One specimen on
species from Asia flabellifera new shoots
Figure 6.3 Light brown apple moth (Epiphyas Figure 6.4 Brown looper on young green tea
postvittana) in young green tea shoots shoot
124
Figure 6.5 Plague thrips, Thrips imaginis (top) and onion thrips, Thrips tabaci (bottom)
The proximity to the unsprayed citrus blocks, the surrounding natural bushland and other horticultural
trials also enhanced the range of naturally occurring predators (Table 6.2) and parasitoids available to
any insect pest which appeared in the plantation.
Table 6.2 Generalist predators observed at the Somersby Research Station (2004-2007)
Common name Scientific name
Assassin bug Reduviidae

Green lacewings; adults and nymphs Chrysopidae
(Figure 6.6)
Brown lacewings; adults and nymphs Hemerobiidae
(Figure 6.7)
Green mantids Mantidae
Hover flies (Figure 6.8) Syrphidae
Ladybeetles (various spp.) e.g. Coccinellidae
Hippodamia variegata (Figure 6.9)
Jumping spiders (various spp.) Salticidae
Figure 6.6 Green lacewing larva feeding on Figure 6.7 Brown lacewing larva feeding on
scale aphids on green tea.
125
Figure 6.8 Hover fly larva feeding on aphids on green tea Figure 6.9 Hippodamia variegata
leaves adult
The scale parasitoid Aphytis lingnanensis for armoured scale control and mealybugs and scale
predatory beetle Cryptolaemus montrouzieri were purchased from ‘Bugs for Bugs’ (Mundubbera,
Queensland) and released into the plantation in November 2004 for supplemental biological control.
Monitoring in October and November 2005 found a marked decline in aphid and scale incidence,
which may be attributed to a wetter season or to favourable conditions for natural enemy activity. No
further supplementary biological controls was used during the monitoring period.
6.1.2 Insect control

No chemical control was used during the monitoring period as biological control either in the form of
naturally occurring enemies or supplementary parasitoids and predators was sufficient to control the
insect pests encountered during the monitoring period.
To enhance the biological control in green tea plantations it is recommended that a ‘tickle’ apparatus
be attached to the harvesting machine to encourage the wealth of natural enemies to drop off the
foliage ahead of the harvester.
It is recommended to avoid the use of toxic pesticides, particularly pyrethroids, and encourage the use
of products such as Delfin® a Bacillus thuringiensis formulation for caterpillars or Eco-Oil® for scales
and aphids or as the need arises and to pursue the registration of a range of environmentally friendly
pesticide alternatives.
Alternate ‘soft’ insecticides

As mentioned previously, the green tea plantation at the Somersby Research Station was under
continuous pest and disease monitoring during the growing season, and the balance between pests and
their predators within the plantation was found to be stable. However if single pests (such as aphids)
become too dominant, particularly near harvest where excessive aphids may potentially contaminate
the harvest, the use of a ‘soft’ insecticide with no residues may be required.
Assessment of Eco-Oil® on Final Green Tea Quality

Eco-Oil® is an emulsifiable botanical oil based miticide/insecticide that controls two-spotted mite and
aphids in home gardens, commercial covered crops and nursery situations. Eco-Oil® controls these
pests by contact, so it is important that good coverage of the pest or target is achieved. Eco-Oil® has
minimal residual activity and is an allowed input for organics in Australia, being a BFA registered
product.
126
Methods
Eco-Oil® was applied to mature Yabukita green tea plants at the Somersby Research Station at the
registered label rate (50-75 ml.15L-1) with a knapsack and sprayed till ‘leaf drip’ three days and seven
days before harvest (Fig. 10). Green tea shoots from the treated and the unsprayed control were
harvested on 11 October 2006 and processed immediately.
Figure 6.10 Application of Eco-Oil® to Yabukita green tea at Somersby Research Station
Results
As insect pests were not a problem in the green tea block at the Somersby Research Station, the
efficacy of the Eco-Oil® could not be evaluated. The results of the Near Infrared (NIR) analysis of
final tea product quality is presented in Figure 6.11 and shows there were no quantitative differences
between the Eco-Oil® treated green tea and the unsprayed control green tea. There was large variation
within the replicate samples of green tea sampled for caffeine, catechins and theanine content however
there was no differences between the two treatments (unsprayed control and Eco-Oil®) (Table 6.3).
Tannin 15.2% 4 < 14% Tannin 15.9% 4 < 14%

2.0% 2.0%
Somersby Research Station (October 2006). Plants treated with Eco-Oil® 3 and 7 days before
harvest (left) and unsprayed control (right)
127
Table 6.3 Effect of the application of Eco-Oil® 3 and 7 days before harvest on the content of
caffeine, catechins and theanine of first harvest Yabukita green tea from Somersby Research
Station (October 2006)
Total THE
(TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
Control 33.6 2.5 59.8 57.6 26.9 146.8 123.7 0.84±
±10.7 ±2.6 ±24.8 ±4.5 ±8.0 ±11.6 ±48.5 0.18
Eco- 48.3 1.6 40.9 45.1 21.9 109.5 89.2 0.81±
Oil® ±13.2 ±1.7 ±23.6 ±14.5 ±4.2 ±53.3 ±40.3 0.28
Each value represents the mean ± SD of four to seven replicates per sample.
6.1.3 Vertebrate pests

Hares and rabbits can be a significant problem in the establishment of green tea seedlings.
The areas surrounding the newly planted green tea plantation need to be relatively free of rabbits and
hares. Rabbits can quickly learn to eat the fresh new shoots of the planted seedlings. Several rows
(several thousand plants) were completely defoliated within two days, and in many instances the
leaves were just nipped off by the rabbits and left on the ground (Figure 6.12). Controlled baiting can
quickly rectify the situation.
Figure 6.12 Yabukita seedling damage by rabbits during establishment. All leaves of the young
green tea plant were stripped from the trunk (left), or the leaves were cut off the stem and left
on the ground (right)
6.2 Green Tea Diseases and Pathogenesis
6.2.1 Introduction
128
The pathology of green tea in Australia is limited. Current information has been generated from
overseas sources with no formal studies confirming the identity and causal nature of potential
pathogens to Japanese green tea cultivars grown under Australian conditions (Gerber, 2004b; Austin et
al., 2006). This study commenced with an investigation of potential causal pathogens associated with
failures in establishing tea cuttings in 2004. Diagnostic testing recovered a number of fungal isolates
that were morphologically similar to known causal agents of tea diseases in the international literature
(La Rue and Bartlett, 1922; Chandra Mouli, 1996; Zeiss and den Braber, 2001; Moriwaki et al., 2002;
Takeda, 2003; Yoshida and Takeda, 2006). Previous studies with ornamental Camellias in NSW
(Tesoriero, unpublished) have demonstrated similar fungi causing stem dieback, root rots and leaf
blights.
Overseas records of foliar and shoot diseases of tea are somewhat confusing due to nomenclatural
inconsistencies (different names given to the same fungi), taxonomic problems where different fungi
are morphologically very similar, and differing common names applied to diseases.
In Japan, the disease Anthracnose is caused by the fungus, Colletotrichum theae-sinensis (Miyake)
Yamamoto. Yabukita is the most popular green tea cultivar and is susceptible to this disease, and since
it dominates tea plantings in Japan (> 70%) it is considered to be a significant cause of losses (Takeda,
2003; Yoshida and Takeda, 2006). The disease reduces the depth of leaf layers and the number of
branches resulting in decreased first flush yields. Disease outbreaks occur from summer to autumn
following penetration by the fungus through trichomes and into new shoots. This fungus was formally
known by another name, Gloesporium theae sinensis Miyake. In Vietnam this fungus name is
maintained as causing the disease, Wet Leaf Blight of tea (Zeiss and den Braber, 2001). However,
three other fungi are recognised as causing Anthracnose in Vietnam (also described as Bud Decay and
Bud Blight): C. theae-sinensis, Glomerella cingulata (Stoneman) Spauld and H. Schrenk. which has
the anomorphic names, C. gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. and C. camelliae Massee, and
Phyllosticta gemiphilae (Zeiss and den Braber , 2001). In a phylogenetic study of internal transcribed
spacer region 2 and 28s rDNA gene sequences of 25 Colletotrichum species from Japan, Moriwaki et
al. (2002) determined that C. theae-sinensis formed a discrete group that suggested it should belong to
a separate genus.
The other major disease that is prevalent in Japan is Tea Grey Blight, caused by the fungus
Pestalotiopsis longiseta (Spegazzini) Dai et Kobayashi (Yoshida and Takeda, 2006). In Vietnam, the
disease Grey Blight (also called Brown Blight) is caused by several fungi that includes: C. coccodes
and Pestalotia theae Sawada [this latter fungus is also known as Pestalozzia theae, Pestalozzia guepini
and Pestalotiopsis theae (Sawada) Steyaert] (Zeiss and den Braber , 2001; La Rue and Bartlett, 1922;
Chandra Mouli, 1996). In the American Phytopathological Society list of common names of plant
diseases (Chandra Mouli, 1996), G. cingulata is noted as causing the Brown Blight of tea while there
are three further Phyllosticta species listed causing foliar diseases. The list also includes Pestalotiopsis
adusta Ellis & Everh. causing a leaf spot disease. The full list is shown in Appendix 4. To a lesser
extent, similar confusion is found in international records of root diseases of tea. A thorough
taxonomic study will be required to clarify the pathogens and diseases currently on tea in Australia.
The following section details preliminary experiments to determine the relative pathogenicity of fungi
(originally isolated from green tea or ornamental Camellias) to green tea and potential for fungicides
and cold storage to reduce establishment losses of tea cuttings. We have also commenced some
preliminary characterisation of these fungi using current morphological and molecular methods.
6.2.2 Isolation and characterisation of potential fungal pathogens
Methods
Fungi were isolated from diseased green tea or camellias at the NSW DPI Plant Health Diagnostic
Service Laboratory at Menangle between 2004 and 2006 using standard culturing methods (Figure
6.13). Leaf tissue was surface-sterilised in 100 ppm sodium hypochlorite for 60 seconds and rinsed in
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sterile-distilled water before plating to acidified ¼-strength potato dextrose agar (PDA) and water agar
with 50 ppm rifampicin. Root tissue was treated in a similar manner and plated to the same media plus
potato carrot agar with 10ppm pimaricin and 50 ppm rifampicin (PCA-PR), and PCA-PR with 50 ppm
hymexazole. Plates were incubated at 25oC in the dark and examined periodically over 7 days. Sub-
cultures were made to PDA and stored in sterile water in screw-capped bottles until required for
further studies. Isolates were identified to genus or species level by morphological taxonomy by light
microscopy (100 - 400x magnification). A selection of representative isolates were also characterised
by a molecular approach described below.
DNA extraction from fungal isolates

Fungal cultures were grown in 100 mL of autoclaved half strength potato dextrose broth (Difco) in
sterile 250 mL Erylenmeyer flasks for one week at 23oC, being agitated twice daily. Mycelia were
collected on two layers of miracloth (Calibiochem, La Jolla, USA), and stored at –20oC.
DNA was extracted from the mycelia as per Bentley and Bassam (1996). DNA concentrations and
quality were determined spectrophormetrically using a Nanodrop (Beckman-Coulter, Fullerton, USA)
and directly on agarose gels.
Genetic analysis of fungal isolates

To confirm the identity of the putative Colletotrichum isolates, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was
performed using the fungal ITS (internal transcribed spacer primers) ITS1 and ITS4, as described by
White et al. (1990). The PCR reaction was performed in a PTC-100 PCR machine (MJ Research,
Watertown, USA). PCR products were examined electrophoretically on agarose gels stained with
ethidium bromide. Excess primer and salts were removed from the end PCR product using a clean up
kit (Ultraclean PCR, Mo Bio, Solana Beach, CA, USA), as per the manufacturer’s instructions.
Sequencing reactions, in the forward and reverse directions were performed on the cleaned PCR
product using BigDye3 (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, USA) as per the manufacturer’s
instructions.
The forward and reverse sequencing reactions of the PCR products were aligned and corrected
manually using the sequence editor and aligner available in BioEdit version 7.0.5.3 (Hall, 1999). The
resulting ITS gene sequences for the different isolates were aligned using BioEdit and compared to
fungal isolates from the public database, using BLAST (Altschul et al., 1990).
Figure 6.13 Collection of green tea pathogens for isolation and identification
Results
The fungi most consistently found associated with the shoot and stem dieback symptoms of green tea
were identified as C. gloeosporioides by both morphological and molecular methods. In some cases
tissue scraped from dying stems was examined by light microscopy revealing sexual structures of this
fungus. These perithecia (as they are known) contained spore capsules called asci that each, in turn,
contained eight ascospores. This form of the fungus has the name Glomerella cingulata and is
definitive for morphological identification.
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The majority of the isolates examined by the molecular method were confirmed to be C.
gloeosporioides with the exception of isolate 06/541 black, which was identified as a Botryosphaeria
sp. (Table 1).
Table 6.4 Results of basic local alignment search tool (BLAST) analyses of sequenced ITS
regions for selected isolates
Isolate ITS sequence identity
05/499 C. gloeosporioides
04/754 C. gloeosporioides
06/541 #1 C. gloeosporioides
06/541 #2 C. gloeosporioides
06/541 black Botryosphaeria sp.
6.2.3 Pathogenicity of selected fungal isolates
Fungal isolates of the following genera from diseased green tea or camellias were used in this
experiment: Cylindrocarpon, Colletotrichum, Botryosphaeria and Pestalotiopsis. Isolates were grown
on PDA media in an incubator at 25oC for ten days prior to plant inoculation. Yabukita green tea
seedlings were grown as plugs, potted in 125 mm pots in a sand/peat/perlite mix and allowed to
establish in a greenhouse for five weeks. Healthy plants (those with new shoots with unblemished
leaves and green young stems) were selected and assigned into ten replications of twenty three
treatments. Following inoculation, pots were arranged randomly on benches with saucers placed under
those receiving root treatments (Figure 6.14).
Figure 6.14 Yabukita green tea plants in greenhouse at Gosford Horticultural Institute following
23 different pathogen infection treatments. Ten replicates per treatment (November 2006)
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Because some fungi were originally only found associated with foliar diseases and others with only
root or trunk diseases, they were not fully replicated for all inoculation sites described below. Four
different inoculation methods were investigated:
Root drench
Stem inoculation
Leaf inoculation with fungal spore suspensions
Leaf inoculation with agar blocks.
(i) Root Drench
Macerated PDA culture poured into the potting mix around stem bases. The following treatment
numbers were designated for fungal isolates (laboratory number and original host in brackets) applied
in this way:
1. Control (uncolonised PDA)
2. Cylindrocarpon sp. (04/954 ex. Green tea -T1)
3. Cylindrocarpon (03/791#2 ex. Ornamental Camellia)
4. Cylindrocarpon olidum (04/754 ex. Green Tea#3)
5. Cylindrocarpon sp. (03/804#3 ex. Ornamental Camellia)
(ii) Stem Inoculation
An agar block (5 mm2) of a PDA fungal culture was placed in shallow cleft cut into the lower stem
(Figure 6.15). Wounds were then sealed with Parafilm®. The following treatment numbers were
designated for fungal isolates (laboratory number and original host in brackets) applied in this way:
1. Control (uncolonised PDA)
2. Colletotrichum (05/499#2 ex. Ornamental Camellia)
3. Colletotrichum (04/754 ex. Green Tea)
4. Colletotrichum (06/541-1C ex. Green Tea)
5. Colletotrichum (06/541-2 ex. Green Tea)
6. Botryosphaeria sp. (06/541 ‘black’ ex. Green Tea)
Figure 6.15 Yabukita green tea with fungal inoculum applied to the lower stem
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(iii) Leaf Inoculation with fungal spore suspensions
Plants with two branches were selected for these inoculation treatments, one branch was wounded
prior to inoculation and the other left unwounded. Inoculum was prepared by harvesting conidial
spores from acervuli (specialised spore-bearing structures produced by the fungi used in this part of
the experiment) on PDA plates with a sterile wire loop and suspending them in 10 ml sterile distilled
water (approximately 106 spores.ml-1).
Wounding and inoculation was carried out by the following procedures:

a) The upper surface of an older (mature, darker green) leaf was scoured with sandpaper and
100μl of inoculum suspension was placed onto the leaf surface.
b) One older and one younger (expanded and light green) leaf was cut transversely with a scalpel
blade and the cut edge dipped into a spore suspension. Corresponding unwounded leaves were
also dipped into a spore suspension. They were tracked by placing labelled tags adjacent to
them on stems.
The following treatment numbers were designated for fungal isolates (laboratory number and original
host in brackets) applied in this way:
1. Control (sterile distilled water)
4. Colletotrichum (06/541-1C ex. Green Tea)
5. Colletotrichum (06/541-2 ex. Green Tea)
6. Botryosphaeria (06/541 ‘black’ ex. Green Tea)
7. Pestalotiopsis (06/541 ex. Green Tea)
Once inoculated, plants were covered with plastic bags supported by cane stakes to increase humidity
(Figure 6.16). The bags were removed 5 -6 weeks after inoculation.
Figure 6.16 Yabukita green tea with fungal inoculum applied to leaves
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(iv) Leaf inoculation with agar blocks
Leaf inoculation with agar blocks (5 mm2) of PDA fungal cultures or wheat straw colonised by
respective fungi placed on the upper leaf surface. Once inoculated, plants were covered with plastic
bags supported by cane stakes to increase humidity as above. The bags were removed 5-6 weeks after
inoculation.
The following treatment numbers were designated for fungal isolates (laboratory number and original
host in brackets) applied in this way:
1. Control (uncolonised agar or wheat straw)
4. Botryosphaeria (06/541 ‘black’ ex. Green Tea)
5. Pestalotiopsis (06/541 ex. Green Tea)
All plants were hand watered and checked regularly for disease symptoms. Observations were
recorded. Any permanently wilted plants were plated onto ¼ PDA + lactic acid media plates to
reisolate fungal inoculum. The experiment was conducted over a period of 17 weeks from inoculation,
between September 2006 and January 2007. Overall the average temperature inside the greenhouse
was 22°C.
Results
(i) Root Drench

Only one plant died from this set of treatments, the others remaining apparently healthy with no
perceptible growth retardation or root diseases when assessed at the end of the trial. The dead plant
belonged to Treatment 3 (= Cylindrocarpon sp. isolate 03/791#2 ex. ornamental camellia). The roots
had not grown out of the plug and a Colletotrichum sp. was isolated from lower stem and roots
suggesting a cross-contamination event or the plant had been infected prior to the commencement of
the trial. These results imply that isolates of Cylindrocarpon were not significant pathogens to green
tea under these experimental conditions.
(ii) Stem Inoculation

Colletotrichum isolates in treatments 8, 9, and 10 had 80% mortality (Figure 6.18). Permanent wilting
(= mortality) took between 4 and 6 weeks after the inoculation date. Interestingly, the Colletotrichum
isolate from ornamental camellia (05/499#2) was non-pathogenic under these experimental conditions.
Similarly, the Botryosphaeria isolate in this group (06/541 ‘black’ ex. Green Tea) was only associated
with one mortality suggesting that is a minor pathogen under these experimental conditions.
Colletotrichum was reisolated from the stems of all dead plants in Treatments 8, 9, and 10.
Botryosphaeria was reisolated from Treatment 11. A single plant from the uninoculated control set
also wilted and died and no significant pathogens were reisolated. The disease progress curve for each
of these treatments is shown in Figure 6.17 below. Figure 6.18 (left) shows the typical wilting plant
symptoms following stem inoculation.
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100
control
90
Camellia 05/499#2
80
Tea 04/754
70 Tea 06/541 -1C
Tea 06/541-2
60
% Mortality
Tea 06/541 "black"

50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time after inoculation (weeks)
Figure 6.17 Disease progress (% mortality) of stem inoculated Yabukita green tea
A few plants that received stem inoculation of Colletotrichum did not wilt and die except for a side
branch near the site of inoculation. This is shown in Figure 6.18 (right). One side branch of a plant
from treatment 9 was plated to media and Colletotrichum was reisolated.
Figure 6.18 Yabukita green tea wilting after stem inoculation with Colletotrichum (left).
Yabukita green tea with dead side branch after stem inoculation with Colletotrichum isolate
06/541-1C ex. Green Tea (right)
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(iii) Leaf inoculations with fungal spore suspensions, agar blocks and wheat straw
(Treatments (iii) and (iv))
Due to a power failure, temperatures inside the greenhouse air temperature peaked at 52°C over a
weekend in the summer period and plants suffered from heat scald causing brown markings of leaves.
This made objective assessment of these treatments difficult.
Fungal fruiting bodies were observed on damaged leaves. These were confirmed to be Pestalotiopsis
by light microscopy. A few plants inoculated with spore suspensions were chosen and tissue plated to
¼ PDA and lactic acid media to check for the presence of the inoculated fungus.
The results are as follows:

Treatment 14 Old and young cut leaf - Colletotrichum reisolated
Treatment 15 Young cut leaf and edge burn - Colletotrichum reisolated
Treatment 18 Old cut leaf and wounded leaf – Pestalotiopsis reisolated (Figure 6.19)
Treatment 18 Young cut leaf and edge burn – Pestalotiopsis reisolated
Figure 6.19 Older cut leaf of Yabukita green tea inoculated with Pestalotiopsis
These results confirm that both these pathogens can be successful wound invaders of green tea leaves.
In both cases these fungi were recovered from dead tissue only and appear to be minor pathogens of
leaves. However more definitive studies are required as they may cause primary lesions and increased
disease such leaf abscission under certain environmental conditions. For example, the moist conditions
experienced in nursery propagation may be more conducive to disease development. Note the discrete
leaf spots from nursery cuttings that are clearly separate from cut edges in Figure 6.20.
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Figure 6.20 Leaf spots on Yabukita green tea cuttings associated with Colletotrichum and
Pestalotiopsis sp. infections
Clearly, some Colletotrichum isolates can cause a significant dieback disease when stem infections
occur. This is consistent with many observations of field plantings where a single stem may exhibit a
rapid wilt and dieback. Colletotrichum has been consistently recovered from infected tissue. This
fungus also appears to be causing leaf disease but further work is required to distinguish it from other
potential foliar pathogens.
The agar blocks and wheat straw did not prove to be successful inoculation techniques since inoculum
appeared to dry up fairly quickly after being placed on leaf surfaces and in some cases fell off.
Similarly, scouring the leaves with sandpaper resulted in so much damage that many leaves abscised
prematurely. Detached leaf assays conducted in humid chambers should be a better way of
determining pathogenicity, thus avoiding these problems (Moriwaki et al., 2002).
6.2.4 Fungicide efficacy trial
Four commercial fungicides were assessed to determine their efficacy to dieback diseases in tea
cuttings.
Methods
Cuttings (30 – 40 cm) were taken from Sayamakaroi green tea plants from Somersby Research
Station, trimmed to size (approximately 15 cm long) and propped into seedling trays. Each tray
contained 104 cuttings and there were five trays for each fungicide treatment. Treatments were then
immediately applied as a single spray application (one litre-bottle hand sprayers) with each tray
receiving 200 mL of solution (Figure 6.21).
Spray treatments were as follows:

1. Water control
2. Azoxystrobin (Amistar® at 0.4 g.L-1)
3. Prochloraz (Sportak® at 1 g.L-1)
4. Boscalid (Filan® at 1.2 g.L-1)
5. Copper (Copper oxide at 2.5 g.L-1)
Each treatment was replicated four times. Trays were randomised on a bench in a propagation
greenhouse and hand-watered with a watering can as required. The trial was maintained for 19 weeks
and assessed for disease-affected plants after eight weeks and at the termination date.
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Figure 6.21 Application of fungicide with hand sprayer (left) and grow cuttings in propagation
house at Gosford Horticultural Institute, Narara
Results
This trial was compromised by extremely hot weather conditions and some subsequent plant deaths
due to drying-out of seedling cells. As a result much of the trial data was unusable. Dead plants were
removed and survivors counted in each tray. Plants were carefully managed over the following 11
week period and new deaths were recorded. This data is shown below in Table 6.5.
Table 6.5 Average number of deaths of Sayamakaroi tea cuttings over an 11 week period. The
standard errors around the means are shown in brackets
Treatment Deaths at 11 weeks
Water control 21.4 (1.6)
Azoxystrobin (Amistar® at 0.4 g.L-1) 14.0 (3.8)
Prochloraz (Sportak® at 1 g.L-1) 21.4 (2.3)
Boscalid (Filan® at 1.2 g.L-1) 13.4 (3.8)
Copper (Copper oxide at 2.5 g.L-1) 26.8 (5.3)
Both azoxystrobin and boscalid fungicides reduced plant mortalities over the 11 weeks compared with
the water control and other fungicide treatments. This could be explained by the fact that both these
products have systemic activity and may have had a curative effect on potential pathogens. Both
Colletotrichum and Pestalotiopsis were recovered from dead plants suggesting that either or both may
have been responsible for deaths during this period. These results are promising for disease control
during the establishment period of cuttings and this trial should be repeated under more controlled
environmental conditions to minimise losses from environmental stresses. Treatments with pathogen
inoculation could also be included although cross-contamination remains a potential problem as
suggested in results of the pathogenicity tests (Section 6.2.3).
6.2.5 Tea cutting storage trial

This trial was conducted after an earlier observation that cuttings stored at 0oC appeared to retain more
leaves and establish better once they were planted into propagation trays. In this initial experiment we
were interested to observe the effect of storage conditions of green tea cuttings in the presence of
Colletotrichum inoculum.
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Methods
Cuttings of Yabukita green tea from apparently healthy field plants were harvested on 14 June 2007
and organised into 24 bundles, each containing about 25 cuttings. Four treatments were applied:
1. Sprayed with 25mL water and stored at 20oC
2. Sprayed with 25mL Colletotrichum suspension (4x106 spores of isolate 04/754) and
stored at 20oC
3. Sprayed with 25mL water and stored at 0oC
4. Sprayed with 25mL Colletotrichum suspension (4x106 spores of isolate 04/754) and
stored at 0oC
After treatment the bundles of green tea were wrapped in moistened newspaper and stored at either
0oC or 20oC (Figure 6.22). Each treatment was replicated four times and was assessed after three
weeks.
Figure 6.22 Spraying spore suspension and preparation of green tea cuttings for storage at
either 0oC or 20oC
Results
A qualitative assessment was made after 21 days in storage. The cuttings stored at 20oC showed a
distinct difference between those treated with fungal spores and the controls. The fungus-treated
cuttings had dropped >80% of their leaves and their petioles had browned in contrast to the controls
that had retained their leaves (except in one replicate). Tissue from brown petioles, stem ends, leaf
markings and flower buds was picked off with fine forceps, mounted on glass slides in water mounts
and examined by light microscopy. Colletotrichum (typical spores, acervuli and setose sclerotia) were
observed on each of these plant parts. There was no discernable difference in the treatments stored at
0oC at this time. After storage for a further three weeks all treatments held at 20oC were covered in
fungal growth while those held at 0oC had fungal development on their flower buds and leaves. The
fungus was identified as Botrytis cinerea and no Colletotrichum was observed. These results suggest
that Colletotrichum infection could not successfully establish at 0oC and this storage treatment may be
a useful pre-treatment to improve cutting establishment. This experiment needs to be repeated,
particularly to determine if there is increased establishment of cuttings from these treatments. Further
storage treatments should also be included where infections are allowed to establish at 20oC before
storage at 0oC. This would determine if the coolroom treatment had a protective effect from new
infections or was curative for existing infections.
6.3 Green Tea Certification and Organics
Introduction
There are numerous quality, food safety, organic and environmental certification systems used within
Australian agriculture and horticultural industries. These systems are designed to provide customers
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and consumers with confidence that products are meeting market requirements. “Organic” is one
system of production and certification and is a system based principally on exclusion of synthetic
chemical and fertiliser inputs. Organic production and certification is a long term aim of the project in
Australia and Japan as discussed in Section 1.
The major aim of this project is to export high quality green tea to Japan. Japan is a lucrative export
market but has significant regulatory, certification and labelling requirements. These systems and
processes are discussed in Section 6.3.4.
6.3.1 Certification options in Australia
The horticulture production, food manufacturing and beverage sectors are increasingly using
certification programs for assurance of product quality and food safety management within supply
chains. Other certifications service market niches such as organic and environmental certifications.
The trend for pursuing certifications is driven by compliance to government regulations, market
access, obtaining competitive advantage in a market or use of these management systems as business
risk management tools within a supply chain.
Quality and Food Safety Certification

Third-party certified quality and food safety standards, codes and programs significant in the
Australian horticulture sector include:
HACCP Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points
Internationally recognised method for identifying, assessing, controlling and documenting food safety
risks and their management in the food manufacturing industry. Most food industry standards, codes
and programs require or are based on HACCP. Guidelines for implementation are defined by Codex
Alimentarius Commission under United Nations FAO / WHO Food Standards.
Freshcare
Freshcare Ltd is the industry owned and operated national on-farm assurance program for Australian
growers. The Freshcare Code of Practice Food Safety is based on HACCP and identifies the Good
Agricultural Practices for the safe growing, handling and packing of horticultural products.
Safe Quality Food (SQF) 2000 / 1000
SQF Codes are owned by the Food Marketing Institute (USA). The SQF 2000 Code is applicable to
food manufacturing and distribution sectors whereas the SQF 1000 Code is applicable to primary
producers. The SQF Institute regulates all aspects of the program including consultants and auditors.
International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) 9001
The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) is an organisation for facilitating
globalisation through standards development. As a member country, Australia adopts equivalent
standards into Australian Standards.
GLOBALGAP GlobalGAP
GlobalGAP (formerly known as EurepGAP) is a series of Good Agricultural Practices voluntary
standards developed by a consortium of European private sector retailers and suppliers. The standards
include aspects of food safety, environment protection, worker health and safety plus animal welfare
(where applicable). GlobalGAP also has a crop checklist tailored for tea production and processing.
Many self-assessment or second-party (customer) audited “Approved Supplier” programs based on the
above standards, system principles and programs have also been implemented. Depending on specific
sector risks, liability and due diligence concerns over food safety are driving the migration of such
systems toward formalisation under one of the third-party auditing options listed above.
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6.3.2 Australian organic certification
Organic certification is a certification process for producers of organic agricultural products and
generally involve a set of production standards for growing, storage, processing, packaging and
shipping that include:
• exclusion of most synthetic chemical inputs (e.g. pesticides, fertiliser) or genetically modified
organisms
• use of farmland that has been free from chemicals for a number of years
• keeping required documentation on production and sales (traceability and audit trail)
• undergoing periodic on-site inspections and testing.
Export organic and bio-dynamic produce in Australia is prescribed under the Export Control (Organic
Produce Certification) Orders. This has been the driving force for the development of the National
Standard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic Produce (June 2007). The Export Orders require AQIS to
conduct audits of approved certification organisations under a co-regulatory arrangement, to ensure
on-going compliance against legislation, the National Standard and importing country requirements.
Where an organisation satisfies these requirements, the organisation is given the authority by AQIS to
issue organic produce certificates for export purposes.
Domestic markets are seeing growth in the “organic” market. Labelling and use of the term “organic”
continues to be an issue for the industry and organic consumers remain reliant on certification marks
for product integrity.
The major organic certifier and certification mark (the “bud logo”) in
Australia is Australian Certified Organic (ACO), a subsidiary of the
Biological Farmers of Australia (BFA).
The current ACO Standard (Australian Organic Standard) is available on the internet
(http://www.australianorganic.com.au/), where a comparison of the requirements of the ACO Standard
relative to the Japanese (Japanese Agricultural Standard - JAS) Organic Standard (MAFF, 2005) are
listed in Annex 1 of the Australian Organic Standard (1 March 2006).
The organic certification bodies from both Australia and Japan have similar crop production inputs of
use of manures, composts etc, but some minor differences are noted (Australian Organic Standard,
2006). For example, mined dolomite (magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate) are allowed with
the Australian Organic Standards but have restricted use in the JAS Organic Standard. In addition, the
use of petroleum distillates (regulated to narrow-range (light) petroleum derivatives) have some
restricted use in the Australian Organic Standards. These products are used in Australian organic
production as suffocating oils on foliage to kill insect pests, as dormant or summer oils, and as inert
ingredients and are discussed in the IPM Section 6.1.2. However in Japan, direct application to the
harvested crop is currently prohibited as this is not listed as allowed under Japanese Standard and is
therefore prohibited (March 2006).
Other organic and bio-dynamic certification marks and organisations in Australia include:
National Certifying Mark for Australian Organic Goods
Certification mark for export produce that meets the National Standard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic
Produce (current Edition 3.3 July 2007) defined by Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service
(AQIS).
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Aus-Qual
Aus-Qual is a professional audit company certifying to a diverse array of primary and processing
industry sector standards, codes and programs that now include the National Standard for Organic
and Bio-Dynamic Produce.
Bio-Dynamic Research Institute (BDRI)
This is the oldest certification organisation in Australia. BDRI administers the Demeter standard. This
organisation only certifies Biodynamic produce.
National Association for Sustainable Agriculture (NASAA)
The next oldest organisation is the National Association for Sustainable Agriculture, Australia Ltd
(NASAA). NASAA certifies produce as organic or biodynamic.
Australian Certified Organic (ACO)
ACO certified organic and Biodynamic produce and is Australia's largest certifier.
Organic Growers of Australia (OGA)
The Organic Growers of Australia (OGA Certified) is the third largest organisation representing small
producers.
The Tasmanian Organic Producers (TOP)
The Tasmanian Organic Producers (TOP) certify organic and biodynamic food grown or made in
Tasmania.
The Organic Food Chain (OFC)
The Organic Food Chain (OFC) is a grower owned and operated company.
Safe Food Queensland (SFQ)
Safe Food Queensland (SFQ) is the most recent certification organisation to begin operating in
Australia. It is run by the Queensland Government.
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)
International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movements (IFOAM) is the major international
organisation for cooperation between organic standards bodies and interested parties.
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6.3.3 Environmental certification
Certifying environmental stewardship is an increasingly important aspect of production and marketing

in Australia and around the world. Environmental certification encompasses all aspects of an
organisation’s interaction with the environment. Whilst organic standards incorporate some aspects of
environmental management, environmental certification looks at the whole farming system, rather
than individual inputs and production areas.
Environmental certification options may include Environmental Management Systems (EMS) or

Environmental Assurance (EA) programs.
Freshcare
Freshcare Ltd is the industry owned and operated national on-farm assurance program for Australian
growers. The Freshcare Environmental Code of Practice is based on ISO 14001 concepts and Good
Agricultural Practices for managing the environmental aspects of property activity. The Environmental
code can be integrated with the Food Safety code structure and other Freshcare on-farm codes under
development.
International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) 14001
The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) is an organisation for facilitating
globalisation through standards development. As a member country, Australia adopts equivalent
standards into Australian Standards.
Various “Ecolabel” programs are also available that have been devised and administered by non-
governmental organisations (NGOs) promoting specific environmental causes.
6.3.4 Japanese agricultural standards and organics
Japanese Agricultural Standards (JAS) are the Japanese national standards of food labelling to provide
consumer confidence in foods and ensure traceability and transparency on production information
from farm to consumer. These are overarching regulations for all food labelling in Japan, but JAS also
regulates Japanese organics and labelling.
JAS Standards for organics were established in 2000 on the basis of the ‘Guidelines for the
Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods’ which were adopted
by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The organic JAS system has been further developed with the
addition of other standards in November 2005. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of
Japan (MAFF) regulates and administers JAS standards and organic certification. Australia is
recognised as a country whose organic rules and standards are equivalent with the Organic JAS
System (Article 15-2 of the JAS Law, as of March 2007).
The Japanese Agricultural Standard for Organic Plants (Notification number 1605 of the Ministry of
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, October 27, 2005) is appended as Appendix 5.
143
Organic approval in Japan
Like Australia, a Japanese producer wanting to obtain organic certification of their green tea farm
must pass an audit by a government-certified agency.
1. Organic green tea production in Japan

Japanese organic green tea cultivation does not allow the use synthetic agrichemicals, fertilisers or soil
conditioners for over three years. In addition there shall be no drift of inadvertent use of synthetic
agrichemicals and fertilisers from adjacent conventional farming areas. Japanese organic regulations
also do not allow the mixing of organic and non-organic sourced products during the production and
packaging processes.
2. Transformational organic green tea production in Japan

It is possible to transfer from conventional farming to certified organic production.
For a time period of over one year and less than three years, as long as the management of the green
tea plantation meets Japanese requirements of organic (defined above), and then the green tea can be
labelled ‘Transformational organic green tea’.
3. Specifically cultivated green tea

JAS have specific guidelines for non-organic green tea production, i.e. with minimal or no use of
chemical fertilisers or pesticides. These guidelines are generally for consumers. There are four classes
of specific green tea production:
1. No use of agrichemicals (eg pesticides).

2. No synthetic chemical fertiliser inputs.
3. Low use of agrichemicals, i.e. reduced (>50% reduction) in agrichemical use compared to
normal conventional farming.
4. Low chemical fertiliser inputs, i.e. reduced (>50% reduction) in chemical fertiliser inputs
as compared to normal conventional farming. For example, if a Japanese green tea farmer
can reduce their use of chemical fertiliser to less than 300kg per ha (i.e. less than half the
current 600 kg per year), then they can label their green tea as “low chemical fertiliser
inputs”.
6.3.5 Importation, organic certification and labelling in Japan
The JAS certification system is designed to ensure the reliability of JAS marks though certification by
Registered Certifying Bodies (RCB), which are registered (accredited) third-party audit organizations.
Producers who have been certified by the RCBs grade their products or inspect production processes
by themselves and can label JAS marks to their products.
Imported products can carry JAS marks if they are produced or manufactured by overseas producers
or manufacturers certified by Registered Japanese Certifying Bodies or Registered Overseas Certifying
Bodies.
Businesses certified by registered Japanese or overseas certifying bodies are able

to attach the organic JAS logo to products that were produced or manufactured in
accordance with relevant organic JAS Standards.
Only one Registered Certifying Body in Australia is currently registered with JAS to conduct organic
certification in Australia (March 2008). However as a result of the recent amendments to the Law and
Ordinances on JAS, any certifying bodies are able to apply for the status of JAS Registered Overseas
Certifying Bodies.
144
‘Australian Certified Organic’ is registered by JAS to certify organic agricultural products, organic
processed foods, organic feeds and organic livestock products.
As for organic foods, imported organic foods can be re-labelled with JAS marks by importers certified
by Registered Japanese Certifying Bodies. The products qualified for JAS marks shall be certified as
“organic” in the countries whose organic rules and standards Japan approved as equivalent with the
Organic JAS system (such as Australia), and shall carry export certificates issued by the government
agencies or quasi-governmental organizations in those countries. The flow of approvals for
certification for JAS and JAS organic are shown in Figure 6.23 and 6.24.
Figure 6.23 Applying JAS certification to imported products
145
Figure 6.24 Applying JAS organic certification with RCB to imported products
146
6.4 Organic Block at Somersby Research Station
An organic block of nine rows of green tea was established within the green tea plantation at the
Somersby Research Station, NSW Department of Primary Industries at the start of this RIRDC project
(2004). This block contains rows of Yabukita, Sayamakaroi and Sayamadori green tea plants and is
maintained without the use of synthetic fertilisers or chemicals (Figure 6.25).
As with the management of the rest of the green tea plantation at Somersby Research Station, no
pesticides or fungicides were used on the organic block.
Nutrition
Poultry manure was the main source of nutrition for this block. The manure was sourced from local
chicken sheds. The manure was partly composted before application.
In addition, various other soluble organic products (eg liquefied worm casting such as Wormtastic®)
were applied through the fertigation system.
Weeds
Weed control was by hand weeding and rotary hoeing. Thick straw was used to suppress weeds. This
was effective, but weeds did emerge in between plants and where the mulching was thin.
Figure 6.25 Organic block at Somersby Research Station, NSW Department of Primary
Industries (June 2006). Note the use of straw as an organic mulch and to suppress weeds.
Composted chicken manure is incorporated into the soil and is used as an organic source of
nutrients and organic matter
The quality of the processed green tea processed from the organic block was determined every season.
The results of the NIR analysis of final processed tea of the 2006 first harvest is presented in Figures
6.26 and 6.27 and show there were no quantitative differences between the green tea produced in the
organic block compared to the conventionally grown green tea.
Moisture 3.3% 3 > 4.5%
Theanine 1.9% 1 > 1.5%
Tannin 13.0% 2 < 14%
Caffeine 2.9% 3 > 2.5%
Vitamin C 0.41% 3 > 0.5%
147
AF Score 42
Free amino acids

Theanine 1.9%
3.4%
Figure 6.26 NIR quality analysis of first harvest green tea made from Yabukita green tea grown
in the organic block at Somersby Research Station (9 October 2006)

Moisture 3.0% 3 > 4.5%
Theanine 1.9% 1 > 1.5%
Tannin 12.7% 1 < 14%
Caffeine 2.8% 3 > 2.5%
Vitamin C 0.38% 4 > 0.5%
AF Score 40
Free amino acids

Theanine 1.9%
3.3%
Figure 6.27 NIR quality analysis of first harvest green tea made from Yabukita green tea grown
on an adjacent conventionally managed block at Somersby Research Station (9 October 2006)
148
7. Post-harvest
7.1 Background
Harvesting
Only the new flushes of green tea are harvested with up to three to four harvests per year. Only the
new soft lush growth is harvested and this generally consists of the top-most bud and the next two or
three leaves. The first flush is the highest quality and usually occurs from early to mid-October on the
NSW Central Coast. Green tea is commercially harvested by tractor driven mechanical harvesters
(Figure 7.1). However, in these experiments, the green tea was harvested by hand for processing
(Figure 7.2).
Figure 7.1 Tractor driven harvesters are used to mechanically harvest green tea shoots
Processing
The processing of green tea is complicated with various stages of drying and rolling and is
summarised in Figure 7.3. Although they are made from different Camellia sinensis varieties, the
difference between green and black tea is essentially one of processing. In green tea, the fresh leaves
are steamed immediately after harvest to destroy enzymes such as polyphenol oxidase (PPO), which
prevents the blackening (oxidation) of the leaf phenolics. It is these phenolics which contribute to the
typical colour, aroma and the mouth-feel of tea. The steaming process prevents fermentation almost
instantaneously and it is this process that retains the bright green colouration typical of high quality
Japanese green teas. This process can last for up to two minutes and reduces the water content of the
leaves to 75%.
The leaves are then transferred to the primary drying tea-roller which twists and dries them at
temperatures of around 90-110ºC for 40-50 minutes. This process further reduces the water content to
about 50%. Leaves are then transferred to the secondary drying tea-roller which presses and twists the
leaves, breaking up their cells and producing an even distribution of water content. This roller is
heated to 60ºC and has rolling hands, which dry and roll the leaves to produce the characteristic shape
and aroma of green tea. The tea is then transferred to a tea drier which reduces the water content to
around 5%. At this point it is called araicha or crude tea. This is then further refined and blended to
produce the final green tea product.
149
Figure 7.2 Harvesting experimental samples by hand with mechanised cutter for processing at
Somersby Research Station, NSW DPI
Green Leaf Pre-Server

Ø
Steaming
Ø
Primary Tea Rolling Dryer

Ø
Tea Roller
Ø
Secondary Rolling Dryer

Ø
Final Rolling Dryer

Ø
Tea Dryer
Further Green Tea Refinement
Tea Refining Machine
Tea Blender
Figure 7.3 Schematic representation of araicha (crude tea) processing from harvested shoot to
araicha production and final blended product
A pilot green tea processing system was located at Somersby Research Station, NSW DPI for use in
this project. This pilot plant was used to process fresh leaves and shoots into dry processed araicha
(Figure 7.4) and was used in larger scale experiments. This pilot plant can process two kg of tea per
sample lot.
150
Figure 7.4 Kawasaki green tea pilot processing plant at Somersby Research Station, NSW DPI
Japanese green tea should be processed as soon as possible after harvest to ensure optimal processing
quality. Poor post-harvest handling, storage and processing is thought to have significant detrimental
effects to final green tea quality. This section demonstrates the effect of delays in processing and
temperature management after harvest on green tea quality. This section also demonstrates the
importance of adequate post-harvest management to achieve high quality green tea.
Modifying storage temperatures are the most useful and common method of improving the post-
harvest storage life of harvested crops. Low storage temperatures generally reduce the respiration rate
and slow the rate of deterioration of product quality. In addition, the rate of cooling has significant
effects on final product quality. In these experiments, freshly harvested green tea shoots were exposed
to varying temperatures and rates of cooling to examine their effects on visual and final product
quality.
7.2 Preliminary Demonstration for Need of Adequate Post-harvest of

Green Tea Shoots and Leaves
Storage / temperature trials of first harvest Yabukita green tea were conducted to examine the effect of
static (passive) storage on the temperature generated in freshly harvested tea shoots.
Methods
Five kg freshly harvested Yabukita tea shoots were placed into plastic crates and placed into either 0oC
or 20oC on 25 October 2005. Four crates (replicates) per temperature were stored at each storage
temperature. The 20oC crates were stored for two weeks, whilst the 0oC crates were stored for up to
five weeks (Figure 7.5).
Figure 7.5 Green tea shoots harvested and stored in plastic open crates stored at 0oC or 20oC
Results
The results show that even within a small volume of green tea shoots (5kg), the temperature within the
green tea container reached up to 44oC within six hours after harvest when the green tea was stored at
20oC (Figure 7.6). Even when the green tea shoots were stored at 0oC, the inside temperature of the
sample lots within the storage crate still reached 35oC within two hours and did not fall to less than
151
2oC for over three days at 0oC. This indicates a high heat of respiration and poor cooling rates in
freshly harvested green tea shoots.
50
45 20C
Temperature inside crete (C)

40 0C
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
0
10
11
12
13
Time (days)
Figure 7.6 Temperature inside 5kg lots of freshly harvested green tea shoots stored in
plastic crates at 0oC or 20oC
The effect of storage temperature on the visual leaf quality is shown in Table 7.1. All green tea shoots
stored were completely rotten by two weeks storage at 20oC. However, it took five weeks storage at
0oC to reach this similar stage (Figure 7.8). The external leaf quality of samples stored at 0oC declined
after two weeks storage.
Table 7.1 Effect of storage time and temperature on visual green tea leaf quality
Storage
Temperature Time Visual leaf quality
20oC 2 weeks completely brown /rotten all leaves / stems brown. Discarded
0oC 2 weeks excellent quality only some browning on < 5% of all leaves
0oC 3 weeks most leaves good/ fresh green, 25% of all leaves brown
0oC 4 weeks poor quality all tips and first leaves brown (older leaves OK)
0oC 5 weeks poor quality all tips and first leaves brown
Respiration
To follow up on the increased heat produced by the green tea shoots after harvest, the respiration rate
of freshly harvested green tea shoots was investigated. Ten ‘5-leaf’ Yabukita green tea shoots were
weighed and sealed into a 1.9 L glass respiration jars at 20oC (Figure 7.7). An air flow rate of
approximately 15 mL.min-1 passed through the respiration jar, and the changes in carbon dioxide
content due to the respiring green tea shoots were measured. There were eight replicates (respiration
jars).
Figure 7.7 Measuring respiration rate of freshly harvested Yabukita green tea shoots
The results showed the respiration rates of the freshly harvested shoots were over the calibration range
of the IRGA infrared carbon dioxide analyser used to measure respiration, indicating very high
respiration rates. The shoots in the respiration jars developed rapid browning symptoms with all jars
152
showing some browning after three days storage. These preliminary results confirm fresh green tea
shoots produce high levels of carbon dioxide following cutting, indicating the shoots are very active
with a high respiration rate resulting in a large heat of respiration.
Two weeks at 0oC Two weeks at 20oC
Three weeks at 0oC Three weeks at 0oC
Four weeks at 0oC Five weeks at 0oC

Figure 7.8 Effect of storage time (up to five weeks storage) and temperature (0oC and 20oC) on
visual green tea leaf quality
153
7.3 Storage Time and Temperature on Leaf Quality - Small Scale
Trials
7.3.1 Storage at elevated temperatures

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of storage time and elevated storage temperatures of
fresh leaves on leaf colour and browning.
Methods
From a single uniform batch of freshly harvested Yabukita green tea leaves, small lots of leaves /
stems (about 50g lots) were randomised and put into small plastic bags. The bags were stored in the
dark at either 10oC, 20oC, 30oC or 40oC for up to 14 days. Each treatment was replicated four times.
Minolta SPAD measurements were recorded on the fully expanded third leaf of the shoot (Section
4.6). Leaf and shoot browning was subjectively assessed:
Shoot / leaf browning rating

The quality (browning) of the shoot tips were assessed at daily intervals using a subjective six point
browning scale:
Browning Index
0 - no browning symptoms
1 - first visible symptoms, margins of new shoot
2 - margins on ½ new tips
3 – most new tips and leaves brown
4 - all new tips
5 - all tips and other leaves brown
Results
Storage temperature had a significant effect on the rate of leaf and shoot browning (Figure 7.9). As
expected, lower storage temperatures delayed the development of leaf browning (Figure 7.11 and
7.12). There were little differences in the Minolta SPAD measurements over time, except in the leaves
stored at 40oC which had higher Minolta SPAD readings before browning and abscising from the stem
(Figure 7.10).
4
Browning Index
10C
3
20C
2 30C
40C
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 14
Storage tim e (days )
Figure 7.9 Browning Index of stored Yabukita shoots stored in the dark at either 10oC, 20oC,
30oC or 40oC for up to 14 days. Error bars are standard deviations around the mean (n = 4)
154
70
60
50
10C
SPAD units
40
20C
30C
30
40C
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 14
Storage time (days)
Figure 7.10 Effect of storage temperature and time on third leaf of Yabukita shoot SPAD
Minolta values. Shoots stored in plastic bags in the dark at 10oC, 20oC, 30oC or 40oC for up to
14 days. Error bars are standard deviations around the mean (n = 4)
Figure 7.11 Yabukita leaves after one day storage at 10oC (Left - top left), 20oC (Left - top right),
bottom left 30oC (Left bottom left) and 40oC (Left – bottom right). Leaves stored at 40oC (Right)
Figure 7.12 Yabukita leaves after two days storage (Left) (30oC - left and 40oC – right); seven
days (Middle) at 10oC (top left), 20oC (top right), bottom left 30oC (bottom left) and 40oC (bottom
right). Leaves stored for 18 days at 10oC (Right)
7.3.2 Comparison with low storage temperatures

This small scale trial was conducted with a lower storage temperature (0oC) and compared to the
standard post-harvest storage at 20oC.
Methods
A single uniform batch of Yabukita green tea leaves were harvested on 24 October 2005, where these
shoots were randomised, allocated into lots of about 50 g and put in into small plastic bags (Figure
7.13). The bags were stored in the dark at either 0oC or 20oC for up to 14 days. Bags of shoots were
removed from each storage temperature at 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 10, 14 days for assessment. Each treatment was
replicated four times, with a total number of 48 treatment units (bags) of freshly harvested green tea
leaves.
155
Figure 7.13 Sample of Yabukita green tea shoots stored in the dark at either 0oC or 20oC
Assessments
Minolta SPAD measurements were recorded on the fully expanded third leaf of the shoot (Section
4.6).
Shoot / leaf browning rating

The quality (browning) of the shoot tips were assessed at daily intervals using a subjective five point
browning scale:
Browning Index
0 - no browning symptoms
1 - first visible symptoms, margins of new shoot
2 - margins on ½ new tips
3 - all new tips
4 - all tips and other leaves brown
Results
As expected the low storage temperature (0oC) slowed the rate of browning of the fresh leaf tips
(Figure 7.14) and slowed the deterioration of leaf quality (Figure 7.15), whereby 14 days storage at
20oC, all the leaves had shed from the stem. However, there was no effect on Minolta SPAD
measurements (Figure 7.16) indicating that the Minolta SPAD readings (leaf colour) of the stored
leaves were maintained during storage at either 0oC or 20oC.
20C
3.5
0C
3
Browning Index
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
1 2 3 4 7 10 14
Time (days)
Figure 7.14 Browning index of stored Yabukita shoots stored in the dark at 0oC and 20oC for up
to 14 days. Error bars are standard deviations around the mean (n = 4)
156
14 days at 0oC 14 days at 20oC
Figure 7.15 Visual symptoms of green tea shoots stored in the dark at 0oC and 20oC for 14 days
60
0C
20C
50
40
SPAD units
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 7 10 14
Time (days)
Figure 7.16 Effect of storage temperature and time on third leaf of Yabukita shoot SPAD
Minolta values, on green tea shoots stored in the dark at 0oC and 20oC for up to 14 days. Error
bars are standard deviations around the mean (n = 4)
7.3.3 Role of ethylene in storage green tea quality

Ethylene is an important gaseous plant growth regulator associated with ripening and senescence of
plants (Golding et al., 2005). Ethylene plays many important roles in the storage environment and is a
key in the storage of many horticultural products. The role of ethylene in the storage of freshly
harvested green tea shoots is unknown. This experiment examined the potential role of externally
applied ethylene gas to the quality of freshly harvested green tea shoots stored at 20oC.
157
Methods
Freshly harvested Yabukita green tea shoots (15 kg) were placed into four 60 L steel drums on
24 October 2004. The drums were approximately half full of loosely packed shoots. Half the drums
were treated with 150μL.L-1 ethylene. Half the drums were sealed and the other half were left ajar to
the atmosphere to allow exchange of gases. Thus a total of four treatments were applied:
1. no ethylene added and the drum sealed
2. no ethylene added and the drum not sealed
3. external ethylene added and the drum sealed
4. external ethylene added and the drum not sealed
The drums were stored at 20oC for 3 days before assessment for browning, SPAD Minolta colour and
overall appearance.
Results
Upon removal of the green tea shoots from the drums, the shoots in the sealed drums appeared to be in
better condition to those in the non-sealed drums. However having been out of the drums for 6 hours,
the shoots in the sealed drums (both ethylene and no ethylene treatments) were significantly browner
than those in the non-sealed drums (Figure 7.17). After 6 hours out of the drums, the shoots in the
sealed drum were unacceptable, whilst those not sealed had an average browning index of 1 (= slight
browning). There was no effect of the addition of ethylene to stem / leaf browning.
The effect of ethylene on the Minolta SPAD measurements are illustrated in Table 7.2, and indicates
there was no effect of the storage atmosphere on ‘chlorophyll content’ of the leaves.
Table 7.2 Effect of sealing and the addition of 150μL.L-1 ethylene on SPAD Minolta values on
Yabukita green tea shoot at 20oC for 3 days. The standard deviations for the mean of replicates
is shown in brackets (n = 10)
Treatment Minolta SPAD
Sealed + ethylene 45 (6.2)
Sealed no ethylene 50 (6.6)
Not sealed + ethylene 50 (7.6)
Not sealed no ethylene 47 (6.2)
158
Upon removal
Sealed + ethylene Sealed no ethylene Not sealed + ethylene Not sealed no ethylene
After 6 hours after removal

Sealed + ethylene Sealed no ethylene Not sealed + ethylene Not sealed no ethylene
Figure 7.17 Effect of modifying the storage atmosphere (addition of ethylene and sealing
storage container) on green tea visual leaf quality immediately upon removal after three days
storage at 20oC (top) and a further six hours after removal (bottom)
These results show that the atmosphere in the sealed drums were responsible for the browning
symptoms upon removal from storage. It seems likely the highly respiring green tea shoots in the
sealed storage environment generated low levels of oxygen and high carbon dioxide which irreversibly
damaged the tissue resulting in browning reactions which developed upon removal to regular air.
However these observations need to be further researched.
159
7.4 Determination of Cooling Rates
A common method of cooling is the use of forced air cooling. This uses forced air from a fan to assist
in the cooling of the product. Trials using 5 kg batches of freshly harvested Yabukita green tea shoots
were assessed to investigate the effectiveness of forced air cooling at controlled and room
temperatures.
Generalised Methods
Five kg freshly harvested Yabukita tea shoots were placed into plastic crates and stored at different
storage temperatures (0oC, 20oC or room temperature). Half the crates of green tea shoots were placed
on a forced air cooler (active cooling), whilst the other half were left static (passive cooling) (Figures
7.18 and 7.19).
air flow
Air Vents
Top
Middle
External
Side
Bottom
Figure 7.18 Plastic crates used for post-harvest cooling trials. The location of the temperature
loggers within the crate containing freshly harvested green tea shoots is shown (left)
Figure 7.19 Setup of plastic crates used for forced air cooling trails. Crates are placed over a
forced air fan inside 0oC or 20oC coolrooms
160
7.4.1 Forced air cooling – At room temperatures
This experiment was conducted on second harvest green tea in December 2005. The average
maximum air temperature (as measured by the external temperature logger) was around 30oC for the
three days of the trial.
The effect of forced air cooling at room temperatures is illustrated in Figure 7.20, and shows that the
temperature inside the batches of green tea stored at room temperature in the static situation (i.e. no
forced air cooling) were always significantly higher than the outside air temperature (Figure 7.20a, top
panel). The temperature inside the 5 kg batch of green tea shoots reached 44oC within 7 hours of
storage, whilst the outside room temperature reached 30oC. At all times during the three days of
storage, the temperature inside the batch of fresh green tea was always above 25oC.
The effect of the forced air cooling is illustrated in Figure 7.20b (bottom panel) and shows that the
temperature inside the 5 kg batch was always lower than the outside air temperature. The continuous
flow of air through the green tea shoots reduced the temperature inside the batch at all times.
50
Static Storage
45 External
40
35
Temperature (C)
30
25
20
15
10
0
0
Storage Time (da ys)
50
Forced Air Cooling
45 External
40
35
Temperature (C)
30
25
20
15
10
0
0
Storage Time (days)
Figure 7.20 Temperatures inside 5kg batches of freshly harvested Yabukita green tea shoots
stored at room temperature. Figure 7.20a (upper) shows the shoots stored in regular passive
storage at room temperature (no active cooling), whilst Figure 7.20b (lower) shows the shoots
stored with an active forced air cooling at room temperature. The black line represents the
external (air) room temperature
161
7.4.2 Forced air cooling – Storage at 20oC
Temperature loggers were placed at different locations within the storage crates (Figure 7.18). The
results of the forced air cooling at a controlled storage temperature (20oC) are illustrated in Figure
7.21. and support the observations in Section 7.4.1, where freshly harvested green tea shoots stored in
a static situation, rapidly generate heat which does not quickly dissipate from the batch. The
temperature inside the 5kg batch of freshly harvested green tea shoots reached 39oC within six hours
and this temperature did not go below 30oC for two days, even though the leaves were stored at 20oC.
The high respiration rate in the middle of the freshly harvested green tea batch was reflected in the
high temperatures within the top and middle of the green tea batch. The temperature loggers on the
side and bottom of the batch showed intermediate cooling rates, indicating that their proximity to the
edge of the storage crate with passive cooling. However, the temperature inside the shoots which were
subject to forced air cooling remained below 20oC for the entire storage period, at all locations within
the storage crate and clearly illustrates the benefits of forced air cooling.
45
Top
Middle
40 Bottom
Side
35 External
Temperature (C)
30
25
20
15
0
Storage Time (days)
45
Top
Middle
40 Bottom
Side
35 External
Temperature (C)
30
25
20
15
0
Storage Time (days)
Figure 7.21 Temperatures inside 5kg volumes of freshly harvested Yabukita green tea shoots
stored in a 20oC coolroom. Figure 7.21a (top) illustrates the temperatures inside the crates of
green tea shoots were stored in regular passive storage (no active cooling). Figure 7.21b
(bottom) illustrates the temperatures inside the crates subject to active forced air cooling. The
location of the temperature loggers within the crates (top, middle, bottom and side) is shown.
The black line represents the external (air) temperature within the 20oC coolroom
162
7.5 Effect of Storage Time and Temperature in Delaying Processing
on Green Tea Quality – Larger Laboratory Trials
Previous trials in this section have been on a small scale and showed the potential of lower storage
temperatures as a post-harvest tool to manage green tea quality after harvest. In this section, the effect
of storage time and temperature on actual processed green tea quality was assessed. These trials used
larger volumes of storage material for processing.
7.5.1 Effect of storage time and temperature in delaying processing on first
harvest green tea quality
Methods
Yabukita green tea shoots were harvested from the Somersby Research Station, on the morning of
7 October 2006 and immediately processed (Time Zero). Samples of green tea shoots (5 kg) were
stored at two storage temperatures; room temperature and 3oC. The green tea shoots were enclosed in
polyethylene bags (60 cm x 1 m) and stored for either 24 or 48 hours before processing (Figure 7.22).
Temperature data loggers were placed in each storage bag at room temperature and in the coolroom.
Six sub-samples from the bulk green tea storage samples were taken and immediately frozen before
quality analysis at the University of Newcastle. The processed araicha of each treatment was analysed
by the standard NIR procedure.
Figure 7.22 Storage of green tea shoots at room temperature or in coolroom for 24 or 48 hours
after harvest
Results
Temperature
The temperature of the green tea shoots at both room temperature and in the coolroom is illustrated in
Figure 7.23. The results show that the temperatures of the green tea shoots at room temperature were
higher than the ambient room temperature. This reinforces the results of the previous sections (Section
7.2 and 7.4) and shows the high heat of respiration of the freshly harvested green tea shoots. The
temperatures of the green tea shoots within the coolroom were similar to the ambient coolroom
temperature, but the shoots did not reach this temperature for over two hours after placing them into
the coolroom (passive cooling).
The external appearance of the leaves after 48 hours at room temperature was good (Figure 7.24).
There were no browning / blackening symptoms and the leaves appeared healthy, although slightly
dehydrated.
163
35
30
25
Cool 1
Temperature (C)
Cool 2
20
RT 1
RT 2
15
Room Temp
Coolroom
10
0
0.00 6.00 12.00 18.00 24.00 30.00 36.00 42.00 48.00
Time (Hours)
Figure 7.23 Temperature of green tea shoots in the coolroom (Cool 1 and 2) and at room
temperature (RT 1 and 2) during storage before processing (October 2006). The ambient
temperatures of the storage room and the cool room are indicated. Tea was processed at Time
Zero (no storage), 24 hours and 48 hours after storage (as indicated with black triangle
markers)
Quality
The effects of cold storage on caffeine, catechins and theanine contents in the first harvest Yabukita
green tea from Somersby Research Station is presented in Table 7.3. The results show that there was
no significant difference in the levels of caffeine, catechins and theanine between green tea shoots
processed immediately and those stored for 24 hours at 3oC. However after 48 hours storage there was
a significant decline in the levels of caffeine, catechins and theanine. This may be due to their
oxidation and polymerisation during storage or a decrease in the availability of the constituents to
come out during the extraction (infusion) procedure. It is interesting to note that the physical
appearance of the green tea leaves stored from 48 hours at room temperature were still relatively good
(Figure 7.24).
Table 7.3 Effect delaying processing after harvest (24 and 48 hours after harvest) at 3oC
storage on the content of caffeine, catechins and theanine of first harvest Yabukita green tea
from Somersby Research Station (7 October 2006)
Total THE
(TC) (THE) ratio
(mg.g-1 tea)
Time 33.6 2.5 59.8 57.6 26.9 146.8 123.7 0.84±
Zero ±10.7 a ±2.6 a ±24.8 a ±4.5 a ±8.0 a ±11.6 a ±48.5 a 0.18 a
24 33.6 5.4 49.9 50.4 22.9 128.6 88.3 0.68±
hours ±13.2 a ±3.3 a ±5.6 a ±18.0 a ±14.9 a ±13.3 a ±54.3 a 0.08 a
48 12.5 2.4 41.2 16.8 5.4 65.8 26.0 0.40±
hours ±2.3 b ±1.4 a ±5.2 a ±2.4 b
±1.6 b ±10.1 b ±17.6 b 0.18 b
Each value represents the mean ± SD of four to seven replicates per sample. Values not sharing a
superscript letter in the same column are significantly different at p <0.05
164
Figure 7.24 Yabukita green tea shoots after 48 hours at room temperature. Note the good
condition of the leaves, i.e. no browning.

The results of the NIR analysis of the first harvest green tea processed from the storage experiments
are shown in Figures 7.25a and 7.25b. The results show that storage had a slight detrimental effect on
final product quality. It appeared that storage temperature did not affect final product quality. This is
contrary to the levels in 24 hour cool stored tea of the individual quality components (caffeine,
catechins and theanine) determined by HPLC before processing (Table 7.3). This would support the
possibility that the chemical constituents are still intact in the processed tea but are less able to be
extracted from the tea with hot water if the fresh leaves and shoots were left at 3oC for too long before
processing. NIR measures the components of the tea in solid form, while for HPLC, the tea is
extracted with hot water first.
The AF score for green tea shoots processed immediately after harvest was AF 41. The AF score of
those green tea shoots stored at 3oC for 24 hours was AF 37, whilst the AF score for shoots stored at
room temperature for 24 hours was AF 36. The AF scores for both storage temperatures were the same
after 48 hours storage (AF 38).
(a) Time Zero storage

Moisture 1.6% 5 > 4.5%
Theanine 2.2% 1 > 1.5%
Tannin 9.3% 1 < 14%
Caffeine 2.1% 3 > 2.5%
Vitamin C 0.39% 4 > 0.5%
AF Score 41
Free amino acids

Theanine 2.2%
3.8%
Figure 7.25a NIR quality analysis of first harvest green tea made from non-shaded Yabukita
green tea at Somersby Research Station (October 2006). Harvested green tea shoots were
immediately processed (i.e. no storage (a))
165
(b) 24 hours storage at 3oC (c) 24 hours storage at room temperature
Tannin 10.5% 1 < 14% Tannin 10.5% 1 < 14%

3.5% 3.3%
(d) 48 hours storage at 3oC (e) 48 hours storage at room temperature

Tannin 10.2% 1 < 14% Tannin 10.7% 1 < 14%

3.5% 3.4%
Figure 7.25b NIR quality analysis of first harvest green tea made from non-shaded Yabukita
green tea at Somersby Research Station (October 2006). Harvested green tea shoots were
stored at 3oC (a and c) or room temperature (b and d). Stored shoots were stored for 24 hour (b
and c) or 48 hours (d and e) before being processed
7.5.2 Effect of storage time and temperature in delaying processing on third

harvest green tea quality
To confirm the results of the previous first harvest storage experiment, this trial was repeated with
2006/7 third harvest Yabukita green tea from the Somersby Research Station.
Methods
The same methods as outlined in the previous larger scale storage trial (Section 7.5.1), except the
samples of green tea shoots were 10 kg. The green tea shoots were enclosed in shade cloth bags (1.5 m
x 1m x 15 cm) (Figure 7.26). Yabukita green tea shoots were harvested on 23 January 2007 from the
NSW DPI Somersby Research Station. These shoots were stored for 24 and 48 hours at room
temperature or in a coolroom.
166
Figure 7.26 Storage of green tea shoots at room temperature or in coolroom for 24 or 48 hours
after harvest. Temperature loggers were included in all treatments to monitor temperatures
during storage
Results
Temperature
Figure 7.27 describes the temperature of the green tea shoots during storage at both room temperature
and in the 3oC coolroom. The results show that the green tea shoots at room temperature were higher
than the ambient room temperature. In this experiment, the maximum room temperature was 25oC,
with the temperature of the shoots reaching 28oC. The temperature of the green tea shoots within the
coolroom were similar to that of the air temperature of the room, but the shoots did not reach this
temperature for over three hours after placing them into the coolroom (passive cooling).
35
30
25
Temperature (C)
20
Coolroom Air
Coolroom Tea
15 Room Temperature
Room Termperature Tea
10
0
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
24
27
30
33
36
39
42
45
48
Time (Hours)
Figure 7.27 Temperature of green tea shoots in the coolroom (Coolroom Tea) and at room
temperature (Room Temperature Tea) during storage before processing of third harvest tea
(Jan 2007). The ambient temperatures of the storage room and the cool room are indicated.
Tea was processed at Time Zero (no storage), 24 hours and 48 hours after storage (as
indicated with black triangle markers)

The results of the NIR analysis of the third harvest green tea processed from the post-harvest storage
experiments are shown in Figures 7.28a and 7.28b. The results demonstrate the poor quality of tea
from the third harvest. The tea processed from the control (non-stored) shoots was poor with an AF
score of 11 with a ranking of 5. This is the lowest ranking and indicates poor quality tea.
Storage did not improve the quality of processed tea. All stored green tea shoots produced processed
teas with an AF score of 9. There was no difference in storage temperatures (3oC or room temperature)
all processed tea was of poor quality in the third harvest tea.
167
(a) No shade
Moisture 2.5% 4 > 4.5%
Theanine 0.5% 5 > 1.5%
Tannin 10.7% 1 < 14%
Caffeine 1.7% 4 > 2.5%
Vitamin C 0.36% 4 > 0.5%
AF Score 11
Free amino acids

Theanine 0.5%
1.0%
Figure 7.28a NIR quality analysis of third harvest green tea made from non-shaded Yabukita
green tea at Somersby Research Station (January 2007). Harvested green tea shoots were
immediately processed (i.e. no storage (a))
168
(b) 24 hours storage at 3oC (c) 24 hours storage at room temperature
Tannin 11.4% 1 < 14% Tannin 10.5% 1 < 14%

0.6% 0.6%
(d) 48 hours storage at 3oC (e) 48 hours storage at room temperature

Tannin 11.6% 1 < 14% Tannin 10.7% 1 < 14%

0.6% 0.6%
Figure 7.28b NIR quality analysis of third harvest green tea made from non-shaded Yabukita
green tea at Somersby Research Station (January 2007). Harvested green tea shoots were
stored at either 3oC (a and c) or room temperature (b and d). Stored shoots were stored for 24
hour (b and c) or 48 hours (d and e) before being processed
7.6 Discussion
The results of this section confirm the necessity for adequate post-harvest handling and logistics in
green tea production and processing. The management of the freshly cut green tea shoots prior to
processing is crucial to prevent a loss in quality after harvest.
The results consistently showed that freshly harvested green tea shoots have a very high rate of
respiration. This is not unexpected as other actively growing vegetative plant tissues also actively
respire. The most significant effect of this high rate of respiration is that it also produces high levels of
heat during this process.
The total chemical energy liberated during the oxidation of one mole of glucose is approximately 2.8
megajoules:
169
Simplified aerobic metabolism: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O ΔHc -2880 kJ
Most of this energy is released as heat; hence high temperatures are generated by freshly harvested
green tea shoots. Post-harvest cooling is essential to remove this respiration heat. Lowering the storage
temperature not only lowers the rate of respiration, but also lowers the rate of other enzymatic
reactions, such as PPO which is responsible for the oxidation (browning) of the leaf phenolics
(Macheix et al., 1991).
Freshly cut tea shoots must currently be processed as soon as possible to maintain quality and
therefore there appears to be little flexibility in processing. This short time between harvesting and
processing restricts the development of the green tea industry, as any new green tea plantation must be
located in areas very close to a processing facility.
However, the results of this project offer some potential for the short term storage of freshly harvested
shoots. Different types of cooling were investigated and the results showed that relying on passive
(static) cooling to lower the temperature was not ideal. The use of forced air cooling to force cool air
through the highly respiring green tea shoots was effective in immediately reducing leaf and shoot
temperatures in large stacks. The use of limited forced air cooling is used commercially in green tea
handling before processing, where ambient air is gently drawn through the freshly harvested green tea
bins before processing.
The effect of lower storage temperatures on leaf quality showed that the lower temperatures reduced
the rate of deterioration in physical appearance of the shoots. In one experiment, the effect of the
lower storage temperatures on green tea quality showed there were no differences between treatments
as measured by the standard AF system using the NIR determination of final green tea product.
Although there was not any significant decline in AF scores between stored green samples, the quality
of final tea will decline if excessive time and temperatures are experienced by freshly harvested green
tea shoots before processing.
The measurement of the individual components of green tea quality before processing showed that the
lower storage temperature maintained the chemical composition of the harvested shoots within the first
24 hours of storage at 3oC. But these quality attributes (total catechins and theanine content) declined
by 48 hours storage indicating loss by oxidation and polymerisation. This short window of storage
within the first 24 hours after harvest provides some opportunities for further investigation. A short
temporary storage time would allow the movement of freshly harvested green tea leaves / shoots in a
refrigerated truck from a more remote plantation to a central processing facility.
More research is required to demonstrate and quantify the linkage between delay in processing (time
and temperature) and final product quality. In addition it is essential to determine post-harvest
handling and logistics to maintain tea quality under Australian commercial conditions.
170
8. Communication
Communication was a key component of this project. The exchange and adoption of information
generated in this project was vital. Equally important was the facilitation and encouragement of
industry co-operation for the development of a profitable and viable Australian Green Tea industry.
Local farmers, green tea industry, researchers (private and government) were all key stakeholders and
were consulted and / or collaborated throughout this project. A list of Australian Green Tea industry
stakeholders are in the Proceedings of Australian Green Tea Conference (Appendix 1).
Meetings with stakeholders were conducted in Victoria (RIRDC Green Tea visit to Ovens Valley /
Wangaratta) and Gosford (2006 Australian Green Tea Conference). These meetings were valuable in
allowing time to discuss the progress of the RIRDC project and plan its direction. These meetings
were also an excellent forum to discuss common issues with the development of the Green Tea
industry within Australia. In addition, time for networking facilitated formal and informal information
sharing between stakeholders.
The results of this project were actively disseminated to growers and industry at field days, farmer
newspapers / journals (NSW DPI ‘AgToday’) and through the Australian Green Tea conference (July
2006). The proceedings of the conference were distributed to all 75 participants at the conference, and
also later sent to interested growers and industry.
Community Outreach
Numerous industry and community groups (for example NSW Central Coast Farmers Association and
‘Valhalla Village’) have used the green tea and RIRDC green tea project at NSW DPI as basis for
community visits and meetings. This has been invaluable in developing links of the emerging industry
with the wider community.
Major communication activities of the project included:

8.1 Local industry field days on NSW Central Coast
8.2 Visit to Ovens Valley and Wangaratta
8.3 2006 Australian Green Tea Conference.
8.1 Local Industry Days on the NSW Central Coast

During this project, several local grower field / information days were held at the NSW DPI Somersby
field station and at ‘Paradise Plants’ nursery (Figures 8.1 and 8.2). These days have been successful in
initiating grower interest in green tea. These have been widely reported in the local media. For
example on ABC and local commercial radio (2GO, ABC Central Coast live), local and state-wide
newspapers (The Land, The Daily Telegraph, Central Coast Express Advocate) and newsletters
(Mangrove Mountain News, Central Coast Fruit Growers News) and television (NBN TV news).
Figure 8.1 Green Tea Industry Day at ‘Paradise Plants’ Nursery (10 September 2004)
171
Figure 8.2 Green Tea Open Day and Demonstration at Somersby Research Station, NSW
Department of Primary Industries (20 October 2005)
Examples of local and national media focus on RIRDC Green Tea project:
‘Central Coast Express Advocate’ (26 October 2005)

‘The Daily Telegraph’ (21 October 2005)
‘The Land’ (16 August 2007)
8.2 Visit to Ovens Valley and Wangaratta (Victoria)

The RIRDC green tea research group visited the Ovens Valley and Wangaratta, Victoria in June 2005
with the clear aim to improve communication within the green tea industry. The RIRDC project also
provided assistance to John Burt (Research and Development Officer, Western Australia Department
of Agriculture and Food) to attend the meetings and visits in Wangaratta.
NSW DPI discussed the current status of the RIRDC project and potential collaboration and co-
operation with the local green tea industry in Victoria. The RIRDC Green Tea team had meetings and
visits with the Australian Green Tea industry and the Australian Green Tea Growers Association
(AGTGA), Agriculture Victoria, Ito En Australia Pty Ltd., and local growers at Mount Beauty and
Alexandria (Figure 8.3). These meetings were very productive and encouraged further collaboration
and industry co-operation.
The meeting at Ito En Australia (North Wangaratta Vic) on 6 June 2005, involved the following
people and organisations:
• Ito En Australia - John Nieuwenhuis (Technical Manager Ito En)
• Growers - Tony Austin, George Brell (President of the Australian Green Tea Growers
Association)
• NSW DPI – Dr. John Golding (Research Horticulturalist), Dr. Vong Nguyen (Special Research
Horticulturalist), Dr. Sophie Parks (Research Horticulturalist), Ben Jarvis Technical Assistant, Dr.
David Hall (GHI Manager)
• Paradise Plants, Kulnura NSW. John Robb (Nursery manager)
• Agriculture Victoria – Bill Ashcroft (State-Wide Horticultural Agronomy, Tatura), Ian Wilkinson
(Post-harvest Horticulturalist, Knoxfield), Phil Haines (Investment Group)
172
• Western Australia Department of Agriculture and Food - John Burt (Green Tea Industry
Development Officer)
Figure 8.3 RIRDC green tea team meeting in Victoria (June 2005)
8.3 2006 Australian Green Tea Conference

The 2006 Australian Green Tea Conference was held in Gosford from 6-7 July 2006. This industry
meeting was integral to this RIRDC project and brought together growers, industry representatives,
researchers and government to facilitate networks of information and co-operation (Figure 8.5).
The program for the conference is shown in Figure 8.4. The conference had over 75 growers,
researchers and industry from around Australia (Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia) and from
four countries (Australia, Japan, Vietnam and Canada).
Highlights of the conference were the summary of the RIRDC research work being conducted at the
Gosford Horticultural Institute, industry developments in Victoria and NSW and reviews and current
research into the health benefits of green tea consumption. Prof. Katoh from Kagawa University
discussed Japanese research into health benefits of green tea. RIRDC Green Tea member, Dr. Paul
Roach from the University of Newcastle, discussed his recent research into health benefits of green
tea.
The conference was opened by Ms Marie Andrews (NSW State Member for Peats), also in attendance
was the Consulate General of Japan, representatives from the Japan External Trade Organisation
(JETRO Sydney) and John Oakeshott Senior Research Manager and Max Burke (RIRDC).
The proceedings of the conference are presented in Appendix 1 and contain all the presentations at the
conference, except the update of the RIRDC project which is the basis of this final report.
173
Delegates to the conference also learnt of the traditional Japanese tea ceremony in the gardens of the
Edogawa Commemorative Gardens in Gosford. This was conducted by the Japanese Chado Ursenke
Tankokai. In addition, the Edogawa Commemorative Garden’s designer, Ken Lamb discussed the
horticultural and cultural significance of the gardens.
A farm tour was also conducted of the NSW DPI

green tea plantation at its Somersby site, ‘Paradise
Plants’ nursery (Australia’s largest Camellia nursery)
and a local green tea farm on the NSW Central Coast.
The conference was a tremendous success in bring all
parts of the developing Australian Green Tea industry
together. The meeting also highlighted the need for
more focussed research and development to assist the
Australian green tea industry. The conference provided
a unique forum to discuss its development and plan its
future. It is anticipated further conferences will be
held.
174
Gosford NSW Australia
6-7 July 2006
CONFERENCE PROGRAM
Thursday July 6 – Research Day
Time Activity
0800 - 0900 Registration
0900 - 0930 Opening/Welcome
0930 - 1000 The green tea industry – Dr Vong Nguyen
1000 - 1045 Green tea research at Gosford – Dr John Golding, Dr Sophie Parks
1045 - 1115 Morning tea
1115 - 1155 Green tea research in Victoria – Dr Audrey Gerber
1155 - 1230 Soil health for green tea plants – Dr Seki
1230 - 1330 Lunch
1300 - 1400 Green tea ceremony
1330 - 1400 Tour of Japanese Gardens – Mr Ken Lamb
1400 - 1430 Japanese research into health benefits of green tea – Prof. Katoh
1430 - 1500 Australian research into health benefits of green tea – Dr Paul
Roach
1500 - 1600 Discussion
1600 - 1730 Free time
1730 - 1800 Kunitaro display
1800 - 2100 Conference dinner
Friday July 7 – Industry Day
0830 - 0850 Welcome and summary of Day One
0850 - 0920 Kunitaro aims for green tea development in NSW - Mr Nakamura
0920 - 0935 Vietnamese green tea industry
0935 - 1000 Morning tea
1000 - 1130 Talks and discussion on the Australian green tea experience
• Australian Green Tea Growers Association - Mr Tony Austin
• The company Ito En - Mr Yoshiaki Tanoura
• The West Australian experience - Mr John Burt
• The Tasmanian experience - Dr Gordon Brown
1130 - 1200 Green tea tour – travel to Somersby
1200 - 1330 BBQ lunch and tour of NSW DPI Somersby site
1330 - 1430 Visit Paradise Plants Nursery
1430 - 1530 Visit Kunitaro farm
1600 - 1630 Return to Gosford
University of Newcastle
Figure 8.4 Conference program for 2006 Australian Green Tea Conference
175
Figure 8.5 Scenes from 2006 Australian Green Tea Conference, Gosford NSW (6-7 July 2006)
176
Media associated with the 2006 Australian Green Tea Conference
Radio
ABC Newcastle 7 July
ABC Central Coast. Monday 3 July and Thursday 6 July (Paul Roach)
ABC Port Macquarie. 29 June
2GO / SEA FM (local) 29 June
STAR FM (local) 5 July
Newspapers
Sun Weekly (Gosford Weekly) Thursday 6 July, p. 19
Central Coast Express Advocate Friday 7 July, p. 6
The Sydney Morning Herald Friday 7 July, p. 5
Mangrove Mountain Community News, 7 July
Feature in ‘Good Fruit and Vegetables’
AgToday, NSW DPI August 2006
Television
NBN Newcastle/Central Coast News. Friday 7 July
The Weather Channel. Interview with Graham Creed at Mount Tomah Botanic Garden. 12 July 2006
The Sydney Morning Herald Friday 7 July, p. 5

‘Time is ripe to take leaf out of Japan’
Figure 8.6 Tony Austin (Mt. Beauty green tea farmer) being interviewed for local NBN news
(7 July 2006) about the Green Tea Conference and green tea growing
177
9. Discussion
An extensive study was conducted to investigate and optimise several critical production and post-
harvest management factors to produce high quality green tea (Camellia sinensis var. sinensis) for the
Japanese market. Seven major activities were conducted in this project:
1. Investigate different propagation systems to optimise the production of green tea planting material.
2. Investigate various establishment and maintenance methods (including weed management).
3. Reliably quantify green tea quality.
4. Optimise agronomic management factors such as nutrition and shading level and timing on quality
of fresh leaves of Japanese green tea grown in coastal NSW.
5. Assess the potential for Australian organic green tea production and investigate and insect and
disease management options such as IPM.
6. Assess potential harvest and post-harvest storage techniques.
7. Facilitate the exchange of information between researchers and industry within Australia and
ensure the adoption of the results and information to the green tea industry.
The specific results of these activities are described in the previous chapters. This discussion
highlights activities which combine to optimise the production of high quality export green tea
through integrated management.
1. Propagation: This study showed it is possible to store propagation material in thick plastic bags for
up to 18 weeks at 0oC. This relatively simple technology will lengthen the time period that
propagation can occur which will provide flexibility to allow a more efficient use of labour and
resources. For example, it will now be possible to collect and store propagation material during the
regular commercial skiffing timetable without the need for specialist mother-stock. This propagation
material can then be used at convenient times by the nursery manager, making efficient use of time
and limited skilled labour.
2. A series of observations on the practical establishment of green tea plants were made in Chapter 3.
Pre and post-planting issues such as bed formation, planting configuration and planting were
investigated. A field management guide for growing green tea on the NSW Central Coast was adapted.
In addition, a small block of new tea varieties was established. Although it is too early to obtain
meaningful quality measures of these plants, all plants are currently growing well. Weeds and their
control are a major issue in the establishment and maintenance of green tea plantations. It is important
to recognise the various options of weed control and select the best option for each situation. The use
of chemical herbicides are effective, but the use of cultural methods such as ground covers can also
provide additional benefits such as improved microenvironment and nitrogen fixation within the
plantation. A range of cover crops for use in the establishment of green tea crops were described.
3. A reliable system to measure green tea quality was established, tested and utilised for the project. A
HPLC system was established at The University of Newcastle to extract and quantify the levels of
theanine, caffeine and all the major catechins from green tea leaves and shoots. This system was used
in subsequent experiments to optimise tea quality. The standard NIR analysis system, which is
universally used in Japan, was used in these trials to measure final product g quality. However, the use
of the HPLC system allowed the analysis of smaller samples and from fresh shoots / leaves. In
addition, the Minolta SPAD-502 chlorophyll meter was used to estimate leaf colour of the different
treatments. This was calibrated to the actual chlorophyll content of Yabukita green tea leaves.
4. The agronomy of producing high quality green tea was investigated on the NSW Central Coast. The
effect of shading and nutrition (and their interaction) was examined on Yabukita and Sayamakaroi
varieties in the green tea plantation at the Somersby Research Station at NSW DPI. The results
confirmed that harvest time was critical to the final product quality. The first harvest tea is the most
superior quality as represented in the universal AF score (Rank 1 = AF score > 50). As expected, there
178
was a considerable decline in final product quality with successive harvests, with the level of AF
scores approximately halving with each successive harvest. This decline in green tea quality with
successive harvest times was also observed with the theanine to total catechin ratios as determined by
HPLC in the 2004/5 season. The results showed that the theanine to total catechin ratio decreased from
over 0.6 at the first harvest in October 2004 to less than 0.2 at the fourth harvest in March 2005.
Further analysis showed that the levels of theanine were very highly reflected in an increased theanine
to total catechin ratio. Therefore changes in the theanine content appear to be the main driver behind
changes in the theanine to total catechin ratio and overall quality. The variation in theanine levels
found in green teas at different harvests was found to explain 84% of the variation in the theanine to
total catechin ratio. Nonetheless, there were some increases in the total catechin content from the first
to the fourth harvest which may also explain some of the decrease in the theanine to total catechin
ratio over the subsequent harvests.
It was initially thought that the application of shading over the crop would be a significant factor in
growing high quality green tea in Australia. This is because of the higher level of incident solar
radiation on the NSW Central Coast, as compared to the major Japanese growing area of Shizuoka in
Japan. In addition, the production of some specialist high quality green teas in Japan (such as
gyokuro), are shaded for several weeks before harvest. Therefore, hail netting (50% shading) was
initially established over the green tea plantation at the Somersby Research Station in 1998. This was
later removed in May 2005 to compare true shading treatments with full sun exposure. The results
showed that it was possible to successfully grow high quality green tea without shading on the NSW
Central Coast. Non-shaded (i.e. grown in full sun) green tea produced at the Somersby Research
Station in 2006/7 was of very high quality (Rank 1 = AF scores 55 and 64). The application of shading
is an expensive financial activity but this research showed that the addition of shading before harvest
further increased leaf colour (Minolta SPAD levels) and improved final product quality. The greatest
beneficial affects of shading were improving the quality of first harvest green tea. Shading also
improved the quality of later harvested green teas, but its beneficial effects were less pronounced.
However in general, the greatest levels and longest periods of shading treatments can both
significantly increase final green tea quality.
This research also showed that poultry fertiliser can be as effective at increasing soil nitrate and
ammonium based fertiliser effective at increasing soil ammonium. However in this one experiment,
the rates of fertilisers used were not enough to increase leaf N, P or K, nor have any significant impact
on tea quality in mature or immature plants. Although tea leaf N did not reflect an increase in soil
nitrogen nutrition it significantly increased in response to shading. More work is required to maximise
nitrogen in tea leaves without compromising soil health.
5. A long term aim of this project was to develop the potential of organic green tea. A range of quality,
food safety, organic and environmental certification systems were discussed in Chapter 6. These
systems are to provide consumers with confidence that products are meeting market requirements.
“Organic” is one system of production and certification, based principally on exclusion of synthetic
chemical and fertiliser inputs. The organic certification bodies from Australia and Japan have similar
crop production inputs of use of manures, composts etc, but some minor differences were noted. There
is a range of certification and organic standards in Australia and Japan (discussed in Chapter 6).
A fundamental aspect of green tea crop protection (and not only for organic production) is integrated
pest management (IPM). The basis of IPM is monitoring, evaluating the problem and applying the
most appropriate solution. Green tea plantations are attacked by a broad range of pests in Asia;
however the crop at the Somersby Research Station site remained relatively pest-free during the
monitoring period from 2004-2007. Throughout the project, no insect pest was found to be widespread
or significantly damaging and thus no spraying was required. The most common insect pest was the
black citrus aphid, Toxoptera aurantii which was found scattered throughout the plantation at low
incidence levels during the surveys. Aphid feeding caused the margins of new leaves to curl and where
aphid numbers were high, the aphids moved down on the stems of the plants. However the proximity
of the Somersby Research Station green tea plantation to adjacent unsprayed citrus blocks,
179
surrounding natural bushland and other horticultural trials enhanced the range of naturally occurring
predators and parasitoids available to any insect pest which appeared in the plantation. These were
regularly monitored and recorded.
A range of fungal diseases of the green tea were identified and their pathogenesis confirmed. This is
the first time the actual pathogenicity of green tea pathogens has been established. A range of fungi
(Cylindrocarpon, Colletotrichum, Botryosphaeria and Pestalotiopsis) expressing typical green tea
disease symptoms were isolated and diagnosed using both morphological and molecular techniques.
These diseases were successfully re-infected back into green tea plants showing pathogenicity of the
diseases and their symptoms. These basic experiments are required to confirm and understand the
taxonomy, pathogenesis and control of the diseases in Australian green tea.
6. Japanese green tea should be processed as soon as possible after harvest to ensure optimal
processing quality. Poor post-harvest handling, storage and processing is thought to have significant
detrimental effects to final green tea quality. A series of demonstrations and trials illustrated the effect
of delays in processing and temperature management after harvest on green tea quality. The results
consistently showed that freshly harvested green tea shoots have a very high rate of respiration. This
high respiration rate produces high levels of heat within the freshly harvested green tea which can
significantly affect final product quality. Cooling is an effective method of reducing the respiration
rate and slowing the rate of deterioration of product quality (such as degradation / oxidation catechins
and theanine). Different types of cooling were investigated and the results showed that relying on
passive (static) cooling to lower the temperature was not ideal. The use of forced air cooling to push
cool air through the highly respiring green tea shoots was effective in immediately reducing leaf and
shoot temperatures in large stacks. The effect of lower storage temperatures on leaf quality showed
that the lower temperatures reduced the rate of deterioration in physical appearance of the shoots. In
this experiment, the effect of the lower storage temperatures on green tea quality showed there were no
differences between treatments as measured by the standard AF system using the NIR determination
of final green tea product. Although there was not any significant decline in AF scores between stored
green samples, the quality of final tea will decline if excessive time and temperatures are experienced
by freshly harvested green tea shoots before processing. The measurement of the individual
components of green tea quality before processing with HPLC showed that the lower storage
temperature (3oC) maintained the chemical composition within the first 24 hours of storage. But these
quality attributes (total catechins and theanine content) declined by 48 hours storage indicating loss by
oxidation and polymerisation. This provides the opportunity that there maybe some potential for post-
harvest storage without affecting overall quality. The results of this section confirmed the necessity for
adequate post-harvest handling and logistics in green tea production and processing.
7. Communication was a key component of this project. Meetings with stakeholders were conducted in
Victoria (NSW Green Tea visit to Ovens Valley / Wangaratta) and Gosford for the 2006 Australian
Green Tea Conference. These meetings were valuable in allowing time to discuss the progress of the
RIRDC project and plan its direction. These meetings were also an excellent forum to discuss common
issues with the development of the green tea industry within Australia. In addition, these meeting
allowed time for networking and facilitated formal and informal information sharing between
stakeholders. The results of this project have been actively disseminated to commercial partners,
growers and industry at field days, farmer newspapers / journals and at the Australian Green Tea
conference in July 2006. The proceedings of the conference were distributed to all 75 participants at
the conference, and later sent to interested growers and industry.
180
10. Implications
The major outcome for industry from this project was to demonstrate that high quality green tea can be
successfully grown without the use of shading. The construction of permanent shading is estimated to
cost $40,000 per hectare and the production of high quality green tea without the use of permanent
shading significantly enhances the economics of producing high quality green tea.
The specialist use of temporary shading before harvest was shown to significantly improve final
product quality, but the economics has not been evaluated. More work is required to gain robust
information on the practical, long effects of shading on tea quality and price over several seasons.
The potential to extend the propagation time with cold storage of propagation material will have
significant benefits to nursery managers and suppliers of green tea material to industry. The low cost
application of storage of propagation material in thick plastic bags at 0oC will lengthen the
propagation time and will provide flexibility, allowing a more efficient use of labour and resources.
For example it will be possible to collect and store propagation material during the regular commercial
skiffing timetable. This propagation material can then be used at convenient times by the nursery
manager, making efficient use of time and limited skilled labour.
The evaluation of different establishment techniques will assist industry in managing their specific
establishment requirements. These observations on the efficient use of mechanical planting and weed
control will assist industry make informed management decisions. The correct use of cover crops will
suppress weeds and increase water infiltration, add nitrogen to the soil and provide an ideal
microenvironment in the establishment of plantations.
The establishment of a reliable HPLC method to quantify the chemical components of green tea has
been instrumental in the assessment of green tea quality. This method has been developed, tested and
reported.
Organic green tea attracts a price premium, especially in the Japanese market. The development of an
organic protocol for the production of high quality Australian green tea will be significant for the
Australian green tea industry. Experimentation has shown that no pests or diseases required control
and did not affect production or quality. This is a significant benefit to the Australiana green tea
industry and will greatly assist the development of organic management protocols.
Previous disease surveys in Australian green tea have only diagnosed the symptoms of diseases. This
study has confirmed their identity and demonstrated the pathogenesis of some important green tea
diseases.
The demonstration of the effect of delaying processing green tea has enhanced the need for good post-
harvest and production of quality green tea. The opportunity to maintain green tea quality with storage
needs to be further investigated.
The establishment of a network of industry, researchers and government agencies has greatly assisted
the development of the Australian green tea industry. It provided a platform for the discussion of
common issues and the networking has facilitated formal and informal information sharing between
stakeholders. This has been invaluable to build trust and facilitate the exchange of information
between researchers and industry within Australia and will ensure the adoption of the results and
information to the industry.
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11. Recommendations
It is important to maintain research, development and extension capacity for the short and long-term
future of the Australian green tea industry. There are a number of research, development and extension
activities that are recommended as the next steps for the Australian green tea industry to improve
profitability and sustainability.
Extension and Industry Development

It is important to ensure technology transfer and industry development to work towards a coherent
profitable Australian green tea industry. The green tea industry offers real economic and social
opportunities for regional areas in Australia. However, as with most new agricultural industries, there
is a need for access to skills and education to build capacity. There is a need to facilitate technology
transfer, communication and co-operation between growers, grower associations, researchers,
governments and industry.
Specific extension skills are required to be applied to this project to increase adoption, build human
capacity and deliver positive changes from research.
Regular updates and interaction between stakeholders are required. A Second National Green Tea
Conference would be an ideal forum for this.
The establishment of an Australian Green Tea Industry Research and Development Advisory
Committee would help develop a set of key issues facing the industry from which defined research
priorities and directed research projects will emerge. It is recommended there be representation from
growers, researchers, processors and marketers, with an independent chair.
Research and Development

This current project has identified opportunities for further targeted research to optimise management
factors from establishment to post-harvest, to produce high quality Japanese style green tea (Camellia
sinensis var. sinensis) for the Japanese market. There are opportunities include:
(1) Improve the efficacy and efficiency of establishing green tea plantations through
weed control
As demonstrated in this project, weeds are a major problem for the establishment of green tea
plantations. The use of different inter-row ground covers to improve the establishment of green tea
should be further investigated. Trials of various groundcovers should also include mulches (such as
plastic and straw) and green manure crops to improve microclimate, soil conditions and suppression of
weeds during establishment.
(2) Refine integrated pest and disease management

Continue IPM monitoring and examine 'non-chemical' control measures. It will also be important to
determine pest threshold limits for green tea production.
The correct identification and control of diseases both in the propagation nursery and in the field is
vital and should be continued. In addition more definitive studies are required as they may cause
primary lesions and increased disease such leaf abscission under certain environmental conditions. For
example, the moist conditions experienced in nursery propagation may be more conducive to disease
development. Further work is also required examine the interaction of physiological stress (eg heat
stress) and disease. Observations made during this project were that stressed green tea cuttings are
more susceptible to diseases such as Colletotrichum spp.
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(3) Achieve high yield and quality green tea whilst caring for the environment
particularly in relation to nitrogen nutrition and water usage
3a. Nitrogen nutrition
Minimising leaching of nitrogen from the soil while maximising nitrogen content of the green tea leaf
is an important research goal. Research is required into the use of organic sources of nitrogen;
especially in soluble form for application through a fertigation system.
3b. Water use

The judicious use of limited water resources for irrigation is of paramount importance for the
Australian green tea industry to have a sustainable future. Strategies to improve irrigation efficiencies
need to be developed following studies of water use in Australian green tea plantations. Research is
required to determine the volume and frequency of irrigation needed to optimise green tea yield and
quality.
3c. Nutritional and physiological disorders

A series of colour plates and descriptions of nutritional and physiological disorders should be
developed and incorporated into the Australian Green Tea Growers Guide in order to help existing and
prospective farmers detect such problems. These descriptions should include nutritional disorders such
as nitrogen deficiency/toxicity and physiological disorders such as sunburn.
3d. Continued evaluation

The continued evaluation of organic block and new varieties at NSW DPI Somersby site will greatly
assist the long term development of the green tea industry.
(4) Evaluate the economics of green tea production, including the use of shading
The economics of growing high quality green tea is required. This information should be thoroughly
collected and analysed by experienced agricultural economists and extended to industry. This project
has shown that the use of temporary shading can significantly improve final shoot quality. More work
is required to gain robust information on the practical long effects of shading on green tea quality and
price over several seasons. In addition, the mechanisation of shade application, such as that similar to
bird netting applied to vineyards needs to be evaluated for its effectiveness and economics.
(5) Examine opportunities to maintain and extend the quality of the freshly-harvested
leaves of Japanese green tea
The management of the freshly cut green tea shoots prior to processing is crucial to prevent a loss in
quality after harvest. Freshly cut tea shoots must currently be processed as soon as possible to
maintain quality and therefore there appears to be little flexibility in processing. This restricts the
development of the green tea industry as any new plantation must be located in areas very close to a
processing facility. However the results of this project some potential for the short term storage of
freshly harvested shoots. It is recommended to continue the trials to maintain fresh leaf quality before
processing. This should include the use of standard post-harvest techniques such as refrigeration and
forced air cooling. More research is also required to demonstrate and quantify the linkage between
delay in processing (time and temperature) and final product quality. In addition it is essential to
determine post-harvest handling and logistics to maintain tea quality under Australian commercial
conditions.
(6) Determine Japanese green tea quality and investigate alternate uses of tea
components
It is important to maintain the capacity of green tea research, and this is particularly important for the
measurement of green tea quality. The laboratory analysis of tea components to determine “green tea
quality” underpins much of the recommended research and development.
In addition, because of the increasing interest in theanine and catechins as health-promoting
constituents, the impact of pre and post-harvest treatment on these constituents should be investigated
in terms of possibly isolating these compounds for use as health-promoting compounds. Use of green
183
tea as a source of these compounds rather than for simply making tea may add value to the crop
particularly to the later season harvests which do not produce high quality green teas. There is already
a large market of green tea extracts in non-drinking tea. For example green tea extracts are already
used from cosmetics to chocolate and industrial uses. There are opportunities for the Australian green
industry to develop and supply non-drinking uses of green tea extracts.
Grower recommendations are presented in the Results and Implications Sections and relate to specific
individual growing conditions and the environment.
184
Appendix 1 Proceedings of the 2006
Australian Green Tea Conference
Introduction
Tea is a leaf extract of the plant Camellia sinensis and originated from China. It is now the most
consumed drink in the world after water with an estimated 18-20 billion cups of tea consumed every
day. There are many different types of tea, but are classified into three major types depending on the
manufacturing process:
• Green tea – Non-oxidised/fermented and produced by steaming/roasting and drying the fresh
leaves
• Oolong tea - Semi-oxidised/fermented and produced when the fresh leaves are subjected to a
partial fermentation stage before drying
• Black tea - Full oxidation before drying and steaming.
Approximately 72% of the tea produced and consumed worldwide is black tea, 25% is green tea, and
<3% is oolong tea.
Green tea is a popular beverage in Japan where it was brought from China by Buddhist monks in the
12th century. Green tea is now integral to the Japanese diet and culture, where average green tea
consumption per year is 363g per person (2000).
The growing scientific evidence of the benefits of green tea to human health is outlined in the research
papers by Prof. Katoh (Kagawa University, Japan) and Dr. Paul Roach (The University of Newcastle).
For example recent human studies suggest that green tea may contribute to: a reduction in the risk of
cardiovascular disease and some forms of cancer, as well as to the promotion of oral health and other
physiological functions such as anti-hypertensive effect, body weight control, antibacterial and
antivirasic activity, bone mineral density increase, anti-fibrotic properties, and neuroprotective power.
This research has renewed interest in green tea and increased consumption around the world. Indeed
Australian imports of green tea have increased three-fold in the last five years. In addition, green tea
consumption in Japan is also increasing due to the recognition of the health benefits of green tea and
the increased convenience and availability of green tea (eg PET bottles).
Australia is well positioned to exploit this growing consumer demand for green tea both in Australia
and with out-of-season production for export to Japan in a clean environment. The Australian Federal
Government through the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) and NSW
Department of Primary Industries (DPI) has been working on a research and development project to
assist the development of a green tea industry in Australia. This project was also supported by
Kunitaro Ltd., a Japanese tea and coffee company. This 2006 Australian Green Tea Conference is
integral to the RIRDC project and brings together growers, industry representatives, researchers and
government to facilitate networks of information and co-operation. The initial results and experiences
from the RIRDC project are presented in the papers from the NSW DPI and the University of
Newcastle.
The first commercial plantings of green tea industry in Victoria were established in 2001 with the help
of Ito En Australia Pty Ltd. A Horticulture Australia Limited (HAL) research project was initiated by
Ito En Australia Pty Ltd and the Victorian Department of Primary Industries to facilitate the
development of the green tea industry in Victoria. The major findings of this project are outlined in the
paper by Dr Audrey Gerber. This HAL project was only conducted with the essential collaboration
185
from the Australian Green Tea Growers Association (AGTGA). The AGTGA growers guide for
Japanese green tea is outlined in these proceedings.
The production of green tea in Australia requires special attention to Australia’s unique environment.
Dr. Seki (soil scientist in Shizuoka, Japan) outlines the fundamental requirements soil health in the
production of high quality green tea in his paper.
The current state of the Australian Green Tea industry is presented in papers from Western Australia
(John Burt) and Tasmania (Dr. Gordon Brown), whilst the developments and plans for the NSW
industry are outlined in Kunitaro’s paper. In addition, the current state and experiences of the
Vietnamese tea industry are reviewed by Dr Nguyen Van Tao (Director General, Tea Research
Institute of Vietnam, Hanoi) and presented by Dr Nguyen Van Tuat, (Director, Research Institute of
Plant Protection, Hanoi).
In addition to the research and industry presentations at the conference, an industry tour of NSW DPI
Somersby Green Tea plantation, ‘Paradise Plants’ nursery and Kunitaro’s tea farm will be highlights
of the Industry Day held Friday 7 July.
We trust delegates enjoy the hospitality of Chado Urasenke Tankokai with a traditional tea ceremony.
The tea ceremony will be held in the Edogawa Commemorative Japanese Gardens where the garden
designer, Mr Ken Lamb will also provide a tour and commentary of the gardens.
The organising committee of the Australian Green Tea Conference would like to thank the presenters
and participants for making the conference a great success. In addition we would also like to thank
RIRDC, NSW Department of Primary Industries, the University of Newcastle, Kunitaro Ltd. and
‘Paradise Plants’ for their assistance and continuing support.
Dr. Vong Nguyen, Dr. John Golding, Dr. Sophie Parks

Dr. Paul Roach, Dr. David Hall, Ben Jarvis
July 2006
186
The Green Tea Industry in NSW
Dr Vong Nguyen
NSW Department of Primary Industries
Gosford NSW 2250 Australia
vong.nguyen@dpi.nsw.gov.au
Introduction
Tea is the second most important drink after water. It is grown on 2,561,000 ha in the world,
producing 3,418,777 tonnes of dried tea in 2005 (FAO, 2006). Of those, black tea occupies about
72%, green tea constitutes 25% and the remainder is other tea such as oolong tea. Green tea (Camellia
sinensis var. sinensis) originated in China, where it has been used as a beverage and medicine since
2,700 BC. Black tea (Camellia sinensis var. assamica) originated in India and was developed by the
British as a large plantation crop from about 1835 AD. India, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Indonesia and Turkey
are focussed on black tea whilst Japan and China are major green tea producers.
There is increasing scientific and consumer interest in the health benefits of green tea, particularly
with respect to its potential for preventing and treating cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Studies at
the University of Newcastle, NSW Australia have demonstrated the cholesterol lowering abilities of
green tea in cell and animal models, and have elucidated a mechanism by which green tea and one of
its main constituents, the phenolic compound epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), could lower blood
cholesterol (Bursill et al., 2001). Green tea has also been reported to have anti-bacterial and anti-viral
characteristics. In addition, it has been shown to reduce blood sugar, diabetes, strokes and blood
pressure and is high in Vitamins C and B.
These benefits have created a renewed international demand for green tea. World tea producers and
importers are shown in Tables 1 and 2. Australian Bureau of Statistics trade figures show that green
tea imports have been rapidly increasing into Australia over the last five years (Figures 1 and 2). The
volume of green tea imported into Australia has increased three-fold since 2000 (Figure 1) and imports
are now worth over $7.5 million (2005). China is the largest supplier of green tea into Australia.
Australia produces approximately 1,000 to 1,500t of black tea per annum, mainly from Queensland.
However, Australia imported 14,666t of tea, valued at $67m in 2004 (FAO, 2006).
Green tea is a major crop in Japan where 100,700t of green tea is produced (MAFF, 2004). However
in the same year, Japan imported 16,995t of green tea, valued at ¥4,797 million (A$56 million). The
level of green tea imports into Japan is variable. For example in 2001, Japan imported up to 17,739t of
green tea, valued at ¥5,695 million (A$76 million) but only 10,242t valued at ¥2,655 million (A$35)
in 2003. If Australia can produce quality green tea, Australia can supply Ichiban cha not only to its
own domestic market in October to December but also for the international market, particular Japan
and Asia for their Gift Season in New Year.
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Table 1. World tea production in 2005. (Source: FAO: http://faostat.fao.org)
Country Area, ha Production Exportation Importation
x 1000t
Volume, t Value, Volume, t Value,
x x
1000USD 1000USD
China 952,500 940,500 282,643 453,672 21,908 25,936
India 500,000 830,700 174,728 377,742 31,061 31,327
Sri Lanka 210,620 308,090 298,909 732,521 7,750 14,823

Kenya 140,000 295,000 284,309 463,726 8,422 6,681
Vietnam 125,000 140,000 99,300 98,900 Nil Nil
Indonesia 115,200 171,410 98,572 116,018 3,924 5,531

Turkey 100,000 202,000 5,929 6,857 2,872 5,205
Bangladesh 54,000 55,627 10,635 12,168 377 641
Japan 49,000 100,000 923 16,732 56,234 193,485
Argentina 40,000 64,000 67,819 40,512 299 789
Table 2 World tea importers in 2005. (Source: FAO: http://faostat.fao.org)

Country Area, ha Production Exportation Importation
x1000t
Volume, t Value, Volume, t Value,
x x
1000USD 1000USD
Western Europe 36 27 77,652 551,740 290,086 819,793
United N/A N/A 28,528 259,008 156,311 292,019

Kingdom
United States N/A N/A 5,876 29,892 99,484 204,881
Japan 49,000 100,000 923 16,732 56,234 193,485
United Arab N/A N/A 14,722 43,246 65,826 172,063

Emirates
Australia N/A N/A 650 2,942 14,666 67,182
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1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 May*
Figure 1. Volume (tonnes) of Green Tea Imported into Australia 2000- May 2006 (Source:
Australian Bureau of Statistics, June 2006)
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 May*
Figure 2 Value (A$ million) of Green Tea imported into Australia 2000- May 2006
(Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, June 2006)
Research & Development of Green Tea in NSW

Research and development programs of green tea in Australia have been carried out over many years
in Tasmania (Monks, 1998), Victoria (Gerber, 2004), Western Australia (Burt, 2004) and NSW
(Nguyen et al., 2004). Further summaries of these projects are outlined in other papers of these
proceedings. Australia is well positioned to exploit this growing consumer demand for green tea with
out-of-season production in a clean environment with high technical development. However, our
knowledge of growing, harvesting, handling, processing and storage of green tea is limiting the
development of this new horticultural industry. A Japanese commercial tea company; ‘Kunitaro Tea &
Coffee Co. Ltd.’ has worked with NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI) for ten years
investing in a 0.8ha green tea plantation and commercial pilot processing plant at the NSW DPI
Somersby Research Farm. A Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation project titled
“Production of high quality export green tea through integrated management” (RIRDC, DAN 227A)
has been established to provide information to optimise high quality green tea production in Australia
which will be the basis of new profitable and sustainable horticulture crop for Australia. This project is
described in more detail in these proceedings.
189
The Green Tea Industry in NSW
Pilot green tea plantations (0.8ha) of Yabukita, Sayamakaori, Sayamamidori and Meiryoku were
established in 1998 at the Somersby Field Station, Gosford Horticultural Institute, near Sydney on the
Central Coast of New South Wales, Australia (latitude 33o22’S; longitude 151o21’E). This plantation
was supported by NSW DPI and Kunitaro Tea & Coffee Co. Ltd. The tea plants were imported from
Gifu, Japan and from Tasmania, Australia in 1986 and 1987. The experimental trials using trickle
irrigation system and were grown in yellow earth and sandy loam with pH 5.7. Ten tons of poultry
manure (N:P:K=5:4:2) and 350kg of Multigro (N:P:K:S=10:4:6:16) were used as fertilisers. The site
has been used as a source of propagation material for proposed future commercial plantings in the
local area.
30
Min.C
Max.C
25
Mean.C
Shizuo,M
20
Air temperature, C
15
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Month in Somersby (July in Somersby=January in Shizuoka)

Figure 3 Air temperature: Somersby vs Shizuoka
It is evident that the Central Coast of NSW has the ideal climate for high quality green tea production
(Figure 3). The green tea plants have grown exceptionally well (Figure 4). At NSW DPI, Somersby,
the first harvested tea ichiban cha, the second harvested tea niban cha and the third harvested tea
samban cha are harvested in mid-October, late November and mid January 2004, respectively. The
fourth harvested tea ban cha could also be harvested in late February.
The quality of the green tea grown at NSW DPI, Somersby, has been subjectively and objectively
assesses as Excellent. The Sayamakaori and Yabukita teas scored AF 95 and 88 points respectively out
of a possible 100 points, based on the Japanese Estimation Method (AF Score) (Figure 4).
190
AF Score60 AF Score 60
Dietary fiber Total nitrogen Dietary fiber Total nitrogen

12.0 7.0 12.0 7.0
Theanine Free amino acid Theanine Free amino acid

3.0 6.0 3.0 6.0
Yabukita Sayamakaori
Figure 4 Scores of Yabukita and Sayamakaori based on AF Scores
Since the NSW green tea industry aims at the production of high quality sencha drinking tea (which is
different to the canned beverage) the use of shading, nitrogen levels in tea shoot (ichishin niyo; one
shoot two leaves), post-harvest management and processing technology will be systematically
investigated and economically analysed.
Kunitaro Australia Pty. Ltd. has purchased a farm in Mangrove Mountain on the Central Coast of
NSW and is developing 5 ha tea plantation. A large-scale processing plant will be also located at its
farm on the Central Coast of NSW.
Future of Australian Green Tea Industry

The green tea industry in Australia is still emerging. Tasmania was the first state to study the potential
of green tea production for Japanese market. In the Ovens Valley in North East Victoria, there is about
70ha of green tea planted. With two seasons of commercial harvest already complete the Japanese
beverage company, Ito-En Ltd has built a processing plant at Wangaratta, Victoria, which is able to
handle about 120 ha. Ito-En Ltd has contracted to buy tea from the field at a specific price and has a
contract agreement with growers. Canning of beverage green tea is the major product of Ito-En Ltd
Company. In NSW, about 6 ha of green tea were established at NSW DPI’s Somersby research farm
(1998) and Kunitaro Australia Ltd. Pty’s tea farm (2004).
Although Kunitaro Australia Ltd. Pty has 5 ha of green tea plantation in Mangrove Mountain NSW the
company would like to develop up to 4,000 ha by 2015. The major market for quality green tea is
Japan, where the first green tea crop ichiban cha and the best tasty tea products will be harvested in
Australia during October and will coincide with the most important gift market for New Year in Japan.
It is estimated that Australia could earn up to $254 million in exports to Kunitaro Co. Ltd alone. In
addition, it is estimated the local market will be worth $60 million, resulting in a total of $314 million
for the Australian green tea industry. Kunitaro Australia Ltd, closely involved with the RIRDC
project, has identified markets for Australian green tea in Japan. This close association with the
commercial driver of the project will greatly assist adoption of the results from the RIRDC project and
assure green tea ‘best practice’.
Australian researchers and stakeholders should work closely in the emerging Australian green tea
industry. Regular workshops and meetings with interested parties from Tasmania, Victoria, Western
Australia, New South Wales, green tea industry leaders and associations (such as the Australian Green
Tea Growers Association) should be established for the free flow of information. This will assist in the
adoption of results and ideas from States’ research projects, bringing benefits to both the Australian
green tea industry and our Japanese tea company counterparts.
References
Angela Monks, 1998. “Japanese green tea” in The new rural industries. A handbook for farmers and
investors. Edited by K.W.Hyde. RIRDC 1998: 401-404.
191
Audrey Gerber, 2004. “Japanese green tea” in The new crop industries handbook. Edited by Sue
Salvin, Max Bourke and Tony Byrne. RIRDC 2004: 289-294.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. International Trade Statistics :Imports of Green Tea, Calendar Years
2000 – 2005 and 2006 Calendar Year to Date
Bursill Christina, Roach Paul D., Bottema Cynthia D. K., Pal Sebely 2001. “Green tea upregulates the
low-density lipoprotein receptor through the sterol-regulated element binding protein in
HepG2 liver cells”. J. Agric Food Chem. 49, 5639-5645.
FAO, 2006: http://faostat.fao.org/agricultural production.
MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery), 2005. Handbook of Statistics of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fishery in Japan, Norintokekyokai, Tokyo, Japan, 2005
Vong Nguyen, John Golding, Sophie Parks, Paul Roach, and Motomi Ito, 2004. “Production of high
quality green tea on the Central Coast of New South Wales, Australia”, Proceedings of 2004
International Conference on Ocha (tea) culture and Science, Shizuoka, Japan: 185-187.
192
Kunitaro Aims for Green Tea Development in NSW
Mr Nakamura Kunitaro
President
Kunitaro Ltd.
Kunitaro Head Office
2-1-11 Wada, Higashi-Tokorozawa, Tokorozawa City, Saitama 359-0023 Japan
Kunitaro has been working with the NSW Department of Primary Industries at Gosford since 1998.
During this time Kunitaro has purchased a property at Mangrove Mountain for the production of high
quality tea. Kunitaro has also strongly supported research at Gosford Horticulture Institute, NSW
Department of Primary Industries through the Rural Industries Research and Development
Corporation (RIRDC, Project DAN 227A Production of high quality export green tea through
integrated management). This project continues to produce good results and has been excellent for the
local emerging green tea industry.
Kunitaro is an established green tea and coffee company in Japan based in Shizuoka and Saitama.
Kunitaro differentiates itself from other companies by offering convenient, high-quality, well priced,
safe and health-orientated products.
There are three basic principles of Kunitaro’s plans:
1. Human Health Benefits

Kunitaro recognise the growing interest in the human health benefits of green tea. Green tea is
indispensable in daily life in Japan, and is now regarded as one of the healthiest beverages due to its
ingredients such as catechin, carotene, vitamins etc. Kunitaro measures these ingredients in tea to
ensure its healthiness.
2. Safety, Quality Assurance and Traceability

Kunitaro has established a full traceability system and Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
(HACCP) system which identifies the origin of tea sources in order to the complete safety. All details
of pest and disease control and fertilizer use are recorded and traced through the processing and
distribution system. There are approximately 30 subcontract tea processing factories which Kunitaro
works with in regard to traceability. Kunitaro also abides by the CODEX International Standard.
3. Satisfy the Consumer’s Needs

Kunitaro recognises that the consumer’s needs are premium. Kunitaro works to scientifically verify
the delicious taste of tea. Continuous measurement of quality from growing to the consumer ensures a
delicious health product.
Kunitaro Plans for New South Wales

Kunitaro has plans to establish tea processing factory on the Central Coast. Kunitaro is hoping to have
one factory in every 50ha of tea growing land area. We are hoping to make agreements with tea
producers by 2008 that would grow tea in their total 100ha land area. Construction of our own
processing factory will be completed by May 2008 at our Tea Processing and Research Centre,
Waratah Road, in Mangrove Mountain.
We acknowledge that soil preparation and the tea growing technique will need to be adjusted to suit
the Australian climate in order to gain good results when harvesting. This is the most important issue
when we are co-operating with NSW Department of Primary Industry and RIRDC. We are also
working with tea research institute in Japan. Kunitaro Co Ltd in Japan has also been working on the
research of extraction of amino acids, thiamine, catechins and other health promoting compounds that
193
are contained in tea leaves. We have been working on the control of these compounds in the tea
leaves. If we could manage the content of these compounds with the fertilizer application, the growing
and processing techniques, the tastiness and quality of tea would reach the highly developed level.
With co-operation from many people in various fields, we could continue to work on the green tea
project in order to achieve our goal. What is the most important is to go ahead together with RIRDC,
NSW DPI, and the University of Newcastle and tea producers in a friendly, co-operative and
constructive way. This is important to enhance the quality of Australian green tea to increase sales
such that customers could be fully satisfied with Australian green tea. We hope that in the future green
tea producers could jointly establish and operate the processing factory of their own in the same way
as tea producers do so in Japan, and lastly we wish that tea producers could prosper in tea business.
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Green Tea Research in Victoria
Dr Audrey Gerber
Horticultural Adviser
P.O. Box 112, Sassafras, Victoria 3787
Email: agerber@austarnet.com.au
Introduction
The first commercial green tea plantation in North East Victoria was established in autumn 2001.
Since then 75 hectares have been planted on 11 farms, all contracted to Ito En Australia Pty Ltd. To
support this, and future expansion of the Australian Green Tea industry, research projects were
developed which were co-funded by Ito En Australia Pty Ltd, Horticulture Australia Ltd (HAL) and
the Department of Primary Industries Victoria, with essential collaboration from the Australian Green
Tea Growers Association (AGTGA).
Research topics were selected following a risk analysis of the industry (Table 1). Potential risks to the
success of the Green Tea industry in Victoria were identified in site selection, pre-planting
preparation, planting systems, post planting establishment, and production management. Each of these
risks was assessed for the impact of failure on aspects of industry growth, green tea yield, green tea
quality and economics. In addition, consideration was given to the relative risks to either the industry
(Ito En Australia Pty Ltd) or the success of individual growers. Impact was assessed as high impact
(H), moderate impact (M), or low impact (L). For example; Poor weed control will have a low impact
on the rate of development of the industry and a moderate impact on the rate of growth of individual
farm businesses. Poor weed control will have a high impact on individual farm businesses, resulting in
reduced yield. However, poor weed control will only have a moderate impact on the total yield for the
industry, since it is unlikely that all growers will simultaneously have reduced yield due to poor weed
control. As a result of this risk analysis six research projects were identified and approved for funding.
Propagation
To support rapid growth of this new industry efficient propagation of green tea plants is essential. At
least 12,000 plants are required to establish 1 hectare for commercial production. In Japan, plants are
generally propagated directly into the soil in prepared beds. Following root formation plants are
transplanted into sleeves or pots and maintained in the nursery for up to a year before field planting.
This protocol does not suit the semi-automatic planting system used in Victoria. Small vigorous plants
in compact plugs are required, such as are used in the vegetable industry. A simple and effective
protocol for the propagation of green tea plants from semi-hardwood cuttings was developed during
this research programme. Parameters used to measure success of the various protocols trialled were
rate, length and complexity of root formation, and vigour of side shoot growth during the hardening
off phase. Performance of young plants in the field following planting is an additional criterion that
could be used to evaluate propagation success, but was beyond the scope of this project. In agreement
with HAL and DPI Vic, the information arising from this propagation research is considered
intellectual property of Ito En Australia Pty Ltd.
Site Selection
There are a number of factors that affect the suitability of a site for production of high value, intensive
horticultural crops. The climate and chemical and physical conditions of the soil directly affect the
growth of the crop. In Australia, which has predominantly hot, dry summers, the availability of water
of suitable quality and quantity for irrigation is a key factor. Local legislation in relation to land use
must be investigated and adhered to. For long-lived crops the impact on the environment should be
assessed, and strategies developed to minimise harmful effects.
In collaboration with the Soil Advisory Section, Environmental and Resources Science, PIRVic,
Werribee, site selection criteria for commercial green tea production were identified and quantified.
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Site selection criteria were presented in five major categories: Infrastructure, Site history, Landscape,
Climate and Soil. Criteria were evaluated individually and allocated the status of either Primary or
Secondary criteria. The main output of this project was a site selection checklist; designed to evaluate
individual properties for their suitability for commercial green tea production. On the checklist each
criterion is given a score from nil (unsuitable) to 4 (ideal), with the primary criteria weighted with
respect to their importance above secondary criteria. The total score is tallied and a decision reached
about the site. Some factors which render the site less suitable may be overcome by corrective actions,
but the increased costs may impact negatively on the economic viability of the business. Detailed
information, including the checklist, is contained in the Australian Growers Guide: Japanese Green
Tea.
Soil Residues
Tobacco production has been a significant agricultural industry in the North East of Victoria. It is
important with any new crop to assess the possibility of product contamination resulting from growth
on soils previously treated with organochlorines. Research trials were conducted in pots to assess the
risks associated with production of green tea. Due to the sensitive nature of this research, the report is
confidential, and will only be released to appropriate persons for perusal on request to HAL.
Nutrition
Commercial production of Green Tea in intensive plantations involves two distinct phases: the
establishment phase (from pre-planting until the plant is mature and ready to harvest); and the mature
phase (from the start of harvesting during the productive life of the plant). During the establishment
phase nutrition management serves to grow a suitably shaped plant as quickly as possible. On a mature
crop the purpose changes to optimise yield, while maintaining quality parameters. To understand the
requirements of the young green tea plant a literature review of nutrition was conducted. Information
on production of green tea is not readily available; many reports refer to black tea, and much of this
information can be interpreted for green tea production. The Australian Growers Guide: Japanese
Green Tea provides practical interpretations of this literature review, including adaptations from
current experiences.
Nutrition of newly established plants will affect the rate of plant growth and could impact on the time
to harvest and size of early yields. N, P and K are the major nutrients applied annually to tea, although
the balance of nutrients is considered to have a greater effect than absolute quantities of individual
nutrients.
Nitrogen (N) receives much attention, and green tea is reputed to have a high requirement for nitrogen.
Nitrogen in the ammonium form is preferable over the nitrate form. Pre-plant liming is not a common
practice for tea, which prefers acid soils. However, due to the acidifying effect of long term N
application, liming may be necessary to raise soil pH prior to planting to offset the anticipated future
drop in pH. In green tea the acidifying effect of excessive N reduces availability of potassium (K),
calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg).
Tea plants have a high physiological demand for potassium (K) if they are to produce economic
yields. Although K is required by the tea plant during all stages of growth, it is especially important
immediately after pruning to stimulate new growth and the formation of a complex frame, that
ultimately leads to higher yields. Potassium uptake by tea plants, as with many horticultural crops, is
influenced by seasonal conditions.
Reports indicate that increased phosphorous levels improve growth, and this may be achieved by
mulching which increases availability of phosphorous, particularly in acidic soils. Placement of P
fertiliser within the root zone, by soil incorporation prior to planting, also enhanced P uptake. Surface
application of P had no effect.
Weed Management
Weed control has been reported as one of the most important management activities during the
establishment phase of green tea plantations in Victoria. Green tea plants have shallow feeder roots
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and are very susceptible to competition for nutrients and water. A survey of weed species occurring
seasonally on green tea plantations resulted in the production of a photographic database, identifying
those species which are particularly problematic.
Pest and Disease Management

Strict AQIS quarantine regulations and procedures prevented the simultaneous importation of known
green tea pests and diseases along with plant material into Australia. The majority of insect pests on
tea in other parts of the world do not occur in Australia. A study over two growing seasons of insects
found in green tea plantations in Victoria was the first step in developing an integrated pest
management (IPM) programme. Growers used monitoring techniques to detect insects, which were
subsequently identified by entomologists. In addition, the services of a professional monitoring team
were used on some farms. Of the 21 insects identified, 6 are classified as beneficial and 2 as having no
interaction with plants. Not all of the insects identified that are known pests in other crops could be
linked to specific damage of green tea in Victoria. No pathogenic fungi were isolated from field
plantations.
Summary
The research projects described specifically address topics relevant to the establishment phase of
commercial green tea production. As the industry has progressed, and harvesting has begun, other
aspects of production require attention. Valuable practical information, based on grower experience, is
shared through the forum of the Australian Green Tea Growers Association. Scientific research has a
role to play in clarifying physiological responses of green tea to local conditions, with specific
reference to requirements of target markets. Recommendation and registration of agrochemicals for
use on green tea in Australia is likely to occur only when the industry has become large enough to
attract the attention of agrochemical companies.
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Impact Rate of industry Yield Quality Economics
development
Risk Industr Individ Industr Individu Indust Individu Industry Individua
y ual y al ry al l
Poor site H H H H H H H H
selection
Poor grower H H H H H H H H
profile
Poor pre-plant M M L L L L M M
prep
Poor quality of M H L L - - H H
transplants
Shortage of H L H L - - H L/H
transplants
Incorrect L H L L - - L H
planting time
Poor weed L M M H L - L M
control
Poor pest and M H H H H H H H
disease control
Lack of M H L L L L - M
trained labour
Poor nutrition L M M H M H L/M H
Poor irrigation L H M H M H L/M H

delivery
Lack of frost L M M M L M M H
protection
Table 1 Risk analysis of the early development of the Green Tea industry in North East Victoria
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Research and Development with Green Tea in the Manjimup Area of
Western Australia
John Burt and Alec McCarthy
Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia
Locked bag No. 4, Bentley Delivery Centre, West Australia 6983
Email:jburt@agric.wa.gov.au
Development of a Green Tea Industry

In 1997, a Japanese tea marketing/processing company stated that they were interested in importing
'clean and green' tea from Western Australia for the Japanese market. The established horticultural
area between Manjimup and Pemberton was identified by the Department of Agriculture and Food and
the Japanese company as the best area to grow green tea in Western Australia.
The aim of the green tea development project has been firstly to source a range of green tea varieties
and develop a mother plant area that can provide a supply of cuttings for nurseries in Manjimup, and
secondly to provide initial research information on the development of green tea as a commercial crop.
Plants of Japanese origin were obtained from Tasmania, Victoria and Japan from 1998 to 2002. In
2006, there were 850 established green tea plants, 4 to 6 years old, of ten clonal varieties at Manjimup
Horticultural Research Institute.
By 2002, it was concluded that green tea plants would grow well in the Manjimup area and there were
good prospects for a green tea industry in the Manjimup area. Plants at Manjimup Horticultural
Research Institute were mainly used as mother plants from 2003 to 2006. In July 2003, over 20,000
cuttings in total were successfully struck at the New World Flora nursery, from all varieties growing at
the Research Institute. A total of 75,000 plants from ten varieties were propagated at the Forest
Products Commission and New World Flora from 2004 to 2006.
A limited amount of research has been conducted from 2002 onwards. This has produced some good
information on how to grow green tea, especially with regard to establishment, fertilisers, irrigation,
shading, varieties and weed control.
The Green Tea Partnership Group was formed in 2003 and meets every one to three months in
Manjimup to assist the development of the green tea program in Western Australia. It consists of
representatives from the New Opportunities for Australian Horticulture Project (grower chairperson),
the Department of Agriculture and Food, Forest Products Commission, South West Development
Commission, Department of Industry and Resources, Shire of Manjimup and New World Flora
nursery. In 2004, five members of the Green Tea Partnership Group visited Japan to study marketing.
A liaison with another Japanese tea marketing/processing company to develop green tea production in
Manjimup commenced in October 2004. Individual visits were also made from 1998 to 2006 to
inspect green tea research and development in Tasmania, Victoria, NSW and Japan. The Green Tea
Partnership Group provides a forum for horticultural development. In the near future, a growers'
organisation needs to be formed to represent stakeholders in the industry.
A mother plant block was planted by New World Flora in Manjimup in 2004 and 2005. A two hectare
mother plant block/ demonstration farm/research area is being planted at the Forest Products
Commission in August 2006. A demonstration block was planted on a private farm in 2005.
Quality tests on fresh material are being conducted from 2006 onwards by the Chemistry Centre of
WA, using HPLC analysis.
It is hoped that a total of 50 ha of green tea will be initially planted on farms from 2008 to 2012 and a
total of 500 to 1000 ha by 2015. A commercial scale processing factory needs to be built in 2014.
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The benchmark for green tea worldwide is the milder Chinese green tea, which comprises 90% of
world green tea exports. This is pan-roasted and is processed differently to Japanese green tea, which
uses Japanese varieties and steam sterilising for processing. Chinese teas are cheaper and it will be
difficult for West Australian producers to compete in this price bracket. Japan is the desirable high-
priced market. To achieve successful entry into the Japanese market, the resources of an established
Japanese tea firm are considered to be essential to provide capital, processing and marketing
experience, along with some industry credibility. The marketability of West Australian produce in
Japan will be enhanced if the consumers know that the tea comes from the clean West Australian
environment and is grown under high grade ('sencha') Japanese standards. It is anticipated that
contracts will be made with farmers to export raw processed 'aracha' green tea to the main market in
Japan; but exports to other growing world markets would also be explored. It is also possible that a
large commercial organisation/management investment scheme would plant large areas of tea and
provide processing factories, in conjunction with a Japanese company.
The new Japanese import standards require that all food imports must meet stringent chemical residue
tests. This may impose problems for other countries that currently export to Japan and will be an
advantage for Western Australian tea where pesticides are not currently used. It may also be possible
to produce about 20% of our tea using an approved organic system.
Economics
It is difficult to predict the economics of growing green tea in Western Australia as we have no
information on mature yields or quality. An economic study was conducted in 2001. This stated that
the highest costs with green tea would be in the establishment period for the first four years. Major
costs were permanent shading and purchase of plants. When established, operations are mechanised
and labour costs are half that of tree crops. Due to mechanisation with all management operations, the
mature operating costs are about 48 to 66% less than orchard crops such as avocados, apples and
plums. It was concluded that an investment in green tea is net cash flow negative for the first five
years, with cumulative pay-back reached after nine to eleven years. Compared with apples, returns to
green tea appear to be lower, based on current prices from these crops. This must be offset against a
much longer expected life for a green tea plantation that may be more profitable in the long term.
Since 2001, we have reduced nursery costs by using the same cell-packs from striking until planting,
and the removal of permanent shading. A new economic analysis in 2006 showed a more favourable
economic report, with lower input costs and higher predicted yields. The new business plan budgets
plants as costing 70 cents each, for 18,000 plants per hectare. More information on management has
shown that planting, fertilising, irrigating, pest and weed control costs should be lower than we
previously thought. The establishment costs to the first harvest in the fourth year for a 10 hectare
plantation would be $370,000 and this would include land preparation, plants, planting, irrigation,
fertilising, machinery and general management. The operating costs per hectare per year for
established plantings were stated to be $5,355 per hectare per year and this would include fertilising,
irrigation, weeding, pest control, pruning and harvesting. Based on the first year of production, we can
state that the production of ‘wet tea’ and number of flushes of good quality will be higher than
previously projected. We do not expect yields to be reduced after the first flush and quality should
remain good from October until at least the end of December. If the flushes after this period are not up
to the 'sencha' standard, it is possible that we could market the 'aracha' tea for the lower return 'Pet
bottle' or ‘ready to drink’ market.
The new Business Plan concluded that a planted area of 60 ha could be established with a total
investment of around $5 million, including establishment and operating costs for the first fifteen years.
It would break even in eight or nine years. An investment of about $5 million is needed to establish
processing, storage and transport systems. For a ten hectare plantation, with a conservative total 'wet'
yield of 12 t/ha/a and an average price of $1.60/kg, over 15 years, this would have an internal rate of
return on invested funds of 18.5%. This would be a viable proposition and comparable with other
permanent tree crops.
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Research at Manjimup Horticultural Research Institute, 2000-2006
Choice of Manjimup Area
The Manjimup area is similar to the Shizuoka area of Japan in latitude (34°), acid soils and annual
average temperature (15°C). This area is also favoured for green tea because summer temperatures are
not too hot and usually do not exceed 35°C. Frosts are not common and mainly occur in winter, when
plants are dormant. Winds are not high, compared with coastal areas. Japanese tea growing areas differ
from Western Australia in that they have higher rainfall, higher relative humidity and less radiation in
summer. Manjimup soils are gravelly loams and well drained in sloping areas. There are good supplies
of good quality water for irrigation in the warmer months and farms have good sized dams (more than
150,000 kL). The area has large farms with gentle slopes, which will allow large plantings and
accompanying economies of scale.
Green tea must be delivered to a processing factory ideally within one hour of harvesting and this
should be possible within the Manjimup area due to efficient road and transport systems.
Obtaining Plants
Three varieties of Japanese origin (Okuhikari, Sayamakaori and Yabukita) were introduced by the
Department of Agriculture and Food and the New World Flora nursery in Manjimup from Tasmania
and Victoria from 1998 to 2000. They were obtained as rooted plants mainly from the Department and
Primary Industries and Forestry and a private nursery in Tasmania, and from a private farmer in
Gippsland, Victoria. In 2000, the Department of Agriculture and Food, obtained branches from
Gippsland Victoria and over 3000 cuttings were successfully rooted by New World Flora. Rooted
plants and branches for cuttings propagation from Tasmania and Victoria did not need to be placed in
quarantine.
A Japanese company assisted with the development of green tea from 1996 to 2004 and sent seven
varieties for establishment in quarantine from 1999 to 2002. These stayed for the mandatory year in
quarantine in Perth and were then released for planting at Manjimup Horticultural Research Institute.
Green tea plants can be imported from overseas, either as bare rooted plants, or as branches taken from
mature plants that can be used for striking cuttings. We mainly imported bare-rooted plants wrapped in
peat-moss. Plant costs in quarantine were about $30 each, whether alive or dead. We lost about 96% of
plants, even where no pests were found and this still required a routine pesticide dip of white oil,
carbaryl and malathion. Where pests were noticed on the newly imported plants, methyl bromide
fumigation was necessary and this killed all plants. Nearly all of the plants that we imported were
rooted plants that were about six months old. We only tried one importation with branches, for
propagation by cuttings and more established plants were obtained with this treatment. If imports of
new varieties are required In future, it would be preferable to import branches and strike cuttings from
these. If methyl bromide is used on branches, these are still suitable for the striking of cuttings, as
occurred in quarantine at Knoxfield, Victoria.
Soil
All plant rows were ripped to 45 cm deep, up to four times. Compost was applied before planting to
test plots in 2000 and gave a visible growth response in 2001. The soil of the chosen block had a pH of
6.4 to 6.6 (measured in water) in 2000, which is higher than preferred for green tea. Sulphur was
applied at the high rate of 10 t/ha, to a few small plots in 2001, to reduce pH, with no observable
damage to the plants. In 2002, sulphur was applied at 6 t/ha to all plots. The pH has since been 4.1 to
5.4, which is preferred for green tea.
Propagation
In 2003 and 2004, we used a mist propagator to successfully strike single and double node cuttings
throughout the year. The acidic potting mixture for cuttings comprises 50% coarse Avon River sand,
30% sieved German peat that has been treated with a wetting agent such as ‘Wettasoil’ and 20%
Perlite P400 grade (less than 5 mm). The best timing and most economic system is to place cuttings
into 90 ml cell-packs in January and to grow the plant in these until planting, 14 to 15 months later.
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Varieties
We have established the following clonal varieties: Fukumidori, Fushun, Meiryoku, Okuhikari,
Okumidori, Sayamakaori, Shunmei, Yabukita, Yamanoibuki and Yutakamidori. These varieties have
been used as mother plants by nurseries. A three-year old plant that is pruned in July will produce
about 100 cuttings in January. We have also made observations of their growth, appearance and
incidence of marginal leaf scorch.
All varieties have a good appearance and the difference in maturity times has not been measured, but
is probably less than seven days per flush. The varieties displaying the greenest leaves are Fukumidori,
Fushun and Okuhikari; the latter variety has the deepest lustre on the leaves. These varieties may be
more important if shading, which increases leaf green-ness, is not used.
We also have some green tea seedlings from seeds obtained from Nivot Research Institute, Shizuoka,
Japan. These are variable in appearance. Some Yabukita seedlings were grown from seeds on mature
plants imported from Tasmania; these have a fairly even appearance. There are also some black tea
seedlings, derived from Chinese seeds imported into NSW. These are variable in appearance, but some
have grown well.
Planting
Compost was applied to test plots in 2000 before planting and this gave a visible growth response in
2001.
Plants were successfully established on sprinkler irrigation under 66% shade, 4 m high, in all months
from September to April from 2000 to 2003. Plantings were at 10 to 30 mm above the main ground
level. The plants were surrounded with straw mulch. We initially irrigated by sprinklers. This system
gives good establishment of green tea, but is more expensive to establish than trickle irrigation, uses
more water and gives increased weed growth. We now establish plants successfully by trickle
irrigation from planting, without shade-cloth, in March or April. Spring plantings may be damaged if
high temperatures occur in November. A trickle irrigation system should be chosen which either has
outlets which are the same spacing as the plants, or produces a continual wetted strip.
Since 2004, the establishment of plantings is being compared with the following systems: 1. bare
ground, 2. straw mulch, 3. white or black polythene mulch and 4. experimental residual herbicides,
which were sprayed directly over the tea plants. These included oryzalin(Cameo®), oxyfluorfen
(Goal®), metribuzin (Sencor®) and simazine (Simazine®). To date, plants have grown best under
polythene mulch. With the herbicide treatments, the only damage, which was mild, was from
oxyfluorfen, and plants grew well under the other treatments, especially metribuzin and simazine. The
advantage of metribuzin is that it will give some control when sprayed over very small established
weeds. If these unregistered residual herbicides control weeds, with no damage to the green tea, then it
may be possible to obtain off-label permits for use on green tea.
A typical spacing for green tea is 1.8 m between the rows and 30 cm (18,500 plants/ha) to 40 cm
(13,888 plants/ha) between plants within single rows. In Japan, a double row system is often used on
their small farms, to give higher yields for the first few years. However, a single row system may
prove preferable in Western Australia for mechanical planting, use of polythene mulch and for weed
control with glyphosate (i.e. Roundup®).
Fertilising
Superphosphate at 1.0 t/ha is applied before planting. New plants are not fertilised with Nitrophoska
Perfect® until one to three months after planting, after they have started to flush. Fertiliser is applied
to the rows and not within 15 cm of the plants. The mixed fertiliser Nitrophoska Perfect® has 11
essential nutrients and is broadcast in the rows to fertilise established plants in mid August, early
October and mid April. It is not incorporated into the soil.
Fertigation is applied monthly from November to March, using urea, potassium nitrate, mono
ammonium phosphate and magnesium sulphate.
The above fertiliser program applies 400 kg N, 40 kg P, 313 kg K and 19 kg Mg per hectare per year.
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Leaf Analyses
Leaf analyses are regularly taken and have showed good levels of all nutrients, with nitrogen up to
4.5%. Levels of chloride were initially moderate to high, but when we changed from sprinkler
irrigation to trickle irrigation, the chloride level was reduced and is now low at 0.2%.
Irrigation
The soil moisture status has been monitored three times per week with tensiometers which are not
allowed to be higher than 15.0 centibars. After watering, the tensiometers drop to around 7.0 centibars.
The irrigation treatments for established plants are to water with trickle irrigation with one or two lines
per plant row from mid October to mid April.
A total of 4,000 to 5,000 kL per ha per year was applied in the last three years in the rows with a
double irrigation line and half these amounts were used for the rows with the single irrigation line. All
rows have shown similar vigour with these watering systems in the last two years. The row watered
with sprinkler irrigation continues to show more marginal leaf scorch. An estimated 6000 to 6500 kL
per ha per year of irrigation water will probably be needed for mature plants.
There is no information on salinity from other tea areas, but it would appear that the water should
preferably have an electrical conductivity (salinity) of less than 80 millisiemens per metre (mS/m) .
The water at the Research Institute has been often tested for water quality and ranges from 70 to 82
mS/m. This would appear to be satisfactory for green tea plants on trickle irrigation.
Mulching
Plants were mulched with straw for the first two years at the rate of 60 m2 per large round bale to
cover the whole area between the plants. This mulch resulted in less weeds and retained soil moisture,
but did not control all weeds. Extra mulch was applied to weedy areas during the rest of the year.
The plants are now established and the purchase of straw ($15,000/ha) and labour to apply this to the
rows is expensive. In the last two years, we have therefore controlled weeds with glyphosate.
Weeding
Good weed control is very important to enable good establishment of small tea plants. The only
herbicide registered for tea in Australia is glyphosate, which is used with a shielded sprayer to kill all
weeds. Observations with marked plants showed that green tea has good tolerance to glyphosate when
accidentally sprayed onto leaves, especially in the cooler months.
There was no damage from the experimental herbicides clopyalid (Lontrel®) and fluazifop
(Fusilade®), when sprayed directly over test side-branches to kill broad leaved weeds and grass weeds
respectively.
Young tea plants may also be kept free of weeds by planting on polythene mulch, except around the
planting holes and in the path areas between rows.
Pests
There are no pesticides registered for use on tea in Australia for the control of pests and diseases.
However, so far, there have been no major problems with pests and diseases with the growing of green
tea in Western Australia. With young plantings, we occasionally spray pesticides to control minor
infestations of vegetable weevil, wingless grasshoppers and snails. However, in most situations, not
spraying would probably not have resulted in any major set backs.
Numerous tests by the Plant Pathology Branch, Department of Agriculture and Food have only shown
secondary diseases such as Colletotrichum camelliae and Pestaliopsis theae. The more serious
Guignardia camellia disease has not been found.
Plants often show marginal leaf scorch, but only on the older leaves and on the later flushes from
January to March. From 2001 to 2004, marked experimental plots were sprayed fortnightly with
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copper hydroxide (Kocide®), alternated with azoxystobin (Amistar®) or with triadimefon
(Bayleton®). There was no effect on marginal leaf scorch as a result of any of these spray treatments.
A rating for marginal leaf scorch in February 2004 showed there was a big difference between the
varieties. The worst varieties for marginal leaf scorch were Okumidori and the Japanese seedlings,
whilst Okuhikari, Shunmei, Yamanoibuki and Yutakamidori have shown least damage from this
disorder. The condition seemed to lessen when trickle irrigation replaced sprinkler irrigation in 2003
and it is possible that it is worst when moderately saline water wets the leaves in warm conditions in
summer. Damage from marginal leaf scorch was insignificant in the cooler summer of 2005/2006.
Scorching is also worst under shaded conditions.
Pruning
Plants were pruned in marked rows at different times to determine whether this could be used to
modify the time of harvest. It was found that there was little difference in the harvesting of the first
flush between the early July and the early August prunings but the September pruning was harvested
about a week later than the other treatments. In 2005, the plants pruned in July produced their first
flush in mid October.
Organic tea
Labour costs and some material costs would be higher with organic tea and yields would probably be
20% lower. For this reason, organic tea would only be economic if the returns are higher than
conventionally grown tea. There is less choice in applying organic fertilisers by fertigation. It would
be difficult to apply nitrogen in a single form, or by fertigation. This would need to be applied in
composted animal manures, or as blood and bone. The use of compost would be important with
organic tea. Fish emulsion could be used for fertigation using trickle irrigation.
For Japan, it would be necessary to determine their exact requirements for organic production, as this
may be slightly different to Australian standards. In general, Australia’s certified organic production
methods comply with Japan standards. The control of weeds would be difficult and expensive and
mulches would be needed regularly.
Shading
Most plantings were permanently shaded for the first two to four years, but some were unshaded.
Radiation is 139 to 216% higher in summer in Manjimup, compared with Japan. The Japanese state
that the high radiation in Manjimup in summer will necessitate the adoption of 50% shade-cloth to
improve quality. Shading produces tea with greener leaves, as it increases the level of chlorophyll.
Shading increases the level of amino acids and nitrogen. It reduces the level of tannins and flavanols
that can give tea a bitter taste. In Japan, processors consider that green tea with dark green leaves has
the best quality. A rating of plants at the Research Institute in February 2004 showed that plants had
greener leaves under shade than in the open.
In January, 2003 the number of shoots in marked plots was higher in the sunny areas than the shaded
areas: Sayamakaori-sun (73), Sayamakaori-shade (41), Yabukita-sun (62) and Yabukita-shade (50).
Due to the high expense of shading and damage to the shade-cloth from storms, the shade-cloth was
removed in spring 2004, and plants grew well in summer in 2005 and 2006, including new plantings.
Yields
In 2003/2004, four year old plants were hand-harvested eight times in 2 m marked plots from 31
October to 7 April. Four flushes were harvested before Christmas and four flushes were harvested
after Christmas. Yields were 6.1 t/ha for Yabukita and 5.8 t/ha for Sayamakaori for this first year of
harvest. The unshaded areas had 17% higher total yield compared with the shaded areas. The yield
increase was similar for both varieties. Yabukita out yielded Sayamakaori by 5.3% (5.5% in the sun
and 5.0% in the shade). Yields were highest from mid December to mid January. The growth, yields
and quality of Yabukita are promising in the Manjimup area and this is the main Japanese variety,
because of its good quality. These plants were still young and increasing in branch complexity with
each pruning, therefore, yields will increase with continued harvesting and pruning.
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In 2003, the plants had been grown as mother plants for production of cuttings prior to this first
seasons harvesting and had not been regularly pruned and harvested in the previous season. It was
decided that we would not resume harvesting observations with the different varieties until mid
October 2006, when all the plants can be harvested on a regular cropping cycle. We have since
obtained pruning and harvesting machinery to commence this work.
Quality
It has not been possible to test the quality of commercially processed dried 'loose-leaf' tea from the
Manjimup area, as we have no commercial processing facilities. However, initial analyses of
unshaded, hand processed tea sent to Japan have shown that the quality of green tea from the
Manjimup area is good, with similar levels of nitrogen, amino acids, caffeine, fibre and tannins to
Japanese sencha tea, but with a higher level of vitamin C. The first results by HPLC analysis of fresh
tea has also confirmed these results, especially with Yabukita (5.7% nitrogen) and Okumidori (5.7%
nitrogen). The variety Sayamakaori had the lowest nitrogen level (4.7%).
After an investigation, we concluded that to produce raw 'aracha' tea for assessment of sensory
analysis by Japanese firms and also biochemical analyses, we need to obtain a suitable processing unit
for research purposes. This would have a capacity of a minimum of 35 kg per hour, which produces
'aracha' which is almost as good for quality analysis as a commercial unit operating at 120 or 240 kg
per hour.
Future Research
• Nutrient management to produce acceptable leaf quality and minimise environmental impact
with emphasis on nitrogen. May include fertiliser type, application method, rate, frequency and
timing.
• Irrigation method and timing of application, quantity and quality.
• Weed control - chemical control, natural and artificial mulches.
• Organic production, initial investigation to determine economics and feasibility of a long term
sustainable industry.
• Yields and quality of varieties.
• Time of pruning and harvesting techniques to modify harvesting times.
• Shading-effect of permanent and 'roll-on/roll-off' temporary shading on yields, quality and
economics. A temporary, 'roll-on/roll-off' 80% shade system may increase leaf green-ness and
is cheaper initially in capital costs than permanent shading. This would be applied to rest
directly on the plants one week prior to harvesting with removal on the day of harvesting,
therefore installation and removal costs need to be considered. This may prove economic for
the first few flushes per season if quality and thus returns can be increased sufficiently.
• Quality tests, by HPLC biochemical analysis of fresh leaves and biochemical analysis and
sensory analysis of aracha. In Japan, yields and quality are highest for the first flush and
decrease for the second, third and fourth flushes respectively. The lack of storms in summer,
compared with Japan, may mean that there is less variability in flushes in Western Australia.
We need to check whether the first flush in Manjimup results in the highest yields and quality.
We will shortly analyse the fresh green tea for amino acids, caffeine, flavanols, nitrogen,
vitamin C, using HPLC analysis at the Chemistry Centre of WA. This will enable us to
compare our green tea with Japanese standards and to determine the effect of shading,
fertilising, time of flushing and the differences between varieties.
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The Tasmanian Green Tea Industry, 1990-2006
Dr Gordon Brown
Scientific Horticulture Pty Ltd
3 Kadina Close, Allens Rivulet, Tasmania 7150, Australia
Email: info@scientifichorticulture.com.au
Overview
The concept of a ‘Japanese’ style green tea industry in Tasmania was initiated in 1990 by Steve
Martin, in his role as Deputy Chief, Fruit and Ornamentals Branch of the Tasmanian Department of
Primary Industry. This concept developed into a major project with substantial funding from RIRDC
and HRDC (now HAL) grants, and funds from agribusiness and the Tasmanian Government.
The project involved the identification of useful green tea clones, their import through quarantine into
Australia, plant propagation, establishment of experimental gardens around Tasmania, the import of a
Japanese processing plant and equipment, the assessment of tea performance and quality, a study of
competitor products, the study of potential markets, a financial analysis of tea production and the
demonstration of green tea potential to possible investors. In addition the project conducted the first
Tea Research Priority Setting Workshop and conducted a national green tea conference with three
guest speakers from Japan. Over the ten year project life the project employed two economists, eight
horticulturists, seven technicians and was managed by four branch managers. A total of 16 of the
reports written during this project are available at the Department of Primary Industry and Water
library in Tasmania.
At the termination of the project in Tasmania many of the environmental and agronomic practices to
ensure successful tea production had been identified. Further, the economic analysis demonstrated
excellent potential financial performance with an internal rate of return of close to 20%. Unfortunately
the project failed to attract investment in Tasmanian and project effectively moved interstate to
Victoria, Western Australia and more recently New South Wales. None the less a small Tasmanian
fruit drying business, which was involved in the project, Dry Ideas, saw the potential for the crop and
established a small tea garden in 1999. The results from this planting have been excellent and this
business has recently trebled its production area and plans are currently being developed for future
expansion.
Detail
In July of 1991 the Tasmanian Department of Primary Industry was awarded a RIRDC grant to study
the potential of Japanese green tea as a new crop for Australia. One of the first activities in this project
involved a visit to Japan by the project leader, Mr Steve Martin, to initiate contacts, identify useful
green tea clones and to organise the import of material into Australia. This occurred in November
1991 as documented in Mr Martins (1991) extensive overseas trip report. During this travel three
clones, Sayamakaori, Yabukita and Okuhikaori, were identified as having potential for Tasmania and
arrangements were made for the supply of planting material to be delivered to the Departments
Quarantine station in Kingston, Tasmania.
One month later, in December, 6000 plants (2000 of each cultivar) arrived in Tasmania and were
placed in quarantine. These were due for release in December 1992. However, just prior to release an
inspection identified a Kanzawa Spider Mite and as a result the entire stock were treated with methyl
bromide. This treatment resulted in a 60% mortality rate in the stock dramatically reducing the number
of plants available for field trials. However, this outcome highlights the need for quarantine vigilance.
In 1991 a production guide was written and distributed to potential growers (Baxter and Saltmarsh,
1991). The field trials were established in 1993 and consisted of 330 plants (110 of each clone) being
planted on Departmental and potential growers properties at Grove, Plenty, Westerway and Scottsdale
with the largest experimental planting of 3500 plants being located at Don. Poor plant establishment
206
and growth were encountered at these sites due to salt laden winds (Don), frost and water logged roots
(Grove) and frost, wind and lack of irrigation (Westerway and Plenty). The only agronomically
successful site was at Scottsdale. This site was on a deep, well drained and fertile soil, in a sheltered
position on top of a hill with significant cold air drainage. This site also had the highest average annual
rainfall (984 mm) of any of the sites. Of interest is that these findings confirmed Japanese
recommendations that among other things tea requires summer rainfall above 850 mm no frost during
growth flushes and soil with good drainage but with the ability to retain water for growth. In retrospect
it was also found that Japanese growers also encounter problems with sea salt laden winds.
During the early years of the project substantial quantities of plants were propagated at the
Departmental Laboratories in Hobart. It was found that Sayamakaori was easy and rapid to propagate,
closely followed by Yabukita but Okuhikaori had low success and was slow. This resulted in few
Okuhikaori plants for subsequent plantings both in Tasmania and other states. It was also found that
plants had to be of a large size and excellent health prior to field planting as large losses were
encountered due to transplant shock. Notes were maintained on pests and diseases as well as plant
nutrition.
In February 1994, funds from a local agribusiness were used in conjunction with a HRDC grant for
market investigations, economic analysis, equipment for processing of the green tea and assessment of
tea quality. As part of this grant harvesting equipment and a processing plant was imported from Japan
in late 1994. This equipment also required the construction of a special processing room as well as
extensive modifications to allow for compliance with Australian safety standards. Over the following
few years the author visited Japan on three occasions for training on tea processing techniques.
The first experimental tea from the Tasmanian plantings was made in November of 1995. This was
only a small harvest and very limited quantities of tea were produced. Two samples of this tea were
sent to Japan. One sample was sent to Isaku Watanabe, the owner / director of Kisaku-En, a large tea
distributor and his response was “We received the samples you sent to us. We really appreciate it. We
did test them, and they were very good. Honestly, I was impressed by them. You really did a very
good job. If I say, they remind me of the old good times green tea which I like very much”. The
second sample was sent to Dr Tadashi Goto at the Shizuoka Prefecture Tea Experiment Station. This
tea was analysed for total nitrogen, neutral detergent fibre, caffeine, tannin and total free amino acids.
These tests revealed that tea was of high value (greater than 1,500 yen/100 g) for five of the six
characters measured.
From the 1995/96 season a third sample was sent to Dr Satoshi Yamaguchi of the National Research
Institute of Vegetables, Ornamental Plants and Tea (NIVOT). This tea was tasted by staff and
instrumentally analysed and it was concluded that tea was “similar to medium to high quality green tea
of Japan”.
All three groups commented on the slight yellow colour of the tea and the necrotic leaf burn on the
leaves and this was put down to the extended time before processing (the site being 3 hours drive from
the processing plant) and wind damage on the leaves.
Harvests, processing and assessments continued until the 1998/99 season from the Scottsdale site, the
other sites having been abandoned due to the various problems encountered. In the 1997/98 season a
total of 47 kg of fresh leaf was harvested (11 kg Harvest 1, 21 kg Harvest 2 and 15 kg harvest 3) from
the 330 plants and this yielded 11.6 kg of tea. A full set of data is not available from the 1999/2000
season. However, from the Second Harvest there was approximately 37 kg of fresh leaf harvested. It
should be noted, however, that these were all harvested on the one day such that harvests from two of
the cultivars were lower than they should have been.
During the course of this project two national conferences were conducted by the Tasmanian
Department of Primary Industry. The first was the National Tea Research and Development Priority
Setting Workshop conducted on the Gold Coast in October 1994. A copy of the report is held in the
Department Library in New Town (Tasmania). This meeting identified that the industry needed a
207
strategic plan and a steering committee was formed to initiate this process. A strategic plan was seen
as necessary to unify the industry and provide focus and consistency for future research and
development. For the green tea industry the most important strategic issue was determined as
“Demonstrate the ability to produce profitable product acceptable to the market that will generate
confidence and encourage investment in the green tea industry”.
The second conference targeted the green tea industry and was held in Hobart in February 1996. This
meeting had invitations sent out to all known Australian tea producers and had three guest speakers,
Dr Satoshi Yamaguchi, Dr Hitoshi Yoshitomi and Mr A Nesumi, all from NIVOT in Japan to provide
presentations and technical input into the meeting. A report was written from this meeting although the
current location of this report is not known.
In addition to the above, the project also funded a PhD student at the University of Tasmania. A copy
of Dr Tina Botwright’s thesis is located in the Departmental Library in New Town, Tasmania. This
study looked at climate effects on the flushing nature of green tea for predictions as to when flushes
will occur.
Due to a variety of reasons it become evident by 1998 that the project was heading for termination
without any tea gardens being established in Tasmania despite the project showing that green tea was a
potentially viable industry for the state. Hence in 1999 the author established a tea planting using
‘redundant plants’ from the project. This consisted of 1300 plants in a site specially selected and
prepared for the purpose. The plants used, being left over plants from the project, were old and root
bound in their pots and as for the previous plantings there were many losses in this planting. Growth
was slow, possibly due to the root bound and non vigorous nature of the planting material, however
the first harvest was made in 2001 although the first ‘commercial’ harvest was not till 2002. The
feedback from the markets for this and successive seasons has been excellent and the tea has been sold
to an Australian tea merchant for excellent prices. The tea merchant has classed the tea as similar to
high quality Japanese Sencha again showing the potential for tea production in Tasmania. In 2004
plants were propagated and planted out doubling the area to tea and this was repeated in 2005. Further
expansion is planned for 2006 with new areas being prepared and plants propagated and negotiations
have been initiated to possible interested parties with suitable land who may wish to grow under
contract.
Hence the potential for Japanese style green tea production in Tasmania is excellent. This project has
successfully introduced planting material to Australia, identified many of the agronomic practices
necessary for successful plant growth, identified that high quality tea can be economically produced in
the State and initiated a small but expanding production base which is independent of overseas
funding.
208
List of References available at the Tasmanian DPIW library, New Town, Hobart
Baxter, L and Saltmarsh, K (1991) Green Tea: preliminary production guide. DPIW library, New
Town, Tasmania, Collection 118
Baxter et al. (1996). Quality assessment and market evaluation of Tasmanian green tea for the South
East Asian market. Final Report. DPIW library, New Town, Tasmania. Research project 0058
Baxter et al. (1996). Quality assessment and market evaluation of Tasmanian green tea for the South
East Asian market. Final Report. HRDC Project OT404 DPIW library, New Town, Tasmania.
Dept collection 189.
Botwright, T. (1997). Growth and quality of green tea (Camelia sinensis var sinensis) DPIW library,
New Town, Tasmania, 633.72TEA
Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Tasmania. (1993). Potential for green tea production in
Tasmania. DPIW library, New Town, Tasmania, P633.72POT.
Martin, S (1991) Overseas visit to Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan and Korea to assist in an investigation
into the potential for growing commercial green tea in Tasmania and other associated
horticultural opportunities. DPIW library, New Town, Tasmania, Study Tour
Martin, S, Baxter, L, Bound, S, and Saltmarsh, K. (1993) Potential for green tea production in
Tasmania – a model for new crop productions and assessment.
Monks, A (1999) Continued investigation into the commercial production and development of
Japanese green tea in Tasmania. RIRDC research paper 00/59, DPIW library, New Town,
Tasmania, Serial book.
Monks, A (2000) Market alternatives for Japanese green tea, RIRDC publication 00/169
Monks, A and Baxter, L. (1997). To continue the investigation into the commercialisation and
development of Japanese green tea, Camellia sinensis. . DPIW library, New Town, Tasmania
Dept collection 191.
Saltmarsh, K. (1994) National tea research and development priority setting workshop, Pan Pacific
Hotel, Gold Coast, Oct 30 – Nov 1 1994. DPIW library, New Town, Tasmania, P633.72NA
209
The Australian Growers Guide: Japanese Green Tea
Rod Cavill
President
Australian Green Tea Growers Association Inc.
PO Box 286
Mount Beauty, Victoria 3699, Australia
The Australian Growers Guide for Japanese green tea has been developed through the
experiences of members of the Australian Green Tea Association (AGTGA). Growers of Japanese
green tea in North East Victoria formed the AGTGA in June 2000 with the aim of creating a viable
and united Australian green tea industry.
The AGTGA believes that the production of Japanese green tea in Australia is an emerging
industry that has the potential to become a significant horticultural industry attracting investment,
crating jobs and supplying domestic and export markets.
The Growers Guide provides an introduction to green tea globally and an overview of the
industry as it currently exists in Australia. It outlines the actions required to establish and produce
Japanese green tea based on experience in North East Victoria. It provides guidelines for site selection,
field establishment and management. It also provides information that illustrates requirements for
canopy management, pest and disease management and harvesting.
The section on economics provides examples of the costs to establish and operate a Japanese
green tea enterprise and allows the reader to make an initial assessment as to its financial feasibility.
The reader will also be able to discover the types and degree of risks associated with such an
enterprise.
The Growers Guide is a tool that describes in principle the site, climate and production
requirements that must be met to produce saleable green tea. It is a tool to describe, in principle, the
critical management actions that need to be carried out at farm level to successfully produce Japanese
green tea. It provides a means by which potential investors can carry out their own initial evaluation of
the potential of a particular site, the probable costs to commence, the managerial skills required, the
possible financial returns and the type and degree of risk associated with the investment.
The Growers Guide is not a ‘how to do it manual’ for any particular site or individual
investor. It does not provide specific protocols that will guarantee that any leaf produced will meet the
requirements of a specific market. Further, investigation and research will be required to make
appropriate decisions suitable to specific investment or production situations.
Contents of the Guide

• Industry information
• Japanese green tea economics
• Site selection
• Tea field establishment
• Tea field management
• Canopy management
• Pests and diseases
• Harvesting
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• Processing of fresh leaf
• Quality assurance
• Pioneer grower experiences
The Australian Green Tea Growers Association would like to thank the following organisations for
their support to produce the Australian Growers Guide, Japanese Green Tea: ACCs-The Australian
Government’s Regional Development Network, Horticulture Australia, Australian Government
Department of Transport and Regional Services, Victoria Department of Primary Industries, Alp
Valleys, Rural City of Wangaratta, Alpine Shire.
211
The Production and Consumption of Green Tea in Vietnam
Dr Nguyen Van Tao
Tea Research Institute of Vietnam
Vietnamese Academy of Agricultural Sciences
Thanh Tri, Hanoi, Vietnam
Email: nvtao27@hotmail.com
Abstract
Vietnam is one of the main tea producing nation in the world. It is a country with favourable
conditions for tea cultivation development. In 2005, the production of tea was 133,350 tons and the
export quantity was 80,000 tons. The total area of tea plantations in Vietnam is 125,000.00 ha,
consisting of about 105,000 ha of mature tea, with an average yield of 1,270.00 kg dried tea per ha.
Key words
Green Tea, production, consumption in Vietnam.
1. Tea Planting Areas in Vietnam

In the recent 10 years, tea production and trade has developed very well. New tea plantations will
replace old tea plantations by around 6,000 – 10,000 ha per year. About 76% of tea areas in Vietnam
are planted in Ferralic Acrisols, Rhodic ferrassols and Santhic Ferrasols. Most areas where tea is
grown have very poor soil and some places have severe erosion.
Table 1 The main area of tea production in Vietnam - 2005

District Provinces Acreage Total
Hectare % Production
(Metric Ton)
North – Son La, Lai Chau, Hoa Binh, Dien 10,202.30 7.55 13,152.70
Western Bien
North – Ha Giang, Lao Cai, Lang son, 37,942.10 30.33 30,068.90
Eastern Quang Ninh, Yen Bai, Cao Bang,
Bac Can.
Midland- Phu Tho, Thai Nguyen, Tuyen 38,789.10 31.03 45,578.80
North Quang, Ha Tay, Vinh Phuc, Ninh
Vietnam Binh, Bac Giang, Hai Duong, Ha
Nam, Ha Noi
North Thanh Hoa, Nghe An, Ha Tinh, 11,625.50 9.38 8,588.90
Central Quang Binh, Quang Tri, Hue, Da
Vietnam Nang, Quang Nam, Quang Ngai,
Binh Dinh.
Western Gia Lai, Kon Tum, Dac Lac, Lam 26,441.00 21.71 35,960.70
highlands Dong.
Total 125,000.0 100.00 133,350.00
The production area of tea in Vietnam has an elevation of 50-2000 m above sea level,
including low-grown teas which comprise of over 45,000 hectares of the mid-north region and the
north central area grow at an elevation below 100 metres. Mid-country teas come from the north-
eastern region of the central midland area and grow at 100 to 600 metres above sea level. High-grown
teas located at 600 to 2000 metres above sea level, make up about 40% of Vietnams tea total
production. The high-grown is famous for one hundred year Shan tea trees. Shan tea is distributed in
mountainous provinces in the northern part of Vietnam. The annual yield of Shan tea is more than
22% of the total tea yield in all of the country, and it is one type of organic tea cultivated in Vietnam.
Farmers apply only organic fertilizer, and no pesticides or other types of chemicals which stimulate
plant growth. The Shan tea product has a fresh full fragrance with bright yellow liquor.
212
Today there are over 125,000 hectares under tea cultivation in Vietnam. Vietnamese teas are classified
under five localities, depending broadly on the climate and the agro-ecology conditions, including
temperature, relative humidity, rainfall and sunshine. The medial rainfall is usually between 1,559.9
mm (Moc Chau - Son La Prov.) and 2,542.4 mm (Bao Loc - Lam Dong Prov.). The annual Vietnam
tea production is conditional upon rainfall distribution during the year. Vietnam’s climate has been
classified into four specific seasons: spring, from February to April; summer, from May to August;
autumn, from September to November; winter, from December to January. There is usually about
three to four months of dry season (from December to March).
2. Export of Vietnamese tea

In Vietnam, tea is manufactured from March to December every year. The higher yield in May to
September accounts for about 70- 72% of total production in the whole year. Over the past three years
tea exports from Vietnam have increased significantly. In 2005, the amount of export tea increased by
80000 tons, the value of US$ 88 million, with average price of about US$ 1.1/kg.
Table 2 Rate of Tea Development in Vietnam

No Years Area Mature Total Yields Export Values
(Ha) Tea Production (kg Dried (Tons (USS)
(Ha) (Metric tea per ha) per
Ton) year)
1 1995 66,700 - 40,200 650 18,800 -
2 1996 74,800 - 46,800 690 20,800 -
3 1997 78,600 - 48,200 720 32,340 -
4 1998 79,100 - 50,600 760 33,215 -
5 1999 84,800 65,000 52,500 800 36,440 45,149,160
6 2000 87,700 70,000 63,700 910 55,660 69,605,000
7 2001 95,600 80,000 76,800 960 68,217 78,406,000
8 2002 108,000 86,000 89,440 1,040 74,812 82,517,636
9 2003 116,000 93,000 106,950 1,150 60,628 59,839,836
10 2004 120,000 102,000 119,050 1,210 99,351 95,549,855
11 2005 125,000 105,000 133,350 1,270 80,000 88,000,000
Figure 2 The Production and Export of Tea in Vietnam

160,000.00
Tons
140,000.00
Total
120,000.00
Producti
on
100,000.00
(M etric
80,000.00 Ton)
Export
60,000.00
(Tons
40,000.00 per
year)
20,000.00
0.00
Years
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
213
3. The Green Tea in Vietnam
In Vietnam, production of green tea has been steadily increasing. From 1995 to 1999, green tea
represented 29% of total tea production; from 2000 to 2004 this was up to 40.2%; and in 2005 66%.
Cultivation
Vietnamese people grow tea by both propagation and seed. The use of propagation is now more
popular as it generates uniform growth, and produces a clean tea crop with high yield and quality,
generating various products of high quality. The tea varieties used for processing green tea in Vietnam
occupy about 40% of the total area of tea production. Varieties used include: LDP1, Trung Du, Shan,
Kim tuyen, Thuy Ngoc, Bat Tien, and a few varieties imported from China, Japan, Taipei and Sri
Lanka.
Sprouting occurs in the spring season appears in the middle of March, and the bushes are harvested
from March to December in all districts. There are about 18-20 times for tea plucking in Vietnam, The
Interval between two plucking times is 15-20 days in the Spring (March - April) and Autumn
(October-November), is 7-12 days in the summer (May - September). The amount of new shoots
which one person can harvest per day is from 20-30 kg by hand plucking.
Manufacturing process
For Green Tea
Plucked leaves are steamed for 45-48 s, then curled and dried in hot-air at 90-110oC for 40-45 min.
This primary drying and rolling process reduces the leaf moisture from 78% to about 50%. The leaves
are rolled for a further 15 min without heat, and then pressed and dried for 30 –35 min in hot air at 50
– 60oC. This secondary drying reduces the moisture content of the tea leaves to about 30%. A further
curling is followed by the third drying stage, in which the tea leaves are dried directly on a hot pan at
80-90oC and twisted for 40 min under pressing and rolling by a curling-hand mounted on a pan.
Finally, the tea leaves are dried at 80oC until a moisture content of 4-5% is achieved.
For Oolong tea

Fresh shoots are spread thinly on a flat bamboo basket or a dirt floor and withered under sunlight for
25-30 min. During this process, called Sai-qing, the leaf temperature increases to 35oC. After this
process, the tea leaf is transferred to a flat bamboo basket and withered at room temperature about 23-
24oC, moisture air 70-75%, for 8-12 h. During this process, called Yao-qing, the tea leaves are agitated
gently by hand once an hour.
During this period, the edge of the leaf turns red, the trong aroma evaporates and the moisture content
of the leaves falls from 75-80% to about 59-61%. This controlled withering under sunlight facilitates
the biotechnological reactions which generate the unique colour and aroma of Oolong tea.
The withered leaves are fired in a pan at 270-300oC for 6-8 min thus inactivating the leaf enzymes and
terminating the fermentation. After this, the tea leaf is rolled and dried as described for the
manufacture of pan-fired tea.
References
Anon. 2002. Tea Growers Handbook (5th Edition). Tea Research Foundation of Kenya.
Barua. D. N. 1989. Science and Practice in Tea Culture. Calcutta – Jorhat, India. First Published.
Barbora, B. C., D. N. Baura and B. Bera. Tea Breeding at Tocklai. Two and a bud. 1996. pp3-9.
Collective authors. Descriptors for Tea. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI).
Rome, Italy.
D. N. Barua. (1989). Science and Practice in Tea Culture. Tea Research Association Calcutta - Jorhat.
Swapna Printing Works Private limited.
Do Ngoc Quy, Nguyen Kim Phong. (1997). Tea Culture in Vietnam. Agricultural Edition. Ha Noi.
214
K.C. Willson and M. N. Clifford. (1992). Tea cultivation to consumption. Chapman & Hall.
Liang Chen, Fulian Yu, and. October, 2001. Morphological classification and phylogenetic evolution
of sestion Thea in the genus Camellia. Session II Production. shizuoka, Japan.
Liyanage, A.C. and, 2003. Twentieth Century Tea Research in Sri Lanka. The tea Research Institute of
Sri Lanka.
Masaki Tsuji. Influences of different nitrogen levels on the yield and nitrogen content of new shoots in
the fertigation method under the canopy. Proceedings of 2001 inter. Conference on tea culture
and science. Session II, Production. pp 198-202.
Monthly reports of Viet Nam Tea Association (VITAS); 2005, 2006.
Tao Nguyen Van, Toan Nguyen Van. Tea Breeding selection by Hybridization method in Viet Nam.
2005 International Symposium on Innovation in Tea Science and sustainable Development in
Tea Industry. Hangzhou China. November 11-15, 2005. pp 315-322.
Tao Nguyen Van. The production and Export of Tea in Viet Nam. 2005 International Symposium on
Innovation in Tea Science and sustainable Development in Tea Industry. Hangzhou China.
November 11-15, 2005. pp 815-821.
Tkhaize. R. I., A. D. Mikeladze. (1979). Tea cultivation. Moscow Rice.
Trang Van Phuong. (1959). Tea Culture. Agricultural Science Edition. Moscow.
Visser, I. D. (1969). Tea Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze, in Outlines of perennial Crop Breeding in
the Tropics (eds F. P. Ferwerda and F. Wit). H. Veennan and Zonen, Wageningen.
215
RIRDC Project: Production of High Quality Export Green Tea
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Project (DAN-227A)

RIRDC Green Tea Project Research Team
New South Wales Department of Primary Industries
Locked Bag 26 Gosford 2250 NSW AUSTRALIA
Dr. Vong Nguyen Agronomy. Liaison
Dr. John Golding Project co-ordinator, Postharvest
Dr. Sophie Parks Plant Nutrition
Dr. David Hall Liaison
Ben Jarvis Technical Officer
Marilyn Steiner Entomology
Gus Campbell Organics
Len Tesoriero Pathology
The University of Newcastle
School of Environmental and Life Sciences. Faculty of Science and Information Technology.
Ourimbah Campus. Ourimbah 2258 NSW AUSTRALIA
Dr. Paul Roach Lecturer Human Nutrition
Nenad Naumouski, Quan Van Vuong, Bin Ho, Sathira Hirun, James Krahe
– University of Newcastle Graduate Students
Kunitaro Co. Ltd.
Kikugawa Ogasa; Shizuoka JAPAN
Kunitaro Nakamura President
Motomi Ito Director
Rinta Uchikawa Director
Akio Onozawa Manager
Paradise Plants Ltd.
RMB 2117 Greta Road Kulnura 2250 NSW AUSTRALIA
John Robb Nursery Manager
Soil Health for Green Tea Plants

Yuji Seki
Soil Specialist
Kunitaro Co Ltd
591 Shimo Yasumatsu
Tokorozawa, Saitama, Japan, 359-0024
Introduction
Japanese green tea among many teas draws attention of people all over the world due to its
distinguished features. More than three million metric tons of tea is presently produced in the world,
and the production in Japan is only 3% of the world production. Tea growing appeals to many people
but many people don’t get involved in tea production. The reason for this is that tea growing requires
special techniques in both the growing and the processing. If we understand the points to be taken care
of and then carry out these points, we can successfully deal with green tea.
We have already confirmed that high quality green tea can be produced here in Australia. I would like
to explain the following issues in tea growing one by one,
• Crop Features
216
• Soil suitable for tea growing
• Irrigation required for tea growing
• Application of fertilizer to tea plants
• Weed control
• Insect control
• Propagation
Crop features
Tea varieties are divided into Indian variety and Chinese variety. Japanese green tea belongs to
Chinese variety. Japanese green tea plant is low shrub with small-sized leaves. Tea has a regular
growing period. Tea plant vigorously grows in the spring and autumn, and grows in summer as well.
In winter, tea plant’s growth completely stops. Japanese tea plant is very cold-hardy. Indian variety tea
has been produced for black tea in Australia, and the leaves of this variety are large-sized and there is
almost no seasonal feature in regard to the growth. These differences should be taken note of. Desired
annual average temperature for the growth of tea plant is 13oC while the minimum temperature is -5oC
and the maximum is 40oC. The crop is sensitive to sun and is weak in dry conditions. The new shoot in
particular is vulnerable to damage in cold conditions.
Soil suitable for tea growing

Tea is considered to originate in Yunnan, China, where the temperature is comparatively high with
heavy rainfall. In the subtropical zone such as Yunnan, the soil is acid and therefore, the soil required
for tea plant is acid and tea plants grow well in such conditions. We investigated the soil condition in
many sites in Australia as the soil is the most important factor in the tea growing. As a result of our
investigations we found the well-drained acid soil of the Central Coast suitable for tea plants. The
colour of the soil is reddish brown, and this soil is sandy but retains water. The pH level is more or
less 5.5, and the pH level in some sites is about 6.0. Some sandy soil is greyish white or light brown
colour and the pH level is between 6 and 6.5. We tested tea plants in this soil but we found no problem
with the tea plants. However, in the soil of a higher pH level such as 7.0 to 8.0 tea plants cannot grow
well on the commercial basis. Irrigation is required for tea plants, and when the drainage is poor, tea
plants have problems. Therefore, soil with poor drainage is not suitable to tea plants. The most
troublesome soils are clay types. In the summer with high temperature the soil becomes dry causing
problems. Measures preventing dry conditions must be taken especially when tea plants are young.
Straw mulch or hay mulch is important in preventing dry conditions. Also, even though the pH level
was higher at the time of planting, pH level could be lowered by applying fertilizer to the soil.
Geographically, land slope must be below 10 degrees.
Irrigation
Tea plants are likely to be damaged by dry conditions during the spring and summer when tea plants
grow, and also in the autumn. An appropriate level of irrigation is required for tea plants. The total
consumption of irrigation water required for one hectare per annum is 1500 metric tons. In order to
successfully grow tea, it is important to correctly spread this volume of water from spring to autumn.
The irrigation system must be established for tea plants by placing one line of dripper tube per row.
Sprinklers are not suitable for tea growing since sprinklers are not practical when working in the field
and this practice wastes water. Irrigation is almost not necessary in winter.
Application of fertilizer
Nitrogen affects most the yield and quality of tea, and trace elements such as manganese and boron
affect tea taste. The tea plant absorbs less lime and magnesium compared with vegetables. The most
important element is nitrogen, and tea plants absorb nitrogen in the form of ammonium nitrogen, not
in the form of nitrate nitrogen. This is different from vegetables and fruit trees, and the tea plant is a
different crop in this regard. For this reason, fertilizer containing ammonia or urea is used instead of
nitric acid types. Organic fertilizer also is good for the plant. One can adopt a dripper irrigation system
for tea growing and organic liquid fertilizer, or soluble trace elements, to lower the cost. Annual
consumption for fertilizer required for tea plants in one hectare is nitrogen (N) 500kg, phosphoric acid
217
(P) 200kg and potassium (K) 300kg. In addition to these NPK elements, integrated trace elements,
50kg per ha, is required. It is effective to apply organic fertilizer at the time of planting and in spring
and autumn as well. Foliar application of urea and magnesium sulphate is effective. It is important to
understand that fertilizer application recommendations are specific to tea and that the final target for
nitrogen level contained in the processed tea is 5.5 to 6.0%. Tea of this nitrogen level is tasty and of
high quality. Rates of fertiliser required are shown in table 1 and table 2.
Table 1 Application of organic fertiliser required for green tea

Organic fertilizer ( Fermented chicken manure)
Consumption: 40 metric tons per ha
Application: middle of April
Table 2 Application of compound fertiliser required for green tea

Compound Fertilizer
PKN = 15 : 8 : 10 desirously with trace elements
Application: once in spring x 500kg = 500kg

Twice in summer x 300kg = 600kg
Once in autumn x 200kg =200kg
Application of liquid fertilizer takes labour to mix with irrigation water, but it is very effective in
summer. If the irrigation water consumption rises to 40 metric tons per day per ha and liquid fertilizer
containing 10% nitrogen is used, the consumption of liquid fertilizer would be 8kg. Liquid fertilizer
should be applied though irrigation tube three times per month from mid September to February so
that the tea plants can absorb the ingredients well. It is desirable to use the liquid fertilizer containing
trace elements. It is important to establish a system of fertilizer application and also is important to
cultivate the soil after application of liquid fertilizer in order to heighten the effectiveness of fertilizer
and to achieve the target pH level, 5.5 to 6.0 (not necessary to cultivate when liquid fertilizer is
applied). If straw mulch is placed on the row of newly planted tea plants, dry soil conditions should be
avoided and the weed should be controlled and the effectiveness of fertilizer application is enhanced.
Consumption of fertilizer should be
Year 1 (planting year): 30%
Year 2: 50%
Year 3: 60%
Year 4: 80%
Year 5 and onward: 100%
Weed control
Weeds are a problem that comes up soon after planting in the field. If the weed is left untouched, the
growth of tea plants is largely and adversely affected. To control weeds, it is most effective to place
straw mulch or hay mulch in thickness of 20cm. This is expensive but this type of mulch not only
controls the weed, but also avoids the soil moisture from evaporating and acts as an organic fertilizer
as well. Furthermore, this mulch prevents the soil temperature from sharply rising. To remove weeds
by using chemicals an authorized herbicide must be used.
Pest and disease

If tea quality and yield are adversely affected by pest and disease, there may be no other choice but to
spray chemicals and such measures must be taken so that the minimum amount of chemicals is
sprayed. To prevent pest and disease, we have to anticipate what pest and disease will be seen, and it is
important to find out the pest and disease at the initial stage of its emergence. This minimises the
218
damage. The pests that we have found in tea plants so far here in Australia are spider mite, thrips and
mulberry scale. At the moment, nematode and gold beetle have not been seen in the tea plants. The
disease that we have found here is brown blight only. This disease is often seen at the initial stage of
planting and is controlled by fungicide. No other diseases have been confirmed by us.
Propagation
The time period to make cuttings for seedlings is April to May. The quantity required for one hectare
is shown in table 3.
Table 3 Number of seedlings required per hectare

Row Row width Spacing between plants Number of tea plants
Single 1800cm 45cm 12,345
Two 1800cm 60cm 18,517
The pH level of soil to be used for cuttings should be less than 5.5. The nursery should be shaded and
automatically irrigated. Material for cutting should have two nodes of growing point and two leaves.
Conclusions
I have covered the principal points in the growing of green tea. The climate and soil in the Central
Coast area are suitable to growing of Japanese green tea. The desired growth rate and quality can be
obtained as long as tea is produced in accordance with our instructions. We have been investigating
the possibility for tea production here in Australia for a long time. I strongly believe that Japanese
green tea will be globally accepted because it is good to support human health, and I hope that our
Australian friends can start producing green tea and making big profits from green tea.
219
Nutritional Benefits of Green Tea
Dr Miyuki Katoh
Faculty of Education
Kagawa University
1-1 Saiwai-cho, Takamatsu, Kagawa 760-8522, Japan
Email: kato@ed.kagawa-u.ac.jp
Classification of Teas
Tea drinks are consumed by many people worldwide. Black tea in particular is brewed by many in the
world. Teas are classified into three groups by the degree of fermentation. One is green tea, which is
not fermented. Another is black tea and oolong tea, which are fermented before heating. The third
group is called post-heated fermented tea.
Green tea is either steamed or roasted. Steamed green tea is mainly consumed in Japan, whereas
roasted green tea is prevalent in China, Myanmar and Vietnam. Black tea has been produced mainly in
India and Sri Lanka but Kenya is recently coming up in black tea production. Taiwan is the major
producer of oolong tea. There are three subgroups of post-heated ferment tea. The first subgroup,
represented by Pu-er tea, is black-collared tea molded with aerobic fungi. Awaban-cha and Miang are
typical examples of the second subgroup, which is fermented with anaerobic bacteria. The third
subgroup comprises Goishi-cha and Ishizuchi kuro-cha, which are fermented in two steps: with
aerobic fungi and then with anaerobic bacteria.
About Old Tea Trees

While there are two kinds of tea leaves, Chinese and Assam species, there are many old tea trees in
various parts of the world. For example, the Yünnan province of China has a 1,300 years old tree
called King of tea tree. Vietnam has Suoi Giang called Giant tree, which do not belong to Camellia
sinensis but is consumed by people there even today.
Manufacturing Methods for Green Tea in Japan

Green tea in Japan is often steamed to manufacture. Gyokuro, Sen-cha, and Ban-cha are examples of
green tea. Gyokuro is produced by covering tree tops with black cloth in tea orchards and shading
them with straw to accumulate an umani component called theanine. Ten-cha is a powdered green tea,
which is used in tea ceremonies.
Health Functions of Tea

Many researchers have studied health functions of green tea and black tea components (Table 1).
Catechin is effective as an antioxidant, antiviral, anticancer, and antiallergenic agent. Flavonols
contained as pigment in black tea act to suppress thrombus formation and cataract. Caffeine shows
wakening and diuretic actions. Saponin is known as an expectorant and an anti-inflammatory agent.
Blood pressure increase is suppressed by γ-amino butyric acid. In addition, theanine, an umani
component, has been reported to show psychotropic actions and improve anticancer effects. Other
health components are vitamins C and E and β-carotene. Concerning the antioxidant properties of
catechin in particular, this publication reports on antioxidant properties of various kinds of tea studied
by Hara. It also reports the antiallergenic effect of catechin, which is drawing special attention
recently.
Methods of Tea Applications to Cuisines

This publication also introduces Japanese as well as overseas cuisines to which tea is applied,
including various techniques that allow teas to be utilized.
220
Table 1 Health Functions of Tea
components contents (dry matter) effect
catechin 15-20% antioxidation, antibacterial, anticancer,
antiallergenic agent, etc.
flavonol 600-700mg deodorization effect , thrombogenesis
control, etc.
caffeine 2-4% arousal effect, diuresis action, etc.
saponine 0.1-0.5% anti-inflammatory action, expectoration
action, etc.
γ-amino butyric acid 100-200mg/100g hypertensive blood pressure, etc.
theanine 0.6-2.7% psychotropic action , anticancer effect, etc.
vitamin C 250-600mg/100g anticancer, etc.
vitamin E 25-70mg/100g antioxidation, arteriosclerosis control, etc.
β-carotene 13-29mg% antioxidation,anticancer, etc.
fluorine dental caries prevention
221
Australian Research on Green Tea and Health Benefits
Dr Paul D. Roach
Food Science and Human Nutrition
School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcastle
PO Box 127, Ourimbah 2258, New South Wales, Australia
paul.roach@newcastle.edu.au
Introduction
Green Tea is an ancient Asian drink, made from the Camellia Sinensis plant, which has always been
associated with health benefits. In the present Western food industry language, green tea is referred to
as a functional food - meaning that it has health benefits above and beyond its nutrient composition.
Over the last 15 years, the scientific interest in the potential health benefits of green tea and its
constituents has increased with over 2,000 papers published in the health-related scientific literature.
These studies have largely reported on observations in populations looking at the risk of diseases in
tea drinkers versus non-tea drinkers (epidemiology) or on basic science using cells cultured in the
laboratory or animal models of disease.
The health aspects covered have included:

• Arthritis
• Alzheimer's
• Cancer
• Cardiovascular Disease
• Diabetes
• Weight Loss
However, so far, very few controlled experimental studies have been done in humans with these
various health problems to see whether green tea or its constituents can be of benefit.
Studies on Cholesterol Metabolism in Cultured Human Liver Cells

Our studies with green tea have focused on blood cholesterol, which is one of the major risk factors
for cardiovascular disease which leads to heart attacks and stroke. Using human liver cells in culture,
we found that green tea and its major catechin (Figure 1), epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), increased
one of the mechanisms by which blood cholesterol is controlled, a protein called the LDL receptor
(Figure 2). This cell surface protein helps clear the so-called “bad cholesterol”, the LDL cholesterol,
from the blood circulation and thus decrease the risk of cardiovascular diseases such as heart disease
and stroke.
222
Structure of the Catechins
Epicatechin (EC) Epicatechin Gallate (ECG)
Epigallocatechin (EGC) Epigallocatechin Gallate

(EGCG)
Figure 1 The structure of the four main green tea catechins. Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG),
which is the most abundant of the catechins in green tea (it constitutes about 50% of the
catechins), is thought to also be the most active component relative to health benefits
Studies on Cholesterol Metabolism in Rabbits with High Blood Cholesterol

In studies in rabbits with high blood cholesterol, we found that an extract from green tea was effective
at lowering cholesterol in the animal model by up to 60% at the highest dose of 2% w/w given in the
rabbits’ food (Figure 3.). Not only was the total plasma cholesterol reduced, the “bad cholesterol”
carried in the LDL and VLDL fractions was reduced while the “good cholesterol” carried in the HDL
fraction remained unchanged. The green tea extract thus made the rabbits’ blood cholesterol profile
very much less prone to cardiovascular disease.
As in our cell culture studies (Figure 2), the green tea extract increased the LDL receptor in the
rabbits’ liver by up to 70% (Figure 4). This is likely to have contributed to the lowering of the rabbits’
blood cholesterol. We also found that the green tea extract decreased cholesterol synthesis in the
treated rabbits by up to 50% at the highest dose (Figure 5). This was also likely to have contributed to
the lowering of the rabbits’ blood cholesterol. This inhibitory effect on cholesterol synthesis (the
making of new cholesterol by cells) was interesting because the modern, effective, cholesterol-
lowering drugs called the “statins” lower blood cholesterol in humans by lowering cholesterol
synthesis.
However, the green tea extract used in this experiment was not pure. The extract was only a crude
catechin extract; it contained only 60% (w/w) catechins of which EGCG accounted for 50%, ECG
40%, EGC 8% and EC 2%. No solid conclusions could therefore be made on whether EGCG was
responsible for the cholesterol-lowering effect or even whether the catechins present in the crude
extract were responsible.
223
Therefore, in the next rabbit experiment, pure EGCG was used instead of the catechin extract in order
to determine whether the most abundant of the green tea catechins was responsible for the cholesterol-
lowering properties of green tea. Figure 6 shows that the pure EGCG, included in the rabbit’s food at
2% w/w, was also very effective at lowering the rabbits’ blood cholesterol. The reduction in blood
cholesterol in the treated rabbits was 85% while there was no change in the rabbits which did not
receive any EGCG. The most abundant green tea catechin, EGCG, was very effective at reducing
blood cholesterol in these rabbits and it is therefore likely to be responsible for the cholesterol-
lowering properties of green tea.
LDL Receptor Binding Activity
120
100 *
*
(ng LDL/mg cell)
80
60
40
20
0
Control EC EGC ECG EGCG GTE
Figure 2 The effects of a green tea extract (GTE) and its pure catechins on the activity of the
LDL receptor of human liver (HepG2) cells in culture. The most abundant of the green tea
catechins, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) had most of the activity seen in the green tea
extract (GTE). The * symbol denotes a statistically significant difference from control cells
(Control) not incubated with any green tea extract or pure catechin
Figure 3 The effects of a green tea extract on cholesterol in rabbits with high blood cholesterol.
The extract reduced cholesterol levels, including the “bad cholesterol” in LDL and VLDL, by up
to 60%. The * symbol denotes a statistically significant difference from control rabbits (o) not
given any green tea extract
224
8 *
LDL Receptor Binding Activity

6
(Peak Height)
4
0
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Crude Catechin Extract % (w/w)
Figure 4 The effects of a green tea extract (Crude Catechin Extract) on the liver LDL receptor in
rabbits with high blood cholesterol. The extract increased the liver LDL receptor binding
activity by 70%. The * symbol denotes a statistically significant difference from control rabbits
(o) not given any green tea extract
0.35
(μM lathosterol/mM cholesterol)
0.28
Cholesterol Synthesis
0.21
0.14
* *
0.07
0
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Crude Catechin Extract % (w/w)
Figure 5 The effects of a crude green tea extract (Crude Catechin Extract) on cholesterol
synthesis in rabbits with high blood cholesterol. The extract decreased cholesterol synthesis
by 50%. The * symbol denotes a statistically significant difference from control rabbits (o) not
given any green tea extract
225
14
Control
Cholesterol (mmol/L) 12
2% EGCG
10
0
Before After
Treatment
Figure 6 The effect of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) on blood cholesterol in rabbits with high
blood cholesterol. Rabbits were either fed no EGCG (Control) or food containing 2% w/w
EGCG. The EGCG lowered blood cholesterol by 85%
Conclusion
In conclusion, in our experiments with human liver cells in culture and rabbits with high blood
cholesterol, we have found that the most abundant of the green tea catechins, EGCG, is likely to be
responsible for the cholesterol-lowering properties of green tea. However, the cholesterol-lowering
properties of EGCG have yet to be directly shown in humans with high blood cholesterol.
226
Appendix 2 Common Green Tea Weeds
Common weeds in the NSW DPI Somersby Research Station green tea plantation were:
• Cereals (Triticum spp, Hordeum vulgare, Avena sativa and others)
• Chickweed (Stellaria media)
• Dock (Rumex crispus)
• Farmer’s Friends (Bidens sp.)
• Fat Hen (Chenopodium album)
• Mallows (Malva sp.)
• Patterson’s Curse (Echium plantagineum)
• Perennial Ryegrass (Lolium perenne)
• Sow Thistle (Sonchus oleraceus)
• White Clover (Trifolium repens)
Weed control during establishment and in plantations is discussed in Section 3.5.
227
Common Name: Cereals
Scientific Name: Triticum spp, Hordeum vulgare,

Avena sativa and others
Occurrence: Introduced through straw mulch. It grows in

mulch and in-between rows.
Growth Habit: Cereals are generally annuals that germinate

in autumn and winter and seed from August
to December.
Potential Problems: Will grow up through mulch and up

through the tea canopy contaminating
harvest.
Control: Hand weed, or can be controlled with glyphosate.
Common Name: Chickweed
Scientific Name: Stellaria media
Occurrence: Grows in mulch under and through

canopy and anywhere in moist
disturbed soils. It can form a dense
mat which can cover tea plants.
Growth Habit: A soft annual herb. Grows close to

the ground but will climb up into
and over the tea canopy.
Potential Problems: Will grow in mulch under tea and up through the tea canopy contaminating
harvest. Difficult to remove from canopy
228
Common Name: Dock
Scientific Name: Rumex crispus
Occurrence: Grows in mulch in-between rows

and in un-maintained areas of the
crop.
Growth Habit: Dock is a vigorous perennial plant,

which has erect stems with few
breaches and a large taproot. It can
grow up to 1m high if left
undisturbed.
Potential Problems: Once established dock is difficult to remove due to its large taproot. Early
eradication is essential in the control of this weed. Will grow in mulch under tea and
up through the tea canopy contaminating harvest.
Common Name: Farmer’s Friend
Scientific Name: Bidens sp.
Occurrence: Grows anywhere possible where soil is

disturbed. It also grows in between rows and
in the mulch under tea plants.
Growth Habit: An erect Annual or perennial herb with

branching habit will grow from 1m to 2m
high.
Potential Problems: Will grow in mulch under tea and

up through the tea canopy contaminating
harvest. Seeds are very easily dispersed.
229
Common Name: Fat Hen
Scientific Name: Chenopodium album
Occurrence: Will grow anywhere possible where

soil is disturbed. It will also grow
between tea rows and in the mulch
around and under the tea. This was
found to be the most prominent
weed in the establishment of green
tea.
Growth Habit: Fat hen is a fast growing annual

herb and generally grows in spring
and autumn.
Potential Problems: Will grow in mulch under tea and up through canopy contaminating harvest.
Seeds are easily dispersed
Common Name: Mallow
Scientific Name: Malva sp
Occurrence: Will grow in between rows areas of low traffic and in

disturbed soil.
Growth Habit: A hardy perennial herb that will grow in mulch in

between rows and in compact soil. It has vigorous
growth with hard leaves and a spiny stem.
Potential Problems: Once established they form a complex root

system which is difficult to remove
230
Common Name: Patterson’s Curse
Scientific Name: Echium plantagineum
Occurrence: Will grow in mulch and in between rows. It also

grows in areas of low traffic with disturbed
soils.
Growth Habit: An erect annual herb that will grow in mulch

and in between rows. Normally will grow to
between 60 cm but may reach 1.5 m.
Potential Problems: Difficult to weed as a mature plant due

to its spiny stems and rooting system. It can also
grow up through the tea canopy contaminating
the harvest for fresh shoots.
Control: Hand weed, or can be controlled with

glyphosate.
Common Name: Perennial Ryegrass
Scientific Name: Lolium perenne
Occurrence: Will grow anywhere. It can grow

between rows, in mulch and under
tea canopy. If left go to seed, seed
heads will grow up and through
the tea canopy contaminating
harvest.
Growth Habit: Ryegrass is a perennial grass
Potential Problems: Grow up through canopy.
231
Common Name: Sow Thistle
Scientific Name: Sonchus oleraceus
Occurrence: Will grow anywhere in disturbed soil. It can grow

between rows and under tea canopy.
Growth Habit: Fleshy annual herb
Potential Problems: Will grow up through canopy. Fleshy stems

attract aphids, therefore introducing and sustaining
aphids in the tea. Seeds are easily dispersed
Common Name: White Clover
Scientific Name: Trifolium repens
Occurrence: Will grow in mulch under tea and in between tea

rows. It prefers disturbed soil and areas of low
maintenance.
Growth Habit: A perennial herb that will grow rapidly in moist

soil and will quickly form a ground cover.
Potential Problems: Difficult to weed as a mature plant due to

its fibrous root system.
232
Appendix 3 Examples of Pest and Disease
Reports from Somersby Research Station,
NSW DPI (2004-2007)
Green Tea Monitoring Report for Somersby Planting Block

Scout: Marilyn Steiner
Date: 12 December 2005
General comments
Spotting on new leaves apparent, cause still being investigated (photo below).
Pests
• Low level of light brown apple moth with caterpillars webbing new growth. Bacillus
thuringiensis formulations (Dipel, Delphin) would be effective if considered necessary, but
probably not at this stage. Last year there was heavy parasitism.
• John Golding brought in two caterpillars, probably the brown looper Pholodes sinistraria, a
general feeder with one generation a year.
• No aphids seen, and very few thrips, which is unusual. One onion thrips, Thrips tabaci, only in
sample of new leaves.
• Low level of various scales present, but greedy scale less evident than last year
• Snails still active.
Beneficials
Very few seen-green mantids not in evidence although numerous last month larvae (Syrphidae).
Diseases
None observed; however, high incidence of brown spotting on new growth. Cause is not currently
known. Very hot on 7 December so possibly a reaction to excessive heat, though even shaded leaves
show damage. Rutherglen bugs very numerous generally in broad area during hot weather last week,
but only two bugs seen in an hour of monitoring today. Possible that they might have caused the
damage. Paul Horne (Victoria) and Len Tesoriero contacted by email-Paul suggested thrips or aphids
but none present. Damage appears similar to that caused by mosquito bugs (Helopeltis spp.,
Hemiptera: Miridae) overseas. None observed but will put out traps.
233
Brown specking symptoms on new shoots
234
Green Tea Pest and Disease Monitoring
Debbie Kent
Report – December 2006

The pest and disease inspection was carried out on 21st December 2006 on all varieties and age
classes. All had varying levels of new growth depending on whether or not they have been recently
hedged.
Insect pests
Lepidopteran: Epiphyas postvittana, light brown apple moth.
Symptoms: webbed, folded or rolled new leaves with shot hole damage in some of the expanded new
leaves.
Incidence: single incidence of pest observed.
Aphid: Toxoptera aurantii, black citrus aphid.
Symptoms: distorted curled leaves on new shoot, with or without ants.
Incidence: Ten shoots were affected - a much higher incidence in than previous surveys. No particular
variety was infested more than any other and presence was determined by the amount of new shoots
present on the plant and row. In particular Plot 1 Yabukita 2002 Row 2 was unhedged and had two
small infestations. Ants were in attendance at less than half of the affected shoots with the larger
infestations having parasitoid mummies present.
Comment: The aphid infestations observed this survey were small to medium in size and only two
were large enough to have distorted the leaves. The crop should be monitored over the next couple of
weeks to catch any population explosion.
Diseases
Again no obvious diseases observed.
Beneficials
Beneficials were not as obvious during this survey, however, the large number of web building spiders
(either within the main body of the plant or across hedge rows) was still evident.
Other
The environmental damage observed within the crop last survey has all been hedged from the affected
plants and the current small amount of regrowth is clean of any heat or wind damage.
235
Appendix 4 List of Diseases of Tea
(Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze)
From the American Phytopathological Society
http://www.apsnet.org/online/common/names/tea.asp
(on-line March 2008)
Anthracnose
Colletotrichum theae-sinensis (Miyake) Yamamoto
(= Gloeosporium theae-sinensis Miyake)
Armillaria root rot
Armillaria mellea (Vahl:Fr.) Kummer
(= Armillariella mellea (Vahl:Fr.) P. Karst.)
Armillaria heimii Pegler
(= Armillaria fuscipes Petch)
Bacterial canker
Xanthomonas campestris pv. theicola Uehara, Arai, Nonaka & Sano
Xanthomonas gorlencovianum Daneliya & Tsilosani
Bacterial shoot blight
Pseudomonas syringae pv. theae (Hori) Young, Dye & Wilkie
Bird's eye spot
Cercoseptoria ocellata Deighton
(= Cercospora theae (Cavara) Breda de Haan)
Pseudocercospora theae (Cavara) Deighton
(= Septoria theae Cavara
= Cercoseptoria theae (Cavara) Curzi)
Black blight
Cylindrocladium lanceolatum Peerally
Black root rot
Rosellinia arcuata Petch
Rosellinia bunodes (Berk. & Broome) Sacc.
Black rot
Ceratobasidium sp.
Corticium invisum Petch
Corticium theae Bernard
Blister blight
Exobasidium vexans Massee
Botryodiplodia root rot
Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griffon & Maubl.
(= Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat.)
Brown blight
Glomerella cingulata (Stoneman) Spauld. & H. Schrenk
(anamorph: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. in Penz.
= Colletotrichum camelliae Massee)
Brown root rot
Phellinus noxius (Corner) G.H. Cunningham
(= Fomes noxius Corner)
Brown spot
Calonectria colhounii Peerally
(anamorph: Cylindrocladium colhounii Peerally)
Brown zonate leaf blight
236
Ceuthospora lauri (Grev.) Grev.
Bud blight
Phoma theicola Petch
Charcoal stump rot
Ustulina deusta (Hoffm.:Fr.) Lind
(anamorph: Ustulina zonata (Lév.) Sacc.)
Collar and branch canker
Phomopsis theae Petch
Collar rot
Rhizoctonia solani Kühn
(teleomorph: Thanatephorus cucumeris (Frank) Donk)
Copper blight
Guignardia camelliae (Cooke) E.J. Butler
Crown gall
Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Smith & Townsend) Conn
Damping-off
Cylindrocladium floridanum Sobers & Seymour
(teleomorph: Calonectria kyotensis Terashita)
Hypochnus centrifugus (Lév.) Tul.
Dieback
Leptothyrium theae Petch
Nectria cinnabarina (Tode:Fr.) Fr.
Gray blight
Pestalotiopsis theae (Sawada) Steyaert
(= Pestalotia theae Sawada)
Pestalotiopsis longiseta (Spegazzini) Dai et Kobayashi
(= Pestalotia longiseta Spegazzini)
Gray mold
Botrytis cinerea Pers.:Fr.
Gray spot
Phyllosticta dusana Hara
Horse-hair blight
Marasmius crinisequi Müller ex Kalchbrenner
(= Marasmius equicrinus Müller)
Leaf spot
Calonectria pyrochroa (Desmaz.) Sacc.
(= Calonectria quinqueseptata Figueiredo & Namekata)
(anamorph: Cylindrocladium ilicicola (Hawley) Boedijn Reitsma)
Calonectria theae C.A. Loos
(anamorph: Cylindrocladium theae (Petch) Subramanian)
Cochliobolus carbonum Nelson
Hendersonia theicola Cooke
Pestalotiopsis adusta Ellis & Everh.
Phaeosphaerella theae Petch
Pleospora theae Speschnew
Leaf scab
Elsinoe theae Bitancourt & Jenkins
Macrophoma stem canker
Macrophoma theicola Petch
Nematodes (parasitic):
Burrowing nematode
Radopholus similis (Cobb) Thorne
Dagger nematode
Xiphinema insigne Loos
Lance nematode
237
Hoplolaimus columbus Sher
Mature tea nematode
Meloidogyne brevicauda Loos
Pin nematode
Paratylenchus curvitatus Van der Linde
Reniform nematode
Rotylenchulus reniformis Linford & Oliveira
Root-knot nematode
Meloidogyne arenaria (Neal) Chitwood
Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood
Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid & White) Chitwood
Meloidogyne javanica (Treub) Chitwood
Meloidogyne thamesi Chitwood
Root lesion nematode
Pratylenchus brachyurus (Godfrey) Goodey
Pratylenchus loosi Loof
Sheath nematode
Hemicriconemoides kanayaensis Nakasono & Ichinone
Spiral nematode
Helicotylenchus dihystera (Cobb) Sher
Helicotylenchus erythrinae (Zimmerman) Golden
Stunt nematode
Tylenchorhynchus sp.
Net blister blight
Exobasidium reticulatum Ito & Sawada
Pale brown root rot
Pseudophaeolus baudonii (Pat.) Ryv.
Phloem necrosis
Phloem necrosis virus (Camellia Virus 1)
Phyllosticta leaf spot
Phyllosticta erratica Ellis & Everh.
Phyllosticta theae Speschnew
Pink disease
Corticium salmonicolor Berk. & Broome
Poria root rot and stem canker
Poria hypobrunnea Petch
Purple root rot
Helicobasidium compactum (Boedijn) Boedijn
Red leaf spot
Phoma theicola Petch
Red root rot
Ganoderma philippii (Bresad. & P. Henn.) Bresad.
Poria hypolateritia (Berk.) Cooke
Red rust (alga)
Cephaleuros virescens Kunze
(= Cephaleuros parasiticus Karsten)
Rim blight
Cladosporium sp.
Root rot
Cylindrocarpon tenue Bugnicourt
Cylindrocladiella camelliae (Venkataramani & Venkata Ram) Boesewinkel
(= Cylindrocladium camelliae Venkataramani & Venkata Ram)
Cylindrocladium clavatum C. S. Hodges & L.C. May
Fomes lamaoensis (Murr.) Sacc. & Trott.
Ganoderma applanatum (Pers.) Pat.
238
Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis:Fr.) P. Karst.
Rough bark
Patellaria theae Hara
Sclerotial blight
Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.
(teleomorph: Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu & Kimbrough
(= Corticium rolfsii Curzi)
Shoot withering
Diplodia theae-sinensis Lui & Li
Sooty mold
Capnodium footii Berk. & Desmaz.
Capnodium theae Boedijn
Meliola camelliae (Cattaneo) Sacc.
Stump rot
Irpex destruens Petch
Tarry root rot
Hypoxylon asarcodes (Theiss.) Mill.
Thorny stem blight
Tunstallia aculeata (Petch) Agnihothrudu
Thread blight
Marasmius tenuissimus (Junghuhn) Singer
Twig blight
Patellaria theae Hara
Velvet blight
Septobasidium bogoriense Pat.
Septobasidium pilosum Boedijn & B.A. Steinman
Septobasidium theae Boedijn & B.A. Steinman
Violet root rot
Sphaerostilbe repens Berk. & Broome
White root rot
Rigidoporus microporus (Sw.:Fr.)
Overeem
(= Rigidoporus lignosus (Klotzsch) Imazeki
= Fomes lignosus (Klotzsch) Bres.)
White scab
Elsinoe leucospila Bitancourt & Jenkins
(= Sphaceloma theae Kurosawa)
White spot
Phyllosticta theifolia Hara
Wood rot
Hypoxylon nummularium Bull.:Fr.
Hypoxylon serpens (Pers.:Fr.) J. Kickx
Hypoxylon vestitum Petch
Xylaria root rot
Xylaria sp.
239
Appendix 5 Japanese Agricultural
Standard for Organic Plants
(Notification number 1605 of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, October 27, 2005)
http://www.maff.go.jp/soshiki/syokuhin/hinshitu/e_label/index.htm - March 2008
Japanese JAS Organic Standard (MAFF number 1605)
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
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251
Production of High Quality Export Green Tea
RIRDC Publication No. 09/124
By John Golding, Paul Roach and Sophie Parks
Green tea has been identified as a potential new crop in The Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
Australia with significant economic benefits. Green tea is (RIRDC) manages and funds priority research and translates
produced from the leaf of Camellia sinensis var sinensis, which results into practical outcomes for industry.
grows well in many parts of Australia.
Our business is about developing a more profitable, dynamic
This report provides data to support the development of out- and sustainable rural sector. Most of the information we
of-season export of high quality green tea to Japan. produce can be downloaded for free or purchased from our
website: www.rirdc.gov.au, or by phoning 1300 634 313 (local
The project developed methods for quantifying green tea call charge applies).
quality which were applied to a series of pre and postharvest
trials. It examined the integration of important pre and
postharvest management factors, such as propagation, shading,
nutrition, and postharvest storage techniques to produce high
quality green tea.
Contact RIRDC:
Most RIRDC books can be freely downloaded Level 2
or purchased from www.rirdc.gov.au or by 15 National Circuit
Barton ACT 2600
phoning 1300 634 313 (local call charge
applies). PO Box 4776
Kingston ACT 2604
www.rirdc.gov.au Ph: 02 6271 4100
Fax: 02 6271 4199
Email: rirdc@rirdc.gov.au
web: www.rirdc.gov.au

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Production of High Quality Export Green Tea

through Integrated Management

RIRDC Innovation for rural Australia

RIRDC Publication No 09/124

ISBN 1 74151 923 3

Production of High Quality Export Green Tea through Integrated Management

Researcher Contact Details

Phone: (02) 4348 1900

RIRDC Contact Details

Phone: 02 6271 4100

Electronically published by RIRDC in August 2009

Who the report is targeted at

Implications for relevant stakeholders

Table 1.1 World tea production (2005)

Country Area Production Volume Value Volume Value

Sri Lanka 210,620 308,090 298,909 732,521 7,750 14,823

Source: FAO: http://faostat.fao.org . June 2006

Japanese green tea

Types of Japanese green tea

Human health benefits of green tea

Green tea consumption

Japanese green tea consumption

Australian green tea imports

Volume of imports (t)

Australian green tea industry

Environment for growing green tea in Australia

Month in Somersby (July in Somersby=January in Shizuoka)

Research and development of Australian green tea

1.2 Aim and Objectives of the Project

1. Determine the feasibility of different propagation, establishment and cultivation methods on

2.2 Media Composition

Drainage capacity and air filled porosity

Aeration / root development

Table 2.1 General observations of different potting media performance

Short Long Short Long

Air filled porosity x 9

Overall 9 (long term) 9 (short term)

Remove plants for planting

Clean up after planting

Plants per square metre

Overall plant health

2.4 Assessment of Cell Tray Types

2.5 Assessment of Alternative Pot Types

Ease subjective rating Freshness subjective rating

Propagation potential of the shoots – Subjective rating

Packaging 8 weeks 17 weeks 8 weeks 17 weeks

Plastic bag only 9 9 9 9

Hessian plus 9 9/x 9 9

2.6.4 Overall discussion of storage trials

3.1. Bed Formation

2. Application of plastic mulch.

Planting on flat ground was selected for all future establishments.

3.2 Planting Configuration

Two rows per bed

Figure 3.4 Two rows of Yabukita green tea per bed

3.3.1 Issues to consider before planting

3.3.2 Timing of planting

3.3.3 Planting methods

Observations on the use of the Planting Machine

Issues with the use of efficient mechanical planting:

3.3.4 Post-planting issues

Observations and Management of Severe Heat and Water Stress

‘Big leaf tea’ Pink leaf tea