The Magnetic Compass Card

 A compass card usually has direction pointers consisting of 32 points.

 The four principal, or cardinal, points are north, east, south, and west.
 They are marked N, E, S, and W.
 Between these lie the intercardinal points, such as northeast (NE).
 Further division gives such points as north-northeast (NNE).
 A final division is by points, such as north by east (N by E).
 Naming all the points of a compass in their order is called boxing the
compass.
 Each point is eleven and a quarter degree (11.25deg)
 From North to East the points are as follows:
 N means North (000 or 360)
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 NxE means North by East (11.25 deg)
 NNE means North North East (22.5 deg)
 NExN means North East by North ( 33.75 deg)
 NE means North East (45 deg)
 NExE means North East by East (56.25 deg)
 ENE means East North East (67.5deg)
 ExN means East by North (78.75 deg)
 E means East (90 deg)
 ExS …………………
 ESE………………….
 SExE…………………
 SE…………………….
 SExS…………………..
 SSE…………………….
 SxE……………………
 Complete the missing letters write the abbreviation and equivalent
“degrees”.
 S…………………………
 Sx…………………..
 SSW…………………….
 SWx………………………………
 SW…………………………………
 SWx……………………………
 WSW……………………………..
 WxS……………………………
 W
 Box up from West to East.

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 

Two types of Compass Cards

 Dry Card Compass
 Wet Card Compass
The Dry Card Compass
The dry-card compass used on ships consists of a system of magnetized
needles, suspended by silk threads from a graduated compass card about 25
cm (10 in) in diameter.
The magnetic axes of the needles are parallel to the card's north and south
graduations.At the center of the card is fitted a cap with a jewel bearing. It
rests on a hard,sharply pointed pivot. The point of support is above the
system's center of gravity so that the card always assumes a horizontal plane.
Painted on the bowl that accommodates the card is a lubber line
against which the heading of the craft is read. The compass card is made of
rice paper.

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Disadvantages of dry compass card:
 The dry card compass is too sensitive for steering purpose
especially in bad weather.
 Even small disturbances cause the dry card to oscillate.

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The Wet Compass Card.

In a liquid compass the card is mounted in a sealed bowl filled with a liquid
which has the following properties
 low freezing point about -30 deg C
 small coefficient of expansion
 does not discolour the card
 low relative density about 0.93.

The buoyancy of the card is adjusted so that it floats, thus ensuring the
minimum possible friction between the cap and the pivot. Frictional force
between the cap and the pivot reduces the sensitivity of the compass.

In a wet card compass the oscillations are damped, without loss of accuracy,
by immersing the card in a liquid. The card therefore has a ‘dead beat’.

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The Compass Bowl

A-magnets, B-compass card, C-compass bowl, D-fluid, E-float, F-expansion bellows,

The Compass bowl containing the compass card with its needles mounted on
a pivot and has a provision for illuminating the compass face from below.
The bowl is filled with a nonfreezing liquid on which the card floats to
reduce vibrations. The compass bowl is mounted in a system of double rings
on bearings, known as gimbals, permitting the compass card to ride flat and

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steady no matter how the ship may roll. On the forward inside edge of the
bowl is a vertical line called a lubber's line. This marks the "dead ahead" of
the ship. In steering, the helmsman watches the mark for his course on the
compass card, keeping it always opposite the lubber's line.

The Compass Binnacle

The compass binnacle is a cylindrical container made of teak wood and

brass. No magnetic materials are used in its construction. The compass bowl
is slung inside the top portion of the binnacle. The middle portion is
accessible by a door and contains an electric bulb. This bulb illuminates the
compass card from below. The intensity of illumination is adjustable. Apart
from the compass bowl the correctors magnets to nullify the magnetic
deviation caused due to the hard and soft iron magnetic components are also
located within the binnacle.

Dangers of Magnetic materials in the vicinity of the compass

 A magnetic compass must be shielded as much as possible from

extraneous magnetic fields (ex. Motors, relays, generators, or simply
other magnets or magnetic materials, because it can cause the
pointer(magnetic needle) to move, overpowering the Earth's
magnetism.
 The case enclosing the device must be made of non-magnetic
material such as brass, aluminum, special stainless-steel alloys, or
plastic.

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  A sufficiently strong magnet, or even a piece of non-magnetized iron
brought near to even the best magnetic compass will cause the
magnetic needle to move and will give erroneous directions.

 Hence care should be taken to ensure that all magnetic materials such
as aerials, stays, electrical machinery, electric wires and others as
mentioned above should be kept well away from the compass.

M notices relating to compasses

Marine Guidance Notices give significant advice and guidance relating to the improvement of
the safety of shipping and of life at sea, and to prevent or minimise pollution from shipping.

MGN 279( This notice supersedes M.1199 and MSN 1199)

Certificate of Competency as Compass Adjuster: This notice details the new
requirements for experience prior to examination for a certificate of competency as a compass
adjuster.

SOLAS chapter V/ Reg 19: provides details relevant to carriage

requirements for ship borne navigational systems and equipment.

Under Reg 19/Annex 13 provides details about the following:

 OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND TESTING OF MAGNETIC
COMPASSES
 Performance standards

 Responsibility for Maintenance

 Adjustment of Compasses

 Effects of Changes in Magnetism During the Life of a Ship

 Monitoring Compass Performance

 Adjustments and Repairs

 Portable Equipment that may interfere with Compasses

 Spare Bowl

 Transmitting Magnetic Compasses (TMC)

 Emergency Steering position

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Standard Compass:

The standard compass is a magnetic compass used for navigation, mounted

in a suitable binnacle containing the required correcting devices and
equipped with a suitable azimuth reading device.

Steering Compass:

The steering compass is a magnetic compass used for steering

purposes mounted in a suitable binnacle containing the required
correcting devices.

Note: If the transmitted image of a sector of the standard compass

card of at least 15° to each side of the lubber mark is clearly readable
for steering purposes at the main steering position, both in daylight
and artificial light according to 5.7.1(i.e., Primary and emergency
illumination shall be so that the card may be read at all times. Facilities for
dimming shall be provided.)then the standard compass can also be
regarded as the steering compass.

Projector or reflector compass:

A magnetic compass in which the image of the compass card is

viewed by direct reflection in a mirror adjacent to the helmsman's
position

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Transmitting magnetic compass - TMC

A TMC system transmits ship's magnetic compass heading for display below
decks. The basic system comprises.

 Interface and distribution box.

 TAPE and DIGITAL REPEATER
 Retransmission units

Compass heading Repeater has a high contrast fluorescent display capable of

indicating ships heading in both digital and tape
repeater formats.

A tactile keypad enables the helmsman to choose a

series of displays to suit the moment. Screens display a
tape width of 30 or 25 degrees, digital with rate of
turn, or 41 mm high big digital figures.

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The instrument's high voltage display unit makes it unsuitable for mounting
outside, unless it is in an environmental protective housing.

Fluxgate compass

The basic fluxgate compass is a simple

electromagnetic device that employs two or more small coils of wire around
a core of highly permeable magnetic material, to directly sense the direction
of the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field. The advantages of
this mechanism over a magnetic compass are that the reading is in electronic
form and can be digitized and transmitted easily, displayed remotely, and
used by an electronic autopilot for course correction.

To avoid inaccuracies created by the vertical component of the field, the

fluxgate array must be kept as flat as possible by mounting it on gimbals or
using a fluid suspension system. All the same, inertial errors are inevitable
when the vessel is turning sharply or being tossed about by rough seas.

Gyrocompass:

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The gyrocompass receives its directional information from a rapidly
spinning gyroscope driven by electric motors. Its directive action is based on
the mechanical laws governing the dynamics of rotating bodies. When any
object is spinning it tends to keep its axis pointed in the same direction, and
if a force is applied to deflect its orientation it responds by moving at right
angles to the applied force.
The gyrocompass consists of a gimbal-mounted spinning gyroscope made
north-seeking by placing a weight below the axis. As the Earth rotates
gravitational pull on the weight attempts to change the gyroscope's axis of
rotation. The resulting motion of the axis of the gyroscope at right-angles to
the applied force causes it to move so as to align itself with the Earth's axis
of rotation.
A few hours of operation is usually sufficient to align the gyrocompass with
the Earth's axis.

All the practical applications of the

gyroscope are based upon two
fundamental characteristics, namely
'Gyroscopic Inertia' and 'Precession'.
The first, 'Gyroscopic Inertia', or
'rigidity in space' as it is sometimes
known, is the tendency of any rotating
body to preserve its plane of rotation.
The second, 'Precession', is that
property which, when a couple is
applied, causes the gyroscope to move,
not in the direction of the couple, but in
a direction at right angles to the axis of
the applied couple, and also at right
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angles to the axis of the spinning wheel.

With these two properties, and by the utilization of the Earth's two natural
properties, rotation and gravity, the gyroscope can be made 'north-seeking',
and once it has settled on the true meridian it will remain there indefinitely,
so long as the ship's electrical supply remains constant, and no external
forces are permitted to disturb it.

Checking and comparing gyro compass with magnetic compass

A gyro compass is an electronic/mechanical device with inherent error.

Causes of Error

• Friction
• Ship’s Motion

• Electronic Malfunctions

• Power Fluctuations

In the event of gyro failure the magnetic compass can be used to know
ship’s head.Then the magnetic heading can be converted to true bearing.

Most oceangoing vessels, including all navy warships, have at least one gyro
compass installed and use the magnetic compass as a backup in case of gyro
failure, and as a primary means of checking gyrocompass accuracy while
underway.Hence due to the above reasons it is imperative to check and
compare the gyro and magnetic compass readings.

Compass alarms and off course alarms

Gyro compass built - in alarms are:

 power failure : It is a audible and visual alarm which activates

when the power supply to gyro unit is cut off or if there is any
fluctuation
 gyro failure: It is a audible and visual alarm which activates when
there is a failure/malfunction of any component of gyro unit

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  system failure: It is a audible and visual alarm which activates
when there is a failure/malfunction of the gyro system(i.e master
gyro and the repeaters)

 off course alarm: It is an audible and visual alarm which activates

when course steered by the auto pilot exceeds the set heading by
more than a specific angle* for a particular period of time(say
20sec).

*(the angle can be set with respect to the prevailing weather

conditions)

Azimuth mirror.

This is a nonmagnetic metal ring. It is sized to fit a 7 1/2-inch compass bowl

or a gyro repeater. The inner lip is marked in degrees from 0° to 360°
counterclockwise for measuring relative bearings. The azimuth circle is
fitted with two sighting vanes. The forward or far vane has a vertical wire
and the after or near vane has a peep sight. Two finger lugs are used to
position the instrument while aligning the vanes. A hinged reflector vane
mounted at the base and beyond the forward vane is used for reflecting stars
and planets when observing azimuths. Beneath the forward vane are
mounted a reflecting mirror and the extended vertical wire.

This lets the mate read the bearing or azimuth from the reflected portion of
the compass card. For taking azimuths of the sun, an additional reflecting
mirror and housing are mounted on the ring, each midway between the
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forward and after vanes. The sun’s rays are reflected by the mirror to the
housing, where a vertical slit admits a line of light. This admitted light
passes through a 45o reflecting prism and is projected on the compass card
from which the azimuth is directly read. In observing both bearings and 
azimuths, two attached spirit levels are used to level the instrument. An
azimuth circle without the housing and spare mirror is called a bearing
circle.

The Earths magnetic field and its changes with position and time

- Some basic principles:

 A compass is a magnet which can align itself within the earth's
magnetic field.
 A magnet contains a north-seeking pole (north pole) and a south-
seeking pole (south pole).
 Similar magnetic poles repel. Opposite magnetic poles attract. (Law
of Magnetic Poles)
 A magnetic field is a region in space where a magnetic force can be
detected.
 The magnetic field is strongest at the poles of a magnet.
 Magnetic lines of force are a way of representing a magnetic field.
 By convention, magnetic lines of force point from north to south
outside a magnet (and from south to north inside a magnet).
 Magnetic lines of force form complete loops. They never cross.

A compasss basically is a magnetic needle that can rotate freely. The earth
has a magnetic field. The magnetic north and south pole roughly correspond
to the earth geographic North and South Pole. Since equal magnet poles
repel and opposite magnet poles attract each other, our magnetic needle will
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align itself with the earth magnetic field: the south pole of the needle will
point to the earth's north pole, the north pole of the needle will point to the
earth's south pole. The angle of traveling with respect to the direction
indicated by the needle (measured clockwise, always positive) is called
magnetic azimuth. With a Compass Reading you measure this magnetic
azimuth. The azimuth usually is measured in degrees (0-360°).

Direction is measured with respect to the North Pole. This is called the
Geographic North or True North. Direction with respect to the True North is
called the True Direction. Compasses do not exactly point to the True North.
A Compass Reading exhibits Compass Error. Compass Error is due to
following facts:

 Magnetic Variation or Declination. The earth magnetic north pole is

located near the northern islands of Canada, at approximately 78.9°N
latitude and 103.8°W, about 1200 km from the geographic North
Pole. A compass points to the magnetic north pole and not to the
geographic North Pole. The difference between the True Direction
and the compass heading is called Magnetic Variation. The amount of
variation depends on the location on earth. It even changes in time,
since the magnetic north pole moves a few km per year. Variation is
expressed as e.g. 2°25' West. This means at this position the compass
needle points 2°25' to the west with respect to true direction of the
True North. Variations can be as large as 20°

Magnetic Variation compass rose

The variation for any given locality, together with the amount of annual
increase or decrease, is shown on the compass rose of the chart for that
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particular locality. The "compass rose" (Figure 6-5) indicates that in 1964
there was a 14° 45’ westerly variation in that area, increasing 2’ annually. To
find the amount of variation in this specific locality, determine how many
years have elapsed since 1964, multiply that number by the amount of
annual increase, and add that sum to the variation in 1964. You add it in this
example, because it is an annual increase. If it were decreasing, you would
subtract it. Variation normally is rounded off to the nearest 0.5° .

Variation remains the same for any heading of the ship at a given locality.
No matter which direction the ship is heading, the magnetic compass, if
affected by variation only, points steadily in the general direction of the
magnetic north pole. Remember, always use the compass rose that is closest
to the area in which you are located

 Deviation. Ferrous (iron, steel) objects, magnets, flowing electrical

current (magnetic field!) influence the reading of the compass. This
results in an error in the compass readout.
 Ship magnetism is of two types:Permanent. Magnetism in steel or
hard iron that acts as a permanent magnet.

 Induced. Magnetism of soft iron, which is only temporary and is

constantly changing depending upon ship’s heading and latitude.

 This error depends on the compass heading. Most ships compasses

can be adjusted to eliminate entirely or partly the compass deviation.
Deviation left is documented on a deviation card. For various
compass directions the deviation is documented (usually in a
deviation vs. heading plot).
METHODS OF DETERMINING DEVIATION

The most convenient method of determining deviation, and the one most
commonly used, is to check the compass on each 15o heading against a
properly functioning gyrocompass. Because the ship must be on a magnetic
heading when determining deviation, gyro error and local variation must be
applied to each gyro heading. It is a simple process to station personnel at
each magnetic compass and have them record the amount of deviation for
each compass upon signal from an observer at the gyrocompass or repeaters.

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DEVIATION CARD SWINGING THE SHIP DEVIATION GRAPH

Compare with a magnetic compass of known deviation. This method is

similar to comparison with a gyrocompass except that it is not necessary to
know the local variation. This method is used frequently by ships not
equipped with gyrocompasses.
Determine deviation of the magnetic compass by a range.

Deviation is not the same on every heading. Therefore, the deviation that
exists on the various headings must be recorded so the correction for
compass error will be known. Use a process called "swinging ship" to
determine and record the deviation your ship is headed through every 15° of
the compass. The ship is steadied on each 15° .
The navigator usually is stationed at the standard compass and ship’s
personnel are stationed at the other magnetic compasses. As the ship steadies
upon one of the 15° increments of the compass and the compasses settle
down, the navigator gives the signal to record the deviation on that heading.
When the process of swing ship is completed and the deviation for the 24
headings recorded, the deviations are transferred to a deviation card as
shown.

The deviation card contains important information that is necessary for

future compass adjustment as well as for computing compass error.

 Beforea final recording is posted on the deviation card, a simple graph is

made to plot the recorded deviations. This graph will quickly show if the

18
deviation found for each of the 24 headings is consistent. When each of the
deviations is plotted on the graph, a line connecting the points should form a
smooth curve. Do not expect all points to be on the smooth curve, but they
should be close. If you find one heading way off (2° -1 or 3° ), go back and
check the deviation on that heading again.

To compute the deviation on any magnetic heading not given in the table, it
is necessary to interpolate between the two nearest recorded readings. If the
deviations recorded on each 15° heading do not vary by more than 1/2° from
the adjacent readings, you may use the deviation for the heading nearest the
one you are checking

Limitations of Magnetic compass

The following characteristics of the magnetic compass limit its direction-

finding ability.
 Sensitive to any magnetic disturbance.
 Useless at the magnetic poles and is sluggish and unreliable in areas
near the poles.
 Deviation (explained later) changes as a ship’s magnetic properties
change. The magnetic properties also change with changes in the
ship’s structure or magnetic cargo.
 Deviation changes with heading. The ship as well as the earth may be
considered as a magnet. The effect of the ship’s magnetism upon the
compass changes with the heading.
 Does not point to true north.

Components of steering systems and their function

The Wheel:

The wheel of a ship is the modern method of changing the

angle of the rudder to change the direction of the ship. It is also called the
helm, together with the rest of the steering mechanism.The wheel is typically
19
connected to a electric or electrohydraulic steering mechanism by which the
order of the wheel is transmitted to the rudder.

Helm indicators or rudder angle indicator

Rudder angle indicator displays the actual rudder

position to the steering stand and control station of the ship. Transmission of
the actual rudder position is carried out via a precision potentiometer
(conductive plastic potentiometer) by the rudder angle transmitter.

Steering motors:

These are permanent magnet electric motor

which receives command signals from a manual helm or an automatic pilot
or otherwise, and drives one of the moving members of the control valve in
the hydraulic pump.
Rudder

Rudders have a generally symmetrical aerofoil shape in their cross section

and steer the ship as water exerts more force on one side of the rudder than
on the other. When the ship is going straight ahead the rudder is also more or
20
 less straight ahead with equal water pressure on both sides. When the rudder
turns, say with the trailing edge rotating to the starboard side, there is greater
water pressure on the starboard side of the rudder than there is on the port.
This pushes the stern to port thus steering the ship to starboard.
A rudder can only be as effective as the water that is passing over it. With a
stationary ship, the rudder has no effect.

Rate of turn indicators

The Rate-of-Turn Indicator equipment is an aid for steering and

maneuvering vessels by measuring “swing” (rate-of-turn) in degrees/minute
using the combination of gyro technology and a microprocessor unit. A
vessel swinging under the influence of helm can be efficiently and
effectively steadied on a desired heading by observing the rate of turn and by
giving appropriate counter helm.

Emergency Steering Systems –Change over procedures

Emergency steering system takes over when there is a failure or

malfunctioning of the main and auxillary steering system.The procedure
for changeover to emergency steering system differs from ship to ship but
the basic principle is as follows

 While trying out changeover the wheel from autopilot to handsteering

 Put the wheel to midships and put off the system from the bridge
 At emergency steering compartment change over pin as per
procedures applicable to that particular type of ship so as to take local
control of steering from the emergency steering platform.By doing

21
 this operation the control equipment which conveys the signal from
bridge to steering flat is bypassed.
 Steer the v/l from emergency steering platform by using the compass
at the steering flat and listening to the command from bridge either by
phone or W/T.

Regulations pertaining to emergency steering gear drills

Emergency steering drills shall take place at least once every 3 months to
practice emergency steering procedures. These drills shall include testing of
direct control from the steering gear room, communications, and operation
of any alternate power supplies. All officers concerned with the operation or
maintenance of steering gear shall be familiar with the operation of the
steering systems fitted on the ship, and with the procedures for changing
from one system to another (see SOLAS 74/78).

Within 12 hours of departure, or within 48 hours prior to entering U.S.

waters, the ship's steering gear shall be checked and tested by the crew. The
test procedure shall include, where applicable, operation of the following:

 The main steering gear;

 The auxiliary steering gear;
 The remote steering gear control system;
 The steering positions located on the navigating bridge;
 The emergency power supply;
 All rudder angle indicators in relation to the actual position of the
rudder;
 All steering gear control system power failure alarms.
 The steering gear power failure alarms.

Auto pilot system

The auto pilot is basically used when a ship has to steer a set course for
a long time without alteration because any deviation from the set
course is controlled electronically and automatically. This is achieved
by comparing the course to steer as set by the navigator with the ships
heading obtained from gyro or magnetic compass, any difference
between the two wil cause an error and correcting helm is applied to the

22
 rudder such that the heading is brought to the same value as the set
course.
Advantages of auto pilot system are:
 By using auto pilot over a long period of time, the average speed of
the ship increases as the ship does not zig zag across.
 Ensures steering gear operates to a minimum.
 It reduces the fuel consumption.

wheel

contol unit

telemotor

Steering gear

As shown in the above figure the output from a gyro compass is coupled to
the comparator in the control unit along with the input signal from manual
course setting control. Any difference between the two signals causes an
output error signal whose magnitude is propotional to the difference between
the two signals.

nfu button follow up amplifier

23
 wheel servomotor actuator
.

steering mode selector switch

Proportional control :
This causes the rudder to move by an amount proportional to the off course
error from the course to steer and the ship will oscillate on either side of the
required course

Basic Systems

Dual Follow-up (Dual FU)The required rudder angle is selected on the

mechanical rudder position indicator at the follow-up handwheel or tiller.
The servo mechanism of the steering gear is operated by one amplifier (1
amplifier per pump or valve according to IMO or SOLAS) and the rudder is
moved until it reaches the required angle. The actual rudder position is
transmitted by the feedback unit.

Dual Non-Follow-up (Dual NFU) To command a rudder, electrical

movement contacts are made by moving the NFU tiller. The rudder position
is changed as long as the contact is held. The steering gear is controlled
24
according to IMO or SOLAS (1 contact set per pump or valve). During the
steering process, the actual rudder angle should be checked on the rudder
position indicator.

FU/Dual NFU Depending on the type of steering selector at the steering

mode selector switch, the steering gear is controlled by the follow-up or the
non-follow-up control system. Each of the two steering systems is able to
control both pumps of the steering gear. Due to the redundant (dual) design
of the non-follow-up controls, this system is the main steering control in this
configuration according to IMO or SOLAS.

Auto pilot Controls

 Course selector knob – this is the primary control of the auto pilot
system and the course to be steered is selected with the help of
this knob.
 Rudder control – This control determines the amount of rudder to
be used to correct the slightest amount of deviation from the set
course.More the settings more rudder angle is used to correct the
deviation and viceversa.
 Counter rudder – This control determines the amount of counter
actionby the rudder to be used to steady the ship on the set course
keeping the overshoot to a minimum.
 Yaw – The setting of the yaw control depends on the wind and
weather condition and their effect on the course keeping ability
of the ship.
 Permanent helm – This control is used when the ship is being
driven off course by cross winds. Rudder angle used should be
just sufficient to offset this drift
 Speed – The speed of the ship determines effectiveness of the
rudder. The lower the speed, less effective is the rudder and
viceversa. Speed input is usually given from the log and in case
of log not working manual speed can be fed.
 Rudder limit – This control specifies the maximum amount of
rudder to be used, when correcting the ships head or when
altering course on auto-pilot itself.
 Off course alarm – This alarm is activated if the ship deviates from
the set course by a pre-decided limit which is fed into the
equipment.

25
  Synchronisation control – This control temporarily disconnects the
gyro repeater from the main gyro so that the heading of the
repeater can be synchronized with the master gyro. This is
usually not required to be done except when the gyro is switched
off and restarted or for exceptional reasons the repeater has
drifted off.
 Dimmer – This is panel illumination switch and must be set so that
the panel and controls are clearly visible at night without
affecting the night vision of the OOW.
 Auto/Follow up/Non follow up – This switch allows the navigator
to choose between automatic steering or manual steering and in
case of manual steering failure non follow system may also be
chosen.
Changeover procedure from manual steering to auto pilot
 Steady the vessel on the desired heading
 Put the wheel to midships
 Set the autopilot heading indicator on to the desired heading
 Turn the knob on the steering panel from hand steering to auto
pilot
 check and confirm if auto pilot is steering the desired heading

Helm orders exercises

Command: At full sea speed, while on a northeasterly heading, when
hearing the command in English, “Steer 342”.

Action to be taken:Turn the helm to bring the vessel to the new course and
steady on the course of 342°.

How to do:

1. Repeat order.
2. Turn the helm in the direction of the fewest degrees to the ordered course
using no more than 15º of rudder.
3. Reduce the rudder angle as the vessel approaches the course.
4. Steady on the course of 342º with less than 5º of overshoot.
5. State: she’s steady on three four two.

26
Command: In a sea state of 4 or less, when hearing the command in
English, “Steer 342.”

Action to be taken: Use the gyrocompass to steer the course of 342°.

How to do:

1. Repeat order.
2. When steady on course state: “steering three four two.”
3. Steer the course ordered within ± 3° (open ocean), and ±2° (near coastal)
for 15 minutes.

Command: In a sea state of 4 or less, when hearing the command in

English, “Steer 342.”

Action to be taken: Use the magnetic compass to steer the course of 342°.

How to do

1. Repeat order.
2. When steady on course state: “steering three four two.”
3. Steer the course ordered within ± 5° (open ocean), and ±3° (near coastal)
for 15 minutes.

Command: When hearing the command in English, “Starboard 10.”

Action to be taken: Turn the helm until the rudder is right (starboard) 10°.

How to do:

1. Repeat order.
2. Immediately turn helm to starboard.
3. Stop turning the helm when the rudder angle indicator reads
starboard 10°.
4. State: “the wheel on starboard 10” sir,

Command: When hearing the command in English, “Port 20.”

Action to be taken: Turn the helm until the rudder is port 20°.

27
How to do:

1. Repeat order.
2. Immediately turn helm to port.
3. Stop turning the helm when the rudder angle indicator reads port 20°.
4. State: “the wheel on port 20, sir”,

Command: When hearing the command in English, “Hard Starboard.”

Action to be taken: Turn the helm to the starboard until the rudder is at
maximum starboard rudder (say 35 deg).

How to do:

1. Repeat order
2. Immediately turn helm to starboard.
3. Stop turning the helm when the rudder angle indicator reads the rudder is
at maximum starboard rudder (i.e.35deg).
4. State: “the wheel on hard starboard,sir”, or

PERFORMANCE CONDITION: When the rudder is more than 5° right

(starboard) or left (port), when hearing the command in English, “Ease to
5.”

PERFORMANCE BEHAVIOR: Turn the helm to reduce the angle of the

rudder until the indicator shows the rudder angle is right (starboard) or
left (port) 5°.

PERFORMANCE STANDARD:

1. Repeat order.
2. Immediately turn helm to reduce the rudder angle.
3. Stop turning the helm when the rudder angle indicator shows the rudder
angle is right (starboard) or left (port) 5°.
4. State: “the wheel on starboard or port 5°.”

Command: When hearing the command in English, “Midships.”

28
Action to be taken: Turn the helm to reduce the angle of the rudder until the
rudder angle indicator shows the rudder angle is zero.

How to do:

1. Repeat order.
2. Immediately turn helm to reduce the rudder angle.
3. Stop turning the helm when the rudder angle indicator shows the rudder
angle is zero.
4. State: “the wheel midships,sir”

Command: During a turn, when hearing the command in English, “Meet

Her,” or “Check Her.”

Action to be taken: Turn the helm to reduce the angle of the rudder and
apply counter rudder until the vessel stops turning.

Action to be taken:

1. Repeat order.
2. Immediately turn helm to reduce the rudder angle.
3. Apply counter rudder until the vessel stops turning.
4. Ease the wheel to midships.
5. State: “the vessel’s heading is ____.”

Command: When hearing the command in English, “Steady as She Goes.”

Action to be taken: Note the heading of the vessel, stop any swing of the
ship, and steer in the direction noted when the command was given.

How to do:

1. Repeat order.
2. Note the heading when the command was given.
3. Immediately apply rudder to stop any swing of the ship.
4. Steer in the direction noted.
5. State: she’s steady as she goes.

29
 Command: When hearing the command in English, “Nothing to the right
(Starboard)” [nothing to the left (port) may also be used].

Action to be taken: Keep the vessel from swinging to the right (starboard)
and the vessel‘s heading from increasing (or decreasing).

Action to be taken:

1. The vessel does not swing to the right (starboard).

2. The vessel’s heading does not increase for 5 minutes.

Command: At sea speed, when hearing the command to put the steering into
hand steering.

Action to be taken: Change the steering mode from auto pilot to hand
steering.

How to do:

1. Repeat order.
2. Switch the steering mode from autopilot to hand.
3. Test that the new steering mode is responding.
4. State, “She’s in hand steering.”

Command: At sea speed, when hearing the command to put the steering into
auto pilot.

Action to be taken: Change the steering mode from hand steering to auto
pilot.

How to do:

1. Repeat order.
2. Put wheel amidships.
3. Verify the course dialed into the auto pilot is the same as the course to be
steered.
4. Switch the steering mode from hand to auto pilot.
5. Verify that the autopilot is responding properly.
6. State, “v/l on auto pilot,sir”
30
Importance of correct communication between OOW(officer on watch) and
helmsman

 Correct communication ensures that there is no misunderstanding of

the verbal order given.
 Repeating the verbal order ensures and eliminates the error due to
misunderstanding before execution of the order.
 Communication between OOW and helmsman should be loud and
clear.
 Correct understanding of communication and execution of same is
vital inorder to safely steer a ship otherwise it will lead to accidents
resulting in loss of human life, loss of marine property and damage to
the marine environment by pollution.

Checks that must be made to the auto pilot and steering system

As per paragraph 3.1 of performance standard laid down by IMO

The following checks to be carried out
 The gyro repeater is synchronized with the master repeater
 The settings of the controls are optimum and adjust if required
 The off course alarm
 Try out hand atleast once a watch
 If a close quarter situation is developing, the ship should not be left
on autopilot and instead manual steering should be usedtill the ship
overcomes the close quarter situation.
 Maintenance should be carried out as specified in the manual

Auto pilot should not be used under the following conditions:

 In narrow channel
 At slow speeds
 During manoeuvring or in pilotage waters
 In areas of heavy traffic
 During heavy weather conditions
 While carrying out large alterations of course
 In areas of poor visibility.

31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
An autopilot automatically adjusts the sensitivity of a ship's steering system to
accommodate changes in speed as well as sea and wind conditions. The autopilot utilizes
heading error, speed and speed squared signals to produce a rudder order signal for
controlling rudder position. The rudder order signal is developed in a heading keeping
circuit unless a heading change greater than a predetermined threshold is commanded, in
which event a programmer substitutes a heading change circuit for the heading keeping
circuit. The sensitivity of the heading change circuit is automatically adjusted as an
inverse function of vessel speed squared, and automatic rudder order limits are
established in the same circuit as an inverse function of speed. The sensitivity of the
heading keeping circuit is adjusted in accordance with a signal from an automatic gain
control circuit which derives a performance index J from ship's speed, heading error and
rudder order signals occurring during a given measurement interval. The performance
index derived during a given measurement interval is compared with the index derived in
the previous interval and a counter register is set according to the results of this
comparison. The heading keeping circuit receives heading error signals which are
processed in a first proportional channel and also differentiated and processed in a second
or rate channel. The attenuation in each channel is adjusted in accordance with the value
stored in the counter register. The attenuation in the rate channel is made equal to the
square root of the attenuation in the proportional channel. The modified rate and
proportional signals are added to obtain the final rudder order signal.

42
A compass is an extremely simple device. A magnetic compass (as opposed to a
gyroscopic compass) consists of a small, lightweight magnet balanced on a nearly
frictionless pivot point. The magnet is generally called a needle. One end of the needle is
often marked "N," for north, or colored in some way to indicate that it points toward north. On
the surface, that's all there is to a compass.
The reason why a compass works is more interesting. It turns out that you can think of the
Earth as having a gigantic bar magnet buried inside. In order for the north end of the
compass to point toward the North Pole, you have to assume that the buried bar magnet has its
south end at the North Pole, as shown in the diagram at the right. If you think of the world this way,
then you can see that the normal "opposites attract" rule of magnets would cause the north end of the
compass needle to point toward the south end of the buried bar magnet. So the compass points toward
the North Pole.

To be completely accurate, the bar magnet does not run exactly along the Earth's rotational
axis. It is skewed slightly off center. This skew is called the declination, and most good
maps indicate what the declination is in different areas (since it changes a little depending on
where you are on the planet).
The magnetic field of the Earth is fairly weak on the surface. After all, the planet Earth is
almost 8,000 miles in diameter, so the magnetic field has to travel a long way to affect your
compass. That is why a compass needs to have a lightweight magnet and a frictionless
bearing. Otherwise, there just isn't enough strength in the Earth's magnetic field to turn the needle.

The "big bar magnet buried in the core" analogy works to explain why the Earth has a
magnetic field, but obviously that is not what is really happening. So what is really
happening?

43
No one knows for sure, but there is a working theory currently making the rounds. As seen
on the above, the Earth's core is thought to consist largely of molten iron (red). But at the
very core, the pressure is so great that this superhot iron crystallizes into a solid. Convection
caused by heat radiating from the core, along with the rotation of the Earth, causes the
liquid iron to move in a rotational pattern. It is believed that these rotational forces in the
liquid iron layer lead to weak magnetic forces around the axis of spin.
It turns out that because the Earth's magnetic field is so weak, a compass is nothing but a
detector for very slight magnetic fields created by anything. That is why we can use a
compass to detect the small magnetic field produced by a wire carrying a current (see How
Electromagnets Work).
Now let's look at how you can create your own compass.

Gyrocompass:

The gyrocompass receives its directional information from a rapidly spinning gyroscope
driven by electric motors. Its directive action is based on the mechanical laws governing
the dynamics of rotating bodies. When any object is spinning it tends to keep its axis
pointed in the same direction, and if a force is applied to deflect its orientation it responds
by moving at right angles to the applied force. The gyrocompass consists of a gimbal-
mounted spinning gyroscope made north-seeking by placing a weight below the axis. As
the Earth rotates gravitational pull on the weight attempts to change the gyroscope's axis
of rotation. The resulting motion of the axis of the gyroscope at right-angles to the
applied force causes it to move so as to align itself with the Earth's axis of rotation. A few
hours of operation is usually sufficient to align the gyrocompass with the Earth's axis.
Errors that would be introduced by changing latitudes as when the submarine is steaming
towards the north or south are eliminated through periodic adjustments to compensating
systems within the gyrocompass by the Navigator. An electrical servo mechanism and
dial mechanically connected to the gyrocompass has the points of the mariner's compass
marked on it and indicates the submarine's true course. Repeaters connected to the servo
mechanism are located throughout the submarine to provide true course information
where needed.

Precession
If you have ever played with toy gyroscopes, you know that they can perform all sorts of
interesting tricks. They can balance on string or a finger; they can resist motion about the
spin axis in very odd ways; but the most interesting effect is called precession. This is the
gravity-defying part of a gyroscope. The following video shows you the effects of precession
using a bicycle wheel as a gyro

This mysterious effect is precession. In the general case, precession works like this: If you have a
spinning gyroscope and you try to rotate its spin axis, the gyroscope will instead try to rotate about an
axis at right angles to your force axis, like this:

44
 In figure 1, the gyroscope is spinning on its axis.
In figure 2, a force is applied to try to rotate the spin axis.
In figure 3, the gyroscope is reacting to the input force along an
axis perpendicular to the input force

The Cause of Precession

Why should a gyroscope display this behavior? It seems totally nonsensical that the bicycle
wheel's axle can hang in the air like that. If you think about what is actually happening to the
different sections of the gyroscope as it rotates, however, you can see that this behavior is
completely normal!
Let's look at two small sections of the gyroscope as it is rotating -- the top and the bottom, like this:

As forces are applied to the axle, the two points identified will
attempt to move in the indicated directions.

When the force is applied to the axle, the section at the top of the gyroscope will try to move
to the left, and the section at the bottom of the gyroscope will try to move to the right, as

45
shown. If the gyroscope is not spinning, then the wheel flops over, as shown in the video on
the previous page. If the gyroscope is spinning, think about what happens to these two
sections of the gyroscope: Newton's first law of motion states that a body in motion continues
to move at a constant speed along a straight line unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. So the top
point on the gyroscope is acted on by the force applied to the axle and begins to move toward the left.
It continues trying to move leftward because of Newton's first law of motion, but the gyro's spinning
rotates it, like this:

As the two points rotate, they continue their motion.

This effect is the cause of precession. The different sections of the gyroscope receive forces
at one point but then rotate to new positions! When the section at the top of the gyro rotates
90 degrees to the side, it continues in its desire to move to the left. The same holds true for
the section at the bottom -- it rotates 90 degrees to the side and it continues in its desire to
move to the right. These forces rotate the wheel in the precession direction. As the identified
points continue to rotate 90 more degrees, their original motions are cancelled. So the
gyroscope's axle hangs in the air and precesses. When you look at it this way you can see
that precession isn't mysterious at all -- it is totally in keeping with the laws of physics!

Uses of Gyroscopes
The effect of all this is that, once you spin a gyroscope, its axle wants to keep pointing in the
same direction. If you mount the gyroscope in a set of gimbals so that it can continue
pointing in the same direction, it will. This is the basis of the gyro-compass.
If you mount two gyroscopes with their axles at right angles to one another on a platform,
and place the platform inside a set of gimbals, the platform will remain completely rigid as the
gimbals rotate in any way they please. This is this basis of inertial navigation systems
(INS).
In an INS, sensors on the gimbals' axles detect when the platform rotates. The INS uses
those signals to understand the vehicle's rotations relative to the platform. If you add to the
platform a set of three sensitive accelerometers, you can tell exactly where the vehicle is
heading and how its motion is changing in all three directions. With this information, an
airplane's autopilot can keep the plane on course, and a rocket's guidance system can insert
the rocket into a desired orbit!

Substances which can be induced to become magnetized in a magnetic field are called
ferromagnetic. Soft ferromagnetic materials become demagnetized spontaneously
when removed from a magnetic field. Hard ferromagnetic materials can retain their
magnetism, making them useful in the production of permanent magnets.

46
The magnetic poles of the earth are not located at the geographic poles. The angle
between the geographic North Pole and the magnetic "north" pole is called the magnetic
declination.

The angle of declination depends on one's location on earth.

The earth's magnetic field does not run parallel to the earth's surface. The angle of
magnetic dip is the measure from the horizontal plane to the magnetic lines of force.
This also varies depending on one's position on the surface of the earth.

The angle of magnetic dip is very large in the vicinity of the earth's magnetic poles,
making navigation difficult.

The earth's magnetic field moves very slightly over long periods of time. Plate tectonics
may help to account for this phenomenon.

Ore bodies in the Earth can influence the strength of the Earth's magnetic field.

The units for magnetic field strength are the weber/m2, called the tesla. More familiar
units representing the same thing are N/(A.m)

See also: How to apply the Compass Error

Before the development of

sophisticated electronic and sound
detection systems, navigators
calculated directions from objects
in the sky the sun, the North Star,
and the moon. A much more
reliable guide for finding direction
is a magnetic compass, which
works at all times and in most
places. When a piece of
magnetized iron is placed on a
splinter of wood and floated in a
bowl of water, the wood will swing
until the iron is pointing north and
south. Any other direction can be
found.
In China and Europe the magnetized iron found in the lodestone, a naturally occurring
magnetic ore, was used to make a floating compass in the 12th century. Soon
afterward it was discovered that an iron or steel needle touched long enough by a
lodestone also had the tendency to align itself in a north-south direction. A small
pocket compass works on the same principle as the first crude compass: instead of a

47
lodestone and a wood splinter, it has a magnetized needle that swings on a pivot to
indicate north. Larger compasses have two or more parallel needles attached to the
underside of a disk called a compass card.

The compass works because the Earth itself is a huge magnet. Its magnetic poles are
oval areas about 1,300 miles (2,100 kilometers) from the geographic North and South
poles. Irregular lines of force connect the magnetic poles, and the compass needle
simply aligns itself with these lines of force. In a few places, where lines of force
happen to lie along meridians (that is, where magnetic north and true north coincide),
the compass points to true north. Near the magnetic pole the magnetic compass is
useless because there the lines of force are vertical straight down into the Earth. In
other areas iron ore deposits affect the compass's accuracy. Generally, however, the
magnetic compass points a little east or west of true north. The angle between true
north and magnetic north is called variation or declination. A compass rose, or
graduated circle, is used to measure this angle on charts.

A compass card usually has direction pointers consisting of 32 points. The four
principal, or cardinal, points are north, east, south, and west. They are marked N, E, S,
and W. Between these lie the intercardinal points, such as northeast (NE). Further
division gives such points as north-northeast (NNE). A final division is by points,
such as north by east (N by E). Naming all the points of a compass in their order is
called boxing the compass.

Surveyors, navigators, and similar technicians need more exact directions they use
degrees. The compass card has 360 degrees marked on it. North is 000° (or 360°);
East, 090° ; South, 180° ; and West, 270°.
On ships the magnetic compass is usually carried in a stand called a binnacle. It holds
a bowl containing the compass card with its needles mounted on a pivot and has a
provision for illuminating the compass face from below. The bowl is filled with a
nonfreezing liquid on which the card floats to reduce vibrations. On the forward
inside edge of the bowl is a vertical line called a lubber's line. This marks the "dead
ahead" of the ship. In steering, the helmsman watches the mark for his course on the
compass card, keeping it always opposite the lubber's line.
A compass aboard a ship is affected by the magnetic force of the ship itself, which
acts like a huge magnet. The effect of this magnetism on the compass is called
deviation. It is measured by the angle between compass north and magnetic north.
Variation and deviation together pull the compass away from true north by an amount
called compass error.

Navigators remove most of the deviation by compensating the compass. They take the
ship to a range where they line it up with markers indicating the four cardinal points.
Then they "swing ship" by pivoting the craft so that the bow points in turn to each of
the markers. They remove the deviation on each heading by placing counteracting
magnets in the binnacle these magnets serve to cancel the magnetic effects of the
metal in the ship.

In an effort to develop a navigational instrument whose accuracy would be unaffected

48
by stray magnetic fields, the gyrocompass, which does not use magnetism, was
developed. Gyrocompasses are often used in modern navigation systems because they
can be set to point to true north rather than to magnetic north. Today large ships carry
both magnetic compasses and gyrocompasses.

Special compasses have also been developed for airplanes. Gyroscopic systems are
especially useful in such applications because, unlike magnetic compasses, their
accuracy is not affected by rapid alterations of course or speed.
The aperiodic compass is a magnetic compass whose needle is extremely stable under
most flying conditions for aircraft. The magnesyn compass is a remote-indicating
magnetic compass. Readings from its pickup coil are transmitted to repeaters in other
parts of the airplane.

Both the gyro flux gate compass and the gyrosyn compass are remote-indicating,
gyrostabilized compasses. For its indications, the obsolete Earth-inductor compass
used current generated in a coil revolving in the Earth's magnetic field.

The astrocompass is an astronomical instrument by which the air or sea navigator

finds the true heading by sighting a celestial body. A form of astrocompass is the sun
compass, which utilizes the shadow of a pin.

Local Magnetic Anomalies

In various parts of the world, magnetic ores on or just below the seabed may give rise
to local magnetic anomalies resulting in the temporary deflection of the magnetic
compass needle when a ship passes over them. The areas of disturbance are usually
small unless there are many anomalies close together. The amount of the deflection
will depend on the depth of water and the strength of the magnetic force generated by
the magnetic ores. However, the magnetic force will seldom be strong enough to
deflect the compass needle in depths greater than about 1500 m. Similarly, a ship
would have to be within 8 cables of a nearby land mass containing magnetic ores for a
deflection of the needle to occur.

Deflections may also be due to wrecks lying on the bottom in moderate depths, but
investigations have proved that, while deflections of unpredictable amount may be
expected when very close to such wrecks, it is unlikely that deflections in excess of 7°
will be experienced, nor should the disturbance be felt beyond a distance of 250 m.

Greater deflections may be experienced when in close quarters with a ship carrying a
large cargo such as iron ore, which readily reacts to induced magnetism.

Power cables carrying direct current can cause deflection of the compass needle. The
amount of the deflection depends on the magnitude of the electric current and the
angle the cable makes with the magnetic meridian. Small vessels with an auto-pilot
dependent upon a magnetic sensor may experience steering difficulties if crossing
such a cable.

49
The Effect of Magnetic and Ionospheric Storms on the Compass Needle

Disturbances on the sun may cause disturbances of the magnetic compass needle and
interference with radio communications.
At the time of an intense solar flare or eruption, a flash of ultra-violet light and a
stream of charged particles are emitted from the sun.

The flash of ultra-violet light takes only 8 minutes to reach the Earth, where it
produces great ionisation (electrification) at abnormally low layers of the upper
atmosphere. Short radio waves which travel round the Earth by being reflected from a
higher layer of the upper atmosphere cannot penetrate this barrier of ionisation and a
radio 'fade-out' is experienced. Long radio waves however may be reflected more
strongly from the base of the lower layer of ionisation. Since these short range radio
fade-outs and long wave enhancements are caused by the effects of ultra-violet light
from the sun, they are confined to the sunlit side of the Earth and are almost
simultaneous with the flare, lasting on the average for about 20 minutes.

The stream of charged particles, travelling much more slowly than light, arrives at the
Earth, if it is suitably directed, at from 1 to about 3 days after it leaves the sun; it
visibly signals its arrival by producing a bright and active aurora. It too causes great
ionisation in the upper atmosphere, which is much more prolonged than that caused
by the ultra-violet light. There is again deterioration in short wave radio
communications, which may be a complete 'black-out' in higher latitudes. At this time
currents of the order of a million amperes may circulate in the upper atmosphere. The
magnetic field of the fluctuating currents is appreciable at the Earth's surface and may
deflect a compass needle noticeably from its normal position. The effects on these so-
called magnetic and ionospheric storms, which may persist with varying intensity for
several days, are usually greatest in higher latitudes. Radio 'black-outs' and
simultaneous deviations of the magnetic compass needle by several degrees are not
uncommon in and near auroral zones. When a great aurora is seen in abnormally low
latitudes, it is invariably accompanied by a magnetic and ionospheric storm. Unlike
the fade-out which occurs only on the sunlit side of Earth, the interference with radio
communications which accompanies an aurora and magnetic storm may occur by day
and at night.

All these effects occur most frequently and in most intense forms at the time of
sunspot maximum; maxima are likely to occur in 2001-02.

Contents

B
O

50
 Y'

M
A
N
U
AL
O

SE
A
M
A
N

HI

A
N
D
G
U
N
N
ER

O
M
PA
SS
IN
ST
R
U
CT
IO
N

PA
RT
I

Q.

51
Wh
at is
a
com
pass
card
?

A. A
circ
ular
card
, by
whi
ch a
ship'
s
cour
se is
den
oted
: it
is
divi
ded
into
32
equ
al
part
s,
call
ed
poin
ts ;
agai
n
divi
ded
into
32
equ
al
part
s,
call
ed
52
half
-
poin
ts ;
and
agai
n
divi
ded
into
64
equ
al
part
s,
call
ed
quar
ter-
poin
ts,
each
poin
t
bein
g
disti
ngui
shed
by a
lette
r or
lette
rs.

A.
N.
S.
E.
and
W.
stan
d
for
Nort
53
h,
Sout
h,
East
,
and
Wes
t;
thes
e
are
call
ed
the
card
inal
poin
ts ;
any
two
or
thre
e of
thes
e
lette
rs,
add
ed
toge
ther,
repr
esen
t the
inter
med
iate
poin
ts,
as in
the
foll
owi
ng
exa
mpl

54
e:

RE
PE
AT
TH
E
CO
MP
AS
S.

N. S.
Sta by
nds W.,
for So
No uth
rth. by
We
st.

N. S.
by S.
E., W.,
No So
rth uth
by So
Eas uth
t. -
We
st.

N. S.
N. W.
E., by
No S.,
rth So
No uth
rth- -
Eas We
t. st
by
So

55
 uth
.

N. S.
E. W.,
by So
N., uth
No -
rth- We
Eas st.
t
by
No
rth,

N . S.
E., W,
No by
rt- W.,
Eas So
t. uth
-
We
st
by
We
st.

N. W.
E. S.
by W.,
E., We
No st
rth- So
Eas uth
t -
by We
Eas st.
t.

E. W.
N. by
E., S.,

56
Eas We
t st
No by
rth- So
Eas uth
t. .

E. W.,
by We
N., st.
Eas
t
by
No
rth.

E., W.
Eas by
t. N.
We
st
by
No
rth.

E. W.
by N.
S., W.,
Eas We
t st
by No
So rth-
uth We
. st.

E. N.
S. W.
E., by
Eas W.,
t No
So rth-
uth We
- st

57
Eas by
t. We
st

S. N.
E. W.,
by No
E., rth-
So We
uth st.
-
Eas
t
by
Eas
t.

S. N.
E., W.
So by
uth N.,
- No
Eas rth-
t. We
st
by
No
rth.

S. N.
E. N.
by W.,
S., No
So rth
uth No
- rth-
Eas We
t st.
by
So
uth
.

S. N,
58
 S. N.,
by No
E. rth.
So
uth
by
Eas
t.

S.,
So
uth
.

Repeat it the reverse way.

S. W. by W.

S. W. by S.

S. E. by S.

59
S. E, by E.

To
ans
we
r
Op
pos
ite
Poi
nts
, or
wh
at
is
cal
led
Bo
xin
g
the
Co
mp
ass
.

Q.
Wh
at
is
the
opp
osit
e
poi
nt.
to
N.
E.
?

A.
S.
W.

Wit
60
ha
ver
y
littl
e
atte
nti
on
to
the
que
stio
n,
the
you
ng
beg
inn
er
wil
l be
abl
e to
ans
wer
any
opp
osit
e
poi
nts
mo
st
rea
dily
,
alw
ays
bea
rin
g
in
mi
nd
that
the
lett
61
er
N.
is
opp
osit
e to
S.,
and
E,
to
W.,
and
re
me
mb
eri
ng
that
two
or
thr
ee
of
the
se
lett
ers
add
ed
tog
eth
er
rep
res
ent
all
the
poi
nts
of
the
co
mp
ass.
For
inst
anc
62
e:
E.
N.
E.
is
the
opp
osit
e
poi
nt
to
W.
S.
W.
| S.
S.
E.
to
N.
N.
W.
|
N.
E.
by
E.
to
S.
W.
by
W.
|
N.
W.
by
N.
to
S.E
. by
S. |
N.
E.
by
N.
�
.N.
63
| S.
W.
by
S.
�
S. |
W.
�
N.
to
E.
�
S. |
N.
�
E.
to
S.
�
W.,
and
so
on,
to
any
poi
nt
of
the
co
mp
ass.

TH
E
CO
MP
AS
S
M
AD
E
EA
SY

64
 .

Ca
rdi
nal
Poi
nts
.

Th
e
co
mp
ass
is
co
mp
ose
d
of
fou
r
lett
ers
onl
y-
N.
S.
E.
and
W.,
whi
ch
rep
res
ent
the
fou
r
car
din
al
poi
nts
-
viz.
,
65
No
rth,
Mo
uth
,
Eas
t,
and
We
st.

Ha
lf-
Ca
rdi
nal
Poi
nts
.

So
call
ed
bec
aus
e
the
y
co
me
hal
fwa
y
bet
we
en
two
car
din
al
poi
nts
fro
m
whi
ch
the
66
y
der
ive
thei
r
na
me
s.
Th
us,
N.
E.
co
me
s
bet
we
en
No
rth
and
Eas
t,
and
by
add
ing
the
two
lett
ers
tog
eth
er,
N.
E.
is
pro
duc
ed;
in
like
ma
nne
r
the
oth
67
er
hal
f-
car
din
al
poi
nts
are
for
me
d-
viz.
,
N.
W.,
S.E
.,
and
S.
W.
Th
ere
are
fou
r
hal
f-
car
din
al
poi
nts.

Fal
se
Poi
nts
.

So
call
ed
bec
aus
e
the
68
y
bor
ro
w
thei
r
na
me
s
fro
m
the
two
poi
nts
bet
we
en
whi
ch
the
y
co
me.
Th
us,
N.
N.
E.
co
me
s
bet
we
en
No
rth
and
N.
E.,
and
by
put
tin
g
the
se
69
two
poi
nts
tog
eth
er,
taki
ng
car
e to
put
the
lett
er
of
the
nea
rest
car
din
al
poi
nt
firs
t,
N.
N.
E.
is
pro
duc
ed ;
in
like
ma
nne
r
are
all
the
oth
er
fals
e
poi
nts
for
70
me
d:
the
y
are
as
foll
ow
s:
E.
N.
E.,
E.S
.E.,
S.S
.E.,
S.S
.W.
,
W.
S.
W.,
W.
N.
W.,
and
N.
N.
W.
Th
ere
are
eig
ht
fals
e
poi
nts.

Th
e
By-
Poi
nts
.

So
71
call
ed
bec
aus
e
the
y
der
ive
thei
r
na
me
s
fro
m
the
nea
rest
car
din
al
or
hal
f-
car
din
al
poi
nts
the
y
are
nea
r or
by.
Th
us ;
N.
by
E.
is
by
or
nea
r
No
72
rth,
and
taki
ng
a
dir
ecti
on
tow
ard
s
Las
t
bec
om
es
N.
by
E.

N.
E.
by
N.
is
by
or
nea
r
N.
E.,
but
bei
ng
nea
rer
No
rth
tha
n
Eas
t it
bec
om
es
N.
E.
73
by
N.;
in
like
ma
nne
r
all
the
oth
er
by-
poi
nts
der
ive
thei
r
na
me:
the
y
are
the
foll
owi
ng:
N.
E.
by
E.,
E.
by
N.,
E,
by
S.,
S.E
. by
E.,
S.E
. by
S.,
S.
by
E.,
S.
74
by
W.,
S.
W.
by
S.,
S.
W.
by
W.,
W.
by
S.,
W.
by
N.,
N.
W.
by
W.,
N.
W.
by,
N.,
and
N.
by
W.
-
16
in
nu
mb
er.

Hal
f-
car
din
al
poi
nts
are
alw
ays
fou
r
75
poi
nts
fro
ma
car
din
al
poi
nt ;
if a
shi
p's
hea
d
ma
rks
a
car
din
al
poi
nt,
suc
h,
for
inst
anc
e,
as
No
rth,
her
ster
n
and
eith
er
bea
m
wil
l
als
o
ma
rk
a
car
76
din
al
poi
nt :
hal
f-
car
din
al
poi
nts
ma
rki
ng
the
two
bo
ws
and
qua
rter
s:

Fo
r
Ex
am
ple
.

Shi
p's
hea
d is
No
rth,
or
ster
n is
So
uth
,
por
t-
bea
m
We
77
st,
star
boa
rd-
bea
m
Eas
t,
por
t-
bo
w
N.
W.,
star
boa
rd
bo
w
N.
E.,
por
t
qua
rter
S.
W.,
star
boa
rd
qua
rter
S.E
.

PA
RT
II.

Q.
Ho
w
are
the
poi
nts
of
78
the
co
mp
ass
rec
kon
ed
?

A.
Fro
m
No
rth
and
So
uth
, to
Eas
t
and
We
st.

N.
by
E. |
N.
by
W.
| S.
by
E. |
S.
by
W.
�
�
�
�.
..
On
e
poi
nt.

N.
79
N.
E. |
N.
N.
W.
| S.
S.
E. |
S.
S.
W..
......
�
�
�
Tw
o
poi
nts.

N.
E.
by
N. |
N.
W.
by
N. |
S.E
. by
S. |
S.
W.
by
S.
Thr
ee
poi
nts

N.
E. |
N.
W.
| S.
E. |
S.
80
W..
......
....
�
�
�
�
Fo
ur
poi
nts.

N.
E.
by
E. |
N.
W.
by
W.
|
S.E
. by
E. |
S.
W.
by
W..
..Fi
ve
poi
nts

E.
N.
E. |
W.
N.
W.
| E.
S.
E. |
W.
S.
W..
...
�
81
�
�
�
Six
poi
nts.

E.
by
N. |
W.
by
N. |
E.
by
S. |
W.
by
S...
...
�
�
�
Sev
en
poi
nts.

Eas
t
and
We
st
�
�
�
�
�
�
�.
.
Eig
ht
poi
nts.

Q.
82
Ho
w
clo
se
to
the
win
d
wil
la
shi
p
lay
?

A.
Wh
en
the
sail
s
are
wel
l
set,
a
shi
p is
sup
pos
ed
to
lay
fiv
e
poi
nts
fro
m
the
win
d,
but
in
mo
st
cas
83
es
it is
six
poi
nts.

Q.
Su
ppo
sin
ga
shi
p
to
lay
fiv
e
poi
nts
fro
m
the
win
d,
ho
w
ma
ny
wil
l
she
tac
k
in ?

A.
Ten
poi
nts.

Q.
Ho
w
ma
ny
wil
l
84
she
we
ar
in ?

A.
Tw
ent
y-
two
poi
nts.

Q.
Wh
at
do
you
me
an
by
tac
kin
ga
shi
p?

A.
Su
ppo
sin
ga
shi
p
to
be
sail
ing
clo
se
to
the
win
d
on
the
star
85
boa
rd
tac
k,
layi
ng
S.
E.
by
E.,
the
win
d
wo
uld
he
So
uth
.
By
ma
noe
uvr
ing
the
hel
m
and
sail
s,
she
is
bro
ugh
t
hea
d
to
win
d,
and
pai
d
off
on
the
por
86
t
tac
k,
unt
il
the
sail
s
are
aga
in
full
, or
her
hea
d is
S.
W.
by
W.
;
she
wo
uld
the
n
lie
on
the
por
t
tac
k,
sup
pos
ing
the
win
d
to
be
ste
ady
,
and
the
shi
87
p
wo
uld
wo
rk
in
ten
poi
nts
or
lie
fiv
e
poi
nts
fro
m
the
win
d.

Q.
Wh
at
is
the
me
ani
ng
of
a
shi
p
bei
ng
on
the
por
t or
star
boa
rd
tac
k?

A.
It
88
is
sai
da
shi
p is
on
the
por
t
tac
k
wh
en
she
has
her
por
t
tac
ks
on
boa
rd,
or
the
win
d is
blo
win
g
fiv
e
poi
nts
on
the
por
t
bo
w,
whi
ch
is
call
ed
the
we
89
ath
er
bo
w.

Q.
Wh
at
do
you
me
an
by
the
we
ath
er
and
lee
bo
w,
and
ho
w
are
the
y
dist
ing
uis
hed
?

A.
Th
e
we
ath
er
bo
w
or
sid
e
of
a
shi
90
p is
the
sid
e
on
whi
ch
the
win
d
blo
ws.
Th
e
lee
bo
w
or
sid
e
wil
l,
of
cou
rse,
be
the
opp
osit
e to
that
fro
m
whi
ch
the
win
d
blo
ws.
Th
e
she
ets
of
for
e
91
and
aft
sail
s
are
hau
led
aft
on
the
lee
sid
e.

Q.
Wh
at
is
the
me
ani
ng
of
we
ari
ng
a
shi
p?

A.
To
run
her
off
bef
ore
the
win
d,
and
bri
ng
her
to
the
win
92
d
on
the
oth
er
tac
k.

Q.
Wh
at
do
you
me
an
by
ste
eri
ng
a
shi
p?

A.
To
mo
ve
her
hea
d
in
any
par
ticu
lar
dir
ecti
on,
or
kee
p
her
on
any
giv
en
cou
93
rse.

Q.
Ho
w
is a
shi
p's
hea
d
mo
ved
or
kep
t in
any
par
ticu
lar
dir
ecti
on
?

A.
By
me
ans
of
the
hel
m,
whi
ch
is
co
mp
ose
d
of
the
rud
der,
till
er,
or
yok
94
e,
till
er
rop
es,
and
wh
eel.

All
shi
ps
are
fitt
ed
wit
h
till
ers,
wit
h
the
exc
epti
on
of
scr
ew
shi
ps,
whi
ch
are,
acc
ord
ing
to
the
spa
ce
aba
ft
the
scr
ew
cha
mb
95
er,
fitt
ed
eith
er
wit
ha
till
er
or
yok
e.
A
sin
gle
blo
ck
is
sei
zed
on
the
for
em
ost
end
of
the
till
er,
wh
en
shi
ppe
d
bef
ore
the
rud
der
hea
d,
and
on
the
afte
r
96
end
of
the
till
er
wh
en
shi
ppe
d
aba
ft
the
rud
der
hea
d;
yok
es
hav
e
gen
eral
ly
two
met
al
she
ave
s
fitt
ed
at
eac
h
end
.

Till
er
rop
es
are
rov
e
the
sa
97
me
wa
y
in
all
shi
ps,
wh
eth
er
fitt
ed
wit
ha
till
er
or
yok
e,
so
the
mo
ve
me
nt
of
the
wh
eel
wil
l be
alik
e in
all
shi
ps.

Q.
Ho
w
do
you
kno
w
in
wh
at
98
dir
ecti
on
a
shi
p is
ste
eri
ng
?

A,
By
me
ans
of
lub
ber'
s
poi
nt
and
the
co
mp
ass
car
d.

Q.
Wh
at
is
lub
ber'
s
poi
nt?

A.
A
bla
ck
line
dra
wn
do
99
wn
the
cen
tre
of
the
met
al
bo
wl
in
whi
ch
the
co
mp
ass
car
d is
shi
ppe
d,
in a
dir
ect
line
wit
h
the
shi
p's
hea
d,
and
as
the
shi
p's
hea
d
mo
ves
to
the
rig
ht
or
100
the
left
,
the
co
mp
ass
car
d
rev
olv
es
pas
t
the
line
call
ed
lub
ber'
s
poi
nt,
wh
ate
ver
poi
nt
of
the
co
mp
ass
cut
s
this
line
,
den
ote
s
the
cou
rse
the
shi
p is
101
ste
eri
ng.

Q.
Wh
at
is
the
me
ani
ng
of
luff
, or
giv
ing
a
shi
p
lee
hel
m,
or
put
tin
g
the
hel
m
do
wn
?

A.
To
bri
ng
the
shi
p's
hea
d
nea
rer
the
win
102
d.

Q.
Wh
at
is
the
me
ani
ng
of "
kee
p
her
aw
ay,
" or
"gi
ve
her
we
ath
er
hel
m,"
or "
put
tin
g
the
hel
m
up"
?

A.
To
run
the
shi
p's
hea
d
off
the
win

103
d.

Q.
Wh
at
is
the
me
ani
ng
of "
ver
y
wel
l
thu
s,"
"
thu
s
and
no
hig
her
"?

A.
Her
hea
d is
in a
ver
y
goo
d
dir
ecti
on,
but
you
are
not
to
bri
ng
her
any
104
clo
ser
the
win
d.

PA
RT
III.

Q.
Wh
at
is
the
me
ani
ng
of "
not
hin
g
off
"?

A.
To
kee
p
the
shi
p's
hea
d
as
clo
se
to
the
win
d
as
pos
sibl
e
wit
hou
105
t
sha
kin
g
the
sail
.

Q.
If a
shi
p's
hea
d is
S.E
.,
and
she
is
on
the
star
boa
rd
tac
k,
layi
ng
fiv
e
poi
nts
fro
m
the
win
d,
ho
w
is
the
win
d?

A.
S.
by
106
W.

Q.
If
she
wa
s
on
the
por
t
tac
k,
ho
w
wo
uld
the
win
d
be
?

A.
E.
by
N.

Q.
If
her
hea
d is
Eas
t,
and
she
is
on
the
por
t
tac
k,
ho
w
is
107
the
win
d?

A.
N.
E.
by
N.

Q.
If
she
wa
s
on
the
star
boa
rd
tac
k
wit
h
her
hea
d
Eas
t?

A.
S.E
. by
S.

Q.
If
her
hea
d
wa
s
W.
S.
W.
on
the
108
por
t
tac
k,
and
the
shi
p
wa
s
clo
se
to
the
win
d,
whi
ch
wo
uld
be
S.
by
W.,
and
you
wer
e
on
the
loo
k
out
at
the
ma
sth
ead
,
and
sa
wa
shi
p
bea
rin
g
109
We
st,
or
on
any
of
the
foll
owi
ng
bea
rin
gs,
ho
w
wo
uld
you
rep
ort
her
?

A.
If
bea
rin
g
W.,
two
.
poi
nts
on
the
lee
bo
w.

If
she
bor
e
W.
N.
W.,
fou
110
r
poi
nts
on
the
lee
bo
w.

If
she
bor
e
S.S
.E.,
on
the
we
ath
er
bea
m.

If
she
bor
e
N.
E.,
on
the
lee
qua
rter
.

If
she
bor
e
E.
N.
E.,
rig
ht
ast
ern
111
.

If
she
bor
e
S.E
.,
two
poi
nts
aba
ft
the
we
ath
er
bea
m.

If
she
bor
e
S.S
.W.
,
fou
r
poi
nts
on
the
we
ath
er
bo
w.

Q.
Wh
at
do
you
call
rig
ht
112
abe
am
?

A.
Eig
ht
poi
nts
fro
m
rig
ht
ahe
ad ;
for
inst
anc
e,
if a
shi
p's
hea
d is
No
rth,
Eas
t
and
We
st
is
rig
ht
abe
am.

Q.
If a
shi
p is
lyi
ng
N.
W.
on
the
113
star
boa
rd
tac
k,
and
you
are
ord
ere
d
to
kee
p
her
aw
ay
fou
r
poi
nts,
ho
w
wil
l
her
hea
d
be
wh
en
kep
t
aw
ay
as
ord
ere
d?

A.
We
st.

Q.
Su
ppo
114
sin
ga
shi
p is
ste
eri
ng
We
st,
or
any
of
the
foll
owi
ng
cou
rse
s:
N.
W.
|
E.
N.
E. |
S.S
.E.
|
N.
E.
by
N. |
S.
by
W.
�
W.
| E.
�
N. |
W.
�
S.,
ho
w
ma
ny
115
poi
nts
is
she
ste
eri
ng
fro
m
No
rth
or
So
uth
?

A.
If
W.,
8
poi
nts
|
N.
W.,
4
poi
nts
|
E.
N.
E.,
6
poi
nts
|
S.S
.E.,
2
poi
nts
|
N.
E.
by
N.,
3
116
poi
nts
| S,
by
W.
�
W.,
1
�
poi
nts
| E.
�
N.,
7
�
poi
nts
|
W.
�
S.,
7
�
poi
nts.

Q.
Yo
u
say
a
shi
p's
cou
rse
is
den
ote
d
in
any
dir
ecti
on
she
ma
117
y
be
ste
ere
d
by
the
co
mp
ass,
whi
ch
is a
circ
ula
r
car
d:
exp
lain
ho
w
this
is
don
e?

A.
A
co
mp
ass
car
d,
mo
unt
ed
on
a
ma
gne
tic
bar
of
ste
el,
afte
118
r
bei
ng
pro
per
ly
adj
ust
ed,
is
pla
ced
on
a
piv
ot
in
the
cen
tre
of
a
met
al
bo
wl,
the
insi
de
of
whi
ch
is
pai
nte
d
whi
te,
a
bla
ck
line
bei
ng
ma
rke
d
119
do
wn
fro
m
top
to
bot
to
m
of
the
bo
wl:
and
exa
ctly
in
the
line
of
the
shi
p's
hea
d
or
bo
ws,
whi
ch
is
call
ed
the
lub
ber'
s
poi
nts
;
the
car
d is
sup
pos
ed,
wh
120
en
'on
the
piv
ot,
to
poi
nt
to
the
ma
gne
tic
No
rth
and
So
uth
,
wit
hou
t it
is
attr
act
ed
by
any
loc
al
cau
se,
whi
ch
is
call
ed
dev
iati
on.
Th
e
bo
wl
con
tain
ing
121
the
co
mp
ass
is
hun
g
on
jim
ble
s,
in a
wo
ode
n
fra
me
call
ed
bin
nac
le ;
and
by
mo
vin
g
the
rud
der
by
me
ans
of
the
till
er
or
wh
eel,
a
shi
p's
hea
d is
put
in
122
any
dir
ecti
on
des
ire
d.

TE
CH
NI
CA
L
TE
R
MS
US
ED
BY
TH
E
OF
FI
CE
R
OR
QU
AR
TE
R
M
AS
TE
R
OF
TH
E
W
AT
CH
IN
DI
RE
CT
IN
123
 G
TH
E
CO
NN
IN
G
OF
TH
E
SH
IP.

Co
nni
ng.

An
y
per
son
dir
ecti
ng
the
per
son
dir
ecti
ng
the
hel
ms
ma
n
ho
w
to
put
the
hel
m,
is
sai
d
to
be
124
con
nin
g
the
shi
p.

Sta
rbo
ard
Ta
ck.

A
shi
p
sail
ing
wit
h
the
win
d
blo
win
g
aga
inst
the
star
boa
rd
sid
e,
wit
h
her
star
boa
rd
tac
ks
hau
led
on
boa
rd,
125
and
her
por
t
she
ets
hau
led
aft,
is
sai
d
to
be
on
the
star
boa
rd
tac
k.

Po
rt
Ta
ck.

Ev
ery
thi
ng
bei
ng
the
exa
ct
opp
osit
e to
the
star
boa
rd
tac
k.

Ta
126
cki
ng.
Sta
yin
g.
Go
ing
Ab
out
.

Is
an
evo
luti
on
per
for
me
d
by
ma
noe
uvr
ing
the
sail
s
and
hel
m,
by
whi
ch
me
ans
a
shi
p is
ma
de
to
pas
s
rou
nd
hea
127
d
to
win
d
fro
m
one
tac
k
to
the
oth
er.

Wo
rki
ng
or
Be
ati
ng
to
Wi
nd
wa
rd.
Ta
ck
an
d
Ha
lf-
Ta
ck.
Ma
kin
ga
Lo
ng
an
d
Sh
ort
Bo
ard
.
Ma
128
kin
ga
Lo
ng
an
d
Sh
ort
Le
g.

Sig
nifi
es
a
ves
sel
pro
cee
din
g
as
nea
rly
as
pos
sibl
e in
the
dir
ecti
on
fro
m
whi
ch
the
win
d
blo
ws
by
con
sta
ntl
y
tac
129
kin
g.

On
a
Wi
nd.
By
a
Wi
nd.
Cl
ose
Ha
ule
d.
Ful
l
an
d
By.
On
a
Bo
wli
ne.

Tri
m
mi
ng
the
sail
s
wit
h
the
yar
ds
bra
ced
up
sha
rp,
and
the
bo
130
wli
nes
hau
led,
to
ena
ble
the
shi
p
to
sail
as
clo
se
the
win
d
as
pos
sibl
e.

Ha
uli
ng
to
the
Wi
nd.

Bri
ngi
ng
a
shi
p's
hea
d
as
clo
se
to
the
win
d
as
131
pos
sibl
e,
by
bra
cin
g
the
yar
ds
up,
&c.
,
and
giv
ing
her
lee
hel
m.

Luf
f.
Gi
ve
her
Le
e
He
lm.
Put
the
He
lm
do
wn
.

To
bri
ng
a
shi
p's
hea
d
clo
132
se
to
the
win
d.

[I
sus
pec
t
tha
t2
pa
ges
ma
y
be
mis
sin
g
her
e ie
pp
207
-
208
]

Po
rt
the
He
lm.

If
sta
ndi
ng
the
por
t
sid
e
of
the
wh
eel,
133
tur
n it
fro
m
you
, if
on
the
star
boa
rd
sid
e,
pul
l it
tow
ard
s
you
,
the
till
er
goi
ng
to
por
t,
the
rud
der
to
star
boa
rd,
a
shi
p
wit
h
hea
dw
ay
wil
l
pay
off
134
to
star
boa
rd.

A
shi
p
hav
ing
ster
nw
ay
the
hel
m
has
the
opp
osit
e
eff
ect
to
hea
dw
ay ;
the
ref
ore
her
hea
d
pay
s
off
in
the
sa
me
dir
ecti
on
as
the
till
er,
135
and
a
con
trar
y
dir
ecti
on
to
that
in
whi
ch
the
rud
der
is
pla
ced
.

Rig
ht
the
He
lm.
Put
the
He
lm
Am
ids
hip
s.

Is
an
ord
er
giv
en
wh
en
the
hel
m
is
136
eith
er
to
star
boa
rd
or
por
t,
and
the
rud
der
is
req
uir
ed
at
onc
e to
be
pla
ced
in a
line
wit
h
the
shi
p's
kee
l.

^
bac
k
to
top
^

Standard and Steering Compasses Compasses The Chief of Naval Operations

requires that each self-propelled ship and are service craft of the United States Navy be equipped
with one or more REQUIRED magnetic compasses suitable for navigation. Except for modern
nuclear-powered submarines, all ships and craft, regardless of size or classification, must have a
magnetic steering compass at the primary steering station. Steering Compass Many ships carry more

137
 than one magnetic compass. The primary magnetic compass is called the steering compass. It is
normally located on the centerline in the ship’s pilothouse (except aboard aircraft carriers), where it
can best be seen by the helmsman. The readings from the steering compass are labeled "per
steering compass" (PSTGC). Standard Compass If a ship has two magnetic compasses, the
second compass is called the standard compass. The ship’s standard compass is normally located
on the ship’s centerline at the secondary conning station. The readings from the standard compass
are expressed as "per standard compass" (PSC). Note The readings from the ship’s gyrocompass
are "per gyrocompass" (PGC). Courses and bearings by these compasses must be carefully
differentiated by the abbreviations. Cautions A magnetic compass cannot be expected to give
reliable service unless it is properly installed and protected from disturbing magnetic influences.
Certain precautions must be observed in the vicinity of the magnetic compass. If possible, a
compass should not be placed near iron or steel equipment that will be moved frequently. Thus, a
location near a gun, boat davit, or boat crane is not desirable. The immediate vicinity should be
kept free of sources of magnetism, particularly those of a changing nature. When possible, no
source of magnetism should be permitted within a radius of several feet of the magnetic compass.
2-6

Bac Up Nex
k Qua t
Sta rter Mag
nda mas neti
rd ter c
and 3 & Co
Ste 2 - mpa
erin Milit ss
g ary Op
Co man erati
mpa ual on
sse for and
s the Co
Qua mpo
rter nent
mas s,
ter Co
rate ntin
ued

Magnetic Compass Operation and Components Operation The

operation of a magnetic compass is very simple and can be stated as follows: "A small bar magnet
freely suspended in the magnetic field of Earth will always align itself parallel to the lines of
force of that field and thus will establish a direction." Components Use the following table,
figure 2-6, and figure 2-7 to learn the parts of a magnetic compass. Part Card Bowl Magnets
Gimbals Binnacle Function The card is an aluminum disk graduated in degrees from 0 to 359. It
has a jeweled bearing that rides on a hard, sharp pivot point. The card is supported by the bowl.
A lubbers line is marked on the bowl and is used as visible index. The bowl is filled with Varsol
to dampen overswings by the card. An expansion bellows in the lower bowl serves to allow
expansion of the liquid with temperature changes. Several bar magnets are used to correct and
align the compass. The bowl has two pivots that rest in a metal ring, which also has two pivots
resting in the binnacle. This arrangement (gimbals) permits the compass to remain level despite the
motion of the ship. The binnacle serves as a housing for the compass. It is made of a non- magnetic
material. It also serves as a housing for the compasses correctors: magnets, flinders bar, and quadrantal
spheres. A lighting system is normally Figure 2-6. Compass binnacle installed. 2-7

Bac Up Nex
k Qua t
Mag rter Mag
neti mas neti

138
 c ter c
Co 3 & Co
mpa 2 - mpa
ss Milit ss
Op ary Err
erati man or
on ual
and for
Co the
mpo Qua
nent rter
s mas
ter
rate

Magnetic Compass Operation and Components, Continued

Components The following illustrations should help you visualize the working parts of a basic
magnetic compass. Figure 2-7. Parts of a magnetic compass. 2-8

(navigation) A compass by which a craft is steered; it sometimes refers to a gyro repeater,

which is used for the same purpose as the steering compass; the term steering repeater is
preferable

navigation) A magnetic compass in which the image of the compass card is viewed by
direct reflection in a mirror adjacent to the helmsman's position.

139