Basic Vehicle Performance Modeling

Vehicle Power Transmission Concepts, Components and

Modeling – Pt. 3

Prof. R.G. Longoria

Spring 2005
v.3

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Common Transmission Systems
• Sliding Gear
• Constant Mesh
• Synchronized or Synchromesh “Manual”
• Power shift
• Automatic
• Hydrostatic
• Hydromechanical
• Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)
ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 TM Descriptions (1)
• Sliding - gear ratio selected by disengaging the traction clutch
and sliding the gear on the shaft until it meshes (more later).
Very efficient. Hard to move large gears. Must stop to shift.
• Constant mesh - gears mounted so they are always in mesh
with at least one of the meshing gears free to rotate on the shaft.
A traction clutch is needed. Common in tractors. Lower noise.
• Synchromesh - small friction clutches, usually cone type, that
engage when a shift is initiated. Gears are brought to common
speed before engaging. Allows shifting on the move.
• Power shift - uses high-torque friction clutches to engage gears
(not splined shifter collars). Designed to shift while moving
and transmitting power without disengaging a clutch. More
expensive, less efficient. On tractors can be combined with
some constant mesh type to bring cost down.
ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 TM Descriptions (2)
• Automatic - power shifter common in cars and trucks. Coupled
to engine with torque converter (TC) and shifts according to
predetermined logic with control system. TC is inefficient, but
helps smooth transition between speeds and power shift
engagements.
• Hydrostatic - provides infinitely variable speed selection. Very
costly, inefficient, and noisy.
• Hydromechanical - characterized by parallel hydrostatic and
mechanical power paths.
• CVT - often belt, adjustable. Very complex and hard to
control, but currently many are coming to production.
Efficiency can compare with a manual TM (Hahne, 1984; cited
in Wong).
ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Component Models – Manual TM
• Some manual transmission component models
are summarized in Appendix A.
• The differential is highlighted here because it is
found in many types of vehicle systems.

• An automatic transmission may be discussed

later.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Why build a drivetrain model?
• Models for understanding
• Evaluation of design or re-design for performance
• Efficiency prediction/evaluation
• Reliability for long service life
• Evaluation in peak or overloading conditions
• Models for controller design

Karnopp and Rosenberg (1970)

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Differential Concept
• The drive shaft turns the ring gear
pinion shaft, and the pinion gear
turns the ring gear, which turns the
differential case.
• When the vehicle is moving in
straight line, the ring gear is
turning the case.
• The differential is designed to
provide driving torques to the left
and right wheels, while allowing
for unequal wheel speeds during Shigley and Mishke
turns.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
Differentials
From D. Macaulay,
“The Way Things Work”

Essential component to allow

wheels to rotate at different
speeds for whatever reason –

•prevent excessive sliding,

•reduce wear,
•prevent squeal, etc.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Differential “Cartoon”

From Macaulay, “The Way Things Work”

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Basic Differential Model

“final drive ratio”

N2/N3 1/2 ω5
T2 .. T3 .. T
ω2 T T ω 0
ω3
ω6
Heisler (1999)
1
This is a kinematic model
Can you justify the simple model
of a differential.
shown here?

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Controlling Traction “Passively”
• With a “simple” differential, the driving
torque is evenly distributed between left
and right, so if one side slips excessively
this imposes a limit on the side with a
higher coefficient of road adhesion, forcing
it to zero torque in the worst case.
• This problem can also occur in high
performance vehicles where high HP can Tire on ice
cause one wheel to spin during heavy (or jacked up) µl
acceleration. T=0
ω = 2 ⋅ ω in ⋅ GR
• This problem can be overcome by: GR
..
– using a differential lock T 0
– using a limited-slip differential
ωin
T=0 ω=0
– using a traction control system Correct causality?
Grounded tire µh

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Limited-Slip Differential

Designed to transfer driving torque

to the wheel with best traction.

Usually, this is accomplished by using

frictional elements to resist normal
differential operation. Some systems
use worm and wheel gears.

More discussion on limited-slip

differentials in Appendix B.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Final Gear Ratio
• The final gear ratio refers to the ratio at the ring gear at the
differential.

• Sometimes called final drive ratio.

• An uneven ratio is used; this reduces chance of same teeth

hitting each other and promoting wear.

• Common values: 1.8:1 to 3.2:1.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Do we need to model force transmission to the
body from the wheels?
• Drive shaft turns differential,
and axles and wheels are
driven forward.
• Driving force from tires and
road goes through axle
housing and then:
– through leaf springs bolted to
the housing and shackled to the
frame
– through control or torque arms
(common on vehicles with rear
coil springs)
• This is referred to as a Stockel, et al (1996)
Hotchkiss drive, which is in
common use today.
ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Put it all together – Case 1
Rosenberg and Karnopp (1970)

Differential Where is the

‘axle’, etc.?
Flywheel + Engine
Transmission
Gears
Vehicle mass
and resistive
forces

Shaft Tire models

Clutch
compliance

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Another formulation – Case 2
Hrovat and Tobler (1991)
• Examine need to predict source of “longitudinal jerks and
oscillations” in manual transmission power trains.
• “Shuffle” mode oscillations are one type, arising in parking or
starting operations.
• Sudden accelerator pedal change, or fast clutch pedal.

Hrovat and Tobler (1991)

(Ford Sci. Labs)

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Case 2 (cont.)
Hrovat and Tobler (1991)

Flywheel + Engine
Transmission Vehicle mass
and resistive
forces
Gears Differential

Clutch

Tire models

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Case 2 (cont.)
Hrovat and Tobler (1991)

• Simplification of the model Axle/clutch

given in the previous slide deflection for
allowed Hrovat and Tobler to a step increase
make reasonable estimates on in engine torque.
axle deflections and shaft
torques.
• The “shuffle mode dynamics”
that result during wide-open-
throttle (WOT) are estimated
using the simplified models.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Summary
• The basic manual TM consists of cascaded components. A
word bond graph illustrates the power flow, and is a first step in
showing that an overall model can be developed and integrated
into a performance model for a vehicle.
• The TM should be modeled to answer questions for steady-state
and/or transient performance.
• Some of the complexities that can arise with transients during
shifting were briefly reviewed.
• Other types of TM require detailed examination of particular
technologies.
– For example, the automatic transmission will require some level of
shifting control and necessarily a study of the torque converter.
– Electric vehicles incorporate motors with power electronic controllers.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 References
1. Steeds, W., “Mechanics of Road Vehicles,” Illiffe and Sons, Ltd., London,
1960.
2. D. Karnopp and R.C. Rosenberg, “Application of Bond Graph Techniques to
the Study of Vehicle Drive Line Dynamics,” ASME J. of Basic Engineering,
pp. 355-362, June 1970.
3. D. Hrovat and W.E. Tobler, “Bond Graph Modeling of Automotive Power
Trains”, J. of the Franklin Institute, Vol. 328, No. 5/6, pp. 623-662, 1991.
4. Gillespie, T.D., “Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics”, SAE, Warrendale, PA,
1992.
5. Wong, J.Y., “Theory of Ground Vehicles,” John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
York, 1993 (2nd) or 2001 (3rd) edition.
6. M.W. Stockel, M.T. Stockel, and C. Johanson, “Auto Fundamentals,” The
Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc., Tinley Park, IL, 1996.
7. H. Heisler, “Vehicle and Engine Technology,” SAE, Warrendale, PA, 1999.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Appendix A

Manual Transmission
Component Models

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Manual Transmission - Clutch
• A clutch is used to connect or disconnect
power.
• In a vehicle, the clutch is used to transmit
engine power and to disengage the engine
and transmission when shifting gears.
• The clutch also allows the engine to
operate when the vehicle is stopped
without placing the transmission in neutral
(out of gear).
• Clutch construction: flywheel, clutch disc,
pressure plate assembly, throw-out
bearing, and clutch linkage.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Clutch Operation
The flywheel, pressure plate,
springs, and clutch cover
rotate as a unit with common
velocity.

The clutch disc and clutch When the pressure plate is

shaft are stopped as the engaged, it seizes the clutch disc
pressure plate is disengaged. and the entire unit rotates with a
common velocity.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Clutch Modeling (1)
R
Clutch R-characteristics
T increase in
plate pressure

T1 T2
ω1 0 ω2

The dissipative nature of

the clutch, is modeled using ∆ω
an R-element. This R is slip
modulated by a signal that
represents the pressure
exerted on the plates.
Energy is dissipated as the
Note, also, that the R is attached
to a 0-junction to capture the slip clutch slips, except when
and torque transmitting structure. the clutch is fully engaged.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Clutch Modeling (2)
When the clutch is fully
engaged, it may be best to
represent its effect on the
transmission dynamics by
accounting only for its
elastic behavior.

R C

T1 T2
0 Hrovat and Tobler (1991)
ω1 ω2

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Flywheels (1)
The flywheel is involved in several
engine/transmission functions.

• It helps smooth out engine crankshaft

output.

• It is the point of input for the starter, in a

manual transmission.

• Forms the foundation for which other

clutch parts are attached.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Flywheels (2)
In a manual transmission, the
clutch disc engages the
flywheel directly.

Clutch
Flywheel I R Model

Tcrankshaft T1 T2
1 ω1 0 ω2
To Transmission

Tstarter
Note: acceleration of the
flywheel and other rotating parts
Input from starter can work to reduce the overall
Example value: I = 0.14 kg-m2 vehicle acceleration.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Clutch-Pressure Plate Assemblies
Coil Spring Diaphragm Spring

Throw-out bearing in both.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Clutch Pedal Linkage
• The clutch pedal linkage connects the clutch
pedal to the clutch throw-out fork.
• There are two types:
This has bearing on
– Mechanical understanding the ability
(and failure) of a clutch to
– Hydraulic operate properly.

• Self-adjusting clutches

• Clutch free travel - sensitivity of throw-out

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Manual Transmissions and Transaxles
• Transmissions - front engine, rear wheel drive
• Transaxles - front engine, front wheel drive
• Typical gear ratios
From Hrovat and Tobler:
1st = 3
2nd = 2
3rd = 1.5
4th = 1

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Manual Transmission
Gearing
Stockel, et al (1996)
Sliding gears

Cluster
gears

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Manual Transmission
Shafts and Housing
• Four main classes of gears are:
reduction, direct drive,
overdrive, and reverse.
• The shafts are mounted in the
housing as shown in this figure
from Stockel, et al.
layshaft

Stockel, et al (1996)
ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Manual Transmission
Shafts and Housing - block dynamics
Hrovat and Tobler (1991) studied
the dynamics induced into the
“layshaft gearbox”.

layshaft

Stockel, et al (1996)

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Synchronizing Mechanism
Synchromesh

• Modern manual transmissions and

transaxles have synchronized
gears, with special internal
clutches.
• These synchromesh devices bring
gears to be meshed approximately
to the correct speed and minimize
“clashing”.

From Stockel, et al (1996)

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 3-Speed Transmission Operation
Neutral 3rd

1st
R

2nd Lumped inertias

I
m is the gear ratio

From T1 .m. T2
1 ω1 T ω
Clutch 2
ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Axles and Drives (1)
• The TM output shaft is
connected to the differential
through a drive shaft.
• The drive shaft is hollow, and
must be flexible (SSJ, 1996).
• To allow relative motion, a
universal joint is used at the
ends.
• A slip yoke allows for relative
motion.
• Speed of U-joint can fluctuate.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Axles and Drives (2)
• Front-wheel drive (FWD)
vehicles employ constant-
velocity (CV) joints.
• The CV shaft is typically
solid.
• Perform same function as U-
joints, can compensate for
steering, and produce less
vibration than a U-joint.
• There are two basic types:
tripod and Rzeppa (ball and
channel). The latter is most
common (all outboard are
Rzeppa).
Stockel, et al (1996)
ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Drive Axles
• Hold the wheels on, keep them upright, and propel the vehicle.
• Also, they must drive the wheels and allow one to turn faster
(using differential)
• The assembly also transmits driving force to frame.
• Provide support for vehicle (springs), and support for rear
brakes.
• Parts: axle housing, axles, ring and pinion, and differential.
• The axles can be full-floating or semi-floating.

Drives, retains
Drives the wheels.
and supports
Housing supports
the wheels.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Manual Transaxles
• On FWD vehicles, the TM and
differential are installed in
integrated unit.
• Only real difference is shape of
case and placement of parts in
case.
• Transverse or longitudinal engine
mount.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 References
• J. Asgari and D. Hrovat, “Modeling of Limited Slip Differential Using Bond
Graphs,” Proceedings of the Intl Conf on Bond Graph Modeling (ICBGM),
Phoenix, AZ, January 2001.
• R. Bosch, “Driving Safety Systems,” SAE, 1999.
• T. Denton, “Automobile Electrical and Electronic Systems,” SAE, 2000.
• H. Heisler, “Vehicle and Vehicle Engine Technology,” SAE, 1999.
• G.C. Goodwin, S.F. Graebe, and M.E. Salgado, “Control System Design,”
Prentice-Hall, 2001.
• M.W. Stockel, M.T. Stockel, and C. Johanson, “Auto Fundamentals,” The
Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc., Tinley Park, IL, 1996.
• W.B. Ribbens, “Understanding Automotive Electronics,” Newnes, 1998 (5th
edition). (1982 edition, Radio Shack)
• A.G. Ulsoy and H. Peng, Course Notes for ME 568, Chapter 8: “Traction
Control”, University of Michigan, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 1997.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Appendix B

Limited-Slip Differentials

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Differential Lock
A differential lock such
as this can be manually
engaged while the Note how one of the
vehicle is moving up to bevel sun gears is
about 10 mph. extended here and it
has “dog-teeth” on it.
Above a certain speed,
there may be an
automatic
disengagement to
prevent undue windup
and/or tire slip/scrub.
Control fork is used to
engage the dog clutch.
The fork is actuated
Heisler (1999) via a geared motor..

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Limited-Slip Differentials
• The LSDIFF contains internal components that
“automatically transfer the torque to the wheel that is
not slipping” (Stockel, et al 1996).
• Types of LS-DIFFs
– Friction type: clutch plate (Sure-Grip, Positraction, Traction-
Lok) and cone clutch
– Gear type: Torsen® and hypoid

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 Limited-Slip Differentials
Torsen LS-DIFF uses gearing.

Sure-Grip
is friction
based.

ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 LS – DIFF Bond Graph Model
Asgari and Hrovat (2001) (from Ford SRL controls group)
The bond graph below shows a model for a Dana Trac-Loc limited slip
differential. Note that the torque delivered to the tire-surface interface (simply
modeled here by two linear R elements) is the combined torque from the two
half-shafts (the two C elements).

The effect of the ‘limiting slip’ device (also an R) is to determine the twist of the
shafts, along with the slip in the wheels, which in turn determines the torque.
Half-shaft compliance

Tire-surface losses

Slip control element

Tire-surface losses

Half-shaft compliance
ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin
 How a LS-DIFF controls over-spin
– a bond graph perspective
Conventional Differential Tire on ice µl Note, there is an
(or jacked up) algebraic loop in this
Tire on ice
(or jacked up) µl
graph, but it shows
how a torque induced
T=0 T=0
ω = 2 ⋅ ω in ⋅ GR Limited-Slip TLS-DIFF by the LS-DIFF helps
GR
.. Differential 1 generate traction.
T 0
ωin (LS-DIFF) TLS-DIFF
T=0 ω=0
GR TLS-DIFF
Grounded tire µh ..
T 0 0 R
ωin
The LS-DIFF uses the difference in speeds TLS-DIFF
to generate a torque.
1
Is this a ‘feedback control’ device? 2 ⋅ TLS-DIFF
Grounded tire µh
ME 379M/397 – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control The University of Texas at Austin