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AHE 01

HUMAN ENVIRONMENT

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1. Differentiate between the following :

a) Natural Environment and man-made environment

SOLUTION The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally,
meaning in this case not artificial. The term is most often applied to the Earth or some parts of Earth. This
environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather and natural resources that
affect human survival and economic activity. The concept of the natural environment can be distinguished as
components:

• Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive civilized human intervention,
including all vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere, and natural phenomena that occur within
their boundaries and their nature.
• Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries, such as air, water, and
climate, as well as energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism, not originating from civilized human
actions.

In contrast to the natural environment is the built environment. In such areas where man has fundamentally
transformed landscapes such as urban settings and agricultural land conversion, the natural environment is
greatly modified into a simplified human environment. Even acts which seem less extreme, such as building a
mud hut or a photovoltaic system in the desert, the modified environment becomes an artificial one. Though
many animals build things to provide a better environment for themselves, they are not human, hence beaver
dams, and the works of Mound-building termites, are thought of as natural.

People seldom find absolutely natural environments on Earth, and naturalness usually varies in a continuum,
from 100% natural in one extreme to 0% natural in the other. More precisely, we can consider the different
aspects or components of an environment, and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform. If, for
instance, in an agricultural field, the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil are similar to those
of an undisturbed forest soil, but the structure is quite different.

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Man made environment

Man has made many contributions to environment. These are earlier results of our scientific and development
strategies. In this section, we discuss about dams, environmental health issues, habitat, people and
environment, parks, pollution and traffic issues and more.

Man Made Environment comprises of the environment, which has been created by man himself for the
purpose of full- filling his needs and in order to make his life more convenient and easy.

Effect of man-made environment on human behavior:

The most historic example of a man made disaster would include the technological disasters such as the Three
Mile Island (1979), Chernobyl (1986), and Bhopal MIC Disaster (1984), etc., have intense and long-term
adverse effects on the lives of people. In the Bhopal disaster the death toll was more than 3000 and over
2,00,000 were left physically injured. Studies indicate that such persons continue to suffer from psychological
problems such as
a) Anxiety
b) Withdrawal Symptoms
c) Depression
d) Stress
e) Anger
f) Nightmares

Effects of air pollution: air pollution leads to various physiological problems such as reduced visibility, eye
irritation, headache, nausea, insomnia and various respiratory and related diseases. Along with which it is seen
that psychological problems are on the rise during periods of high level of air pollution. For e.g.
1) There are more emergency visits to the specialists for depression on days, which are viewed by individuals
as cloudy and humid.

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2) Along with particulate and poisonous substances, odour is also involved in our response to impure air. In
general, bad smell evokes negative feelings and thus an environment, in contrast, which has pleasant smell,
works in the opposite way leading to positive and friendly behavior.
b) Food chain and Food Web
SOLUTION Food chains
Now, we can take a look at how energy and nutrients move through a ecological community. Let's start by
considering just a few who-eats-who relationships by looking at a food chain.

A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms through which nutrients and energy pass as one organism eats
another. Let's look at the parts of a typical food chain, starting from the bottom—the producers—and moving
upward.

• At the base of the food chain lie the primary producers. The primary producers are autotrophy and are most
often photosynthetic organisms such as plants, algae, or cyanobacteria.

• The organisms that eat the primary producers are called primary consumers. Primary consumers are
usually herbivores, plant-eaters, though they may be algae eaters or bacteria eaters.

• The organisms that eat the primary consumers are called secondary consumers. Secondary consumers are
generally meat-eaters—carnivores.

• The organisms that eat the secondary consumers are called tertiary consumers. These are carnivore-eating
carnivores, like eagles or big fish.

• Some food chains have additional levels, such as quaternary consumers—carnivores that eat tertiary
consumers. Organisms at the very top of a food chain are called apex consumers.

We can see examples of these levels in the diagram below. The green algae are primary producers that get
eaten by mollusks—the primary consumers. The mollusks then become lunch for the slimy sculpin fish, a
secondary consumer, which is itself eaten by a larger fish, the Chinook salmon—a tertiary consumer.

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Each of the categories above is called a trophic level, and it reflects how many transfers of energy and
nutrients—how many consumption steps—separate an organism from the food chain's original energy source,
such as light. As we’ll explore further below, assigning organisms to trophic levels isn't always clear-cut. For
instance, humans are omnivores that can eat both plants and animals.
Food webs
Food chains give us a clear-cut picture of who eats whom. However, some problems come up when we try and
use them to describe whole ecological communities.

For instance, an organism can sometimes eat multiple types of prey or be eaten by multiple predators,
including ones at different trophic levels. This is what happens when you eat a hamburger patty! The cow is a
primary consumer, and the lettuce leaf on the patty is a primary producer.

To represent these relationships more accurately, we can use a food web, a graph that shows all the trophic—
eating-related—interactions between various species in an ecosystem. The diagram below shows an example
of a food web from Lake Ontario. Primary producers are marked in green, primary consumers in orange,
secondary consumers in blue, and tertiary consumers in purple.

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In food webs, arrows point from an organism that is eaten to the organism that eats it. As the food web above
shows, some species can eat organisms from more than one trophic level. For example, opossum shrimp eat
both primary producers and primary consumers.

2. Write short notes on the following :

a) Bhopal Tragedy
SOLUTION
The Bhopal gas tragedy, also called the Bhopal disaster, was a gas leak incident in India, considered the world's
worst industrial disaster. It occurred on the night of 2–3 December 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited
(UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. Over 500,000 people were exposed to methyl isocyanate
(MIC) gas and other chemicals. The highly toxic substance made its way into and around the shanty towns
located near the plant. The MP govt confirmed a total of 3,787 deaths related to the gas release. Others
estimate that 8,000 died within two weeks, and another 8,000 or more have since died from gas-related
diseases. The cause of the disaster remains under debate. The owner of the factory, UCIL, was majority
owned by UCC, with Indian Government-controlled banks and the Indian public holding a 49.1 percent stake.
In 1989, UCC paid $470m ($907m in 2014 dollars) to settle litigation stemming from the disaster. In 1994, UCC
sold its stake in UCIL to Eveready Industries India Limited (EIIL), which subsequently merged with McLeod
Russel (India) Ltd. .Civil and criminal cases were filed in the District Court of Bhopal, India, involving UCC and
Warren Anderson, UCC CEO at the time of the disaster. In June 2010, seven ex-employees, including the
former UCIL chairman, were convicted in Bhopal of causing death by negligence and sentenced to two years
imprisonment and a fine of about $2,000 each, the maximum punishment allowed by Indian law.

b) Chernobyl Accident
SOLUTION The Chernobyl disaster, also referred to as the Chernobyl accident, was a catastrophic nuclear
accident. It occurred on 25–26 April 1986 in the No. 4 light water graphite moderated reactor at the Chernobyl
Nuclear Power Plant near the now-abandoned town of Pripyat, in northern Ukrainian Soviet Socialist
Republic, Soviet Union, approximately 104 km (65 mi) north of Kiev.

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The event occurred during a late-night safety test which simulated a station blackout power-failure, in the
course of which safety systems were intentionally turned off. A combination of inherent reactor design
flaws and the reactor operators arranging the core in a manner contrary to the checklist for the test,
eventually resulted in uncontrolled reaction conditions. Water flashed into steam generating a
destructive steam explosion and a subsequent open-air graphite fire.This fire produced
considerable updrafts for about nine days. These lofted plumesof fission products into the atmosphere. The
estimated radioactive inventory that was released during this very hot fire phase approximately equaled in
magnitude the airborne fission products released in the initial destructive explosion.This radioactive
material precipitated onto parts of the western USSR and other European countries.

During the accident, steam-blast effects caused two deaths within the facility: one immediately after the
explosion, and the other compounded by a lethal dose of radiation. Over the coming days and weeks, 134
servicemen were hospitalized with acute radiation sickness (ARS), of which 28 firemen and employees died in
the days-to-months afterward.Additionally approximately fourteen radiation induced cancer deaths among
this group of 134 hospitalized survivors were to follow within the next ten years (1996). Among the wider
population, an excess of 15 childhood thyroid cancer deaths were documented as of 2011. It will take further
time and investigation to definitively determine the elevated relative risk of cancer among the surviving
employees, those that were initially hospitalized with ARS, and the population at large.

The Chernobyl accident is considered the most disastrous nuclear power plant accident in history, both in
terms of cost and casualties. It is one of only two nuclear energy accidents classified as a level 7 event (the
maximum classification) on the International Nuclear Event Scale, the other being the Fukushima Daiichi
nuclear disaster in Japan in 2011.The struggle to safeguard against scenarios which were perceived as having
the potential for greater catastrophe, together with later decontaminationefforts of the surroundings,
ultimately involved over 500,000 workers and cost an estimated 18 billion rubles.

c) Biomagnifications
SOLUTION Biomagnification, also known as bioamplification or biological magnification, is the increasing
concentration of a substance, such as a toxic chemical, in the tissues of tolerant organisms at successively
higher levels in a food chain. This increase can occur as a result of:

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• Persistence – where the substance cannot be broken down by environmental processes

• Food chain energetics – where the substance's concentration increases progressively as it moves up a food
chain
• Low or non-existent rate of internal degradation or excretion of the substance – often due to water-
insolubility

Biomagnification is the build up of toxins in a food chain. The DDT concentration is in parts per million. As the
trophic level increases in a food chain, the amount of toxic build up increases. The x's represent the amount of
toxic build up accumulating as the trophic level increases. Toxins build up in organism's fat and tissue.
Predators accumulate higher toxins than prey.

Biological magnification often refers to the process whereby certain substances such as pesticides or heavy
metals work their way into lakes, rivers and the ocean, and then move up the food chain in progressively
greater concentrations as they are incorporated into the diet of aquatic organisms such as zooplankton, which
in turn are eaten perhaps by fish, which then may be eaten by bigger fish, large birds, animals, or humans. The
substances become increasingly concentrated in tissues or internal organs as they move up the chain.
Bioaccumulants are substances that increase in concentration in living organisms as they take in contaminated
air, water, or food because the substances are very slowly metabolized or excreted.

d) Nitrogen cycle

SOLUTION The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into multiple
chemical forms as it circulates among atmosphere, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. The conversion of
nitrogen can be carried out through both biological and physical processes. Important processes in the
nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. The majority of Earth's
atmosphere (78%) is atmosphere nitrogen, making it the largest source of nitrogen. However, atmospheric
nitrogen has limited availability for biological use, leading to a scarcity of usable nitrogen in many types
of ecosystems.

The nitrogen cycle is of particular interest to ecologists because nitrogen availability can affect the rate of key
ecosystem processes, including primary production and decomposition. Human activities such as fossil fuel

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combustion, use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers, and release of nitrogen in wastewater have
dramatically altered the global nitrogen cycle.

e) Eutrophication
SOLUTION Eutrophication (from Greek eutrophos, "well-nourished"), or hypertrophication, is when a body
of water becomes overly enriched with minerals and nutrients which induce excessive growth of plants and
algae.[This process may result in oxygen depletion of the water body.One example is the "bloom" or great
increase of phytoplankton in a water body as a response to increased levels of nutrients. Eutrophication is
almost always induced by the discharge of nitrate or phosphate-containing detergents, fertilizers,
or sewageinto an aquatic system.

f) Incineration
SOLUTION
The process called incineration or combustion—chemically, rapid oxidation—can be used to convert VOCs and
other gaseous hydrocarbon pollutants to carbon dioxide and water. Incineration of VOCs and hydrocarbon
fumes usually is accomplished in a special incinerator called an afterburner. To achieve complete combustion,
the afterburner must provide the proper amount of turbulence and burning time, and it must maintain a
sufficiently high temperature. Sufficient turbulence, or mixing, is a key factor in combustion because it reduces
the required burning time and temperature. A process called direct flame incineration can be used when the
waste gas is itself a combustible mixture and does not need the addition of air or fuel.
An afterburner typically is made of a steel shell lined with refractory material such as firebrick. The refractory
lining protects the shell and serves as a thermal insulator. Given enough time and high enough temperatures,
gaseous organic pollutants can be almost completely oxidized, with incineration efficiency approaching 100
percent. Certain substances, such as platinum, can act in a manner that assists the combustion reaction. These
substances, called catalysts, allow complete oxidation of the combustible gases at relatively low temperatures.
Afterburners are used to control odours, destroy toxic compounds, or reduce the amount of photo chemically
reactive substances released into the air. They are employed at a variety of industrial facilities where VOC
vapours are emitted from combustion processes or solvent evaporation (e.g., petroleum refineries, paint-
drying facilities, and paper mills).

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3. a) Discuss the concept of carrying capacity.

SOLUTION For a given region, carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals of a given species
that an area's resources can sustain indefinitely without significantly depleting or degrading those resources.
Determining the carrying capacities for most organisms is fairly straightforward. For humans carrying capacity
is much more complicated. The definition is expanded to include not degrading our cultural and social
environments and not harming the physical environment in ways that would adversely affect future
generations.

For populations which grow exponentially, growth starts out slowly, enters a rapid growth phase and then
levels off when the carrying capacity for that species has been reached. The size of the population then
fluctuates slightly above or below the carrying capacity. Reproductive lag time may cause the population to
overshoot the carrying capacity temporarily. Reproductive lag time is the time required for the birth rate to
decline and the death rate to increase in response to resource limits. In this scenario, the population will suffer
a crash or dieback to a lower level near the carrying capacity unless a large number of individuals can emigrate
to an area with more favorable conditions. An area's carrying capacity is not static. The carrying capacity may
be lowered by resource destruction and degradation during an overshoot period or extended through
technological and social changes. An example of dieback occurred in Ireland after a fungus infection
destroyed the potato crop in 1845. During this potato famine approximately 1 million people died and 3
million people emigrated to other countries. Increased food production due to improved agricultural
practices, control of many diseases by modern medicine and the use of energy to make historically
uninhabitable areas of Earth inhabitable are examples of things which can extend carrying capacity.

3 b) Explain the effects of over exploitation on physical and biological components of environment.
SOLUTION
1 Physical Environment
Effects of Overexploitation of Biological Resources As you have studied earlier, forests play an important role
in maintaining oxygen supply and freshness of the air we breathe. They bind soil, intercept heavy rainfall and
help in recharging the underground waters. They act as environmental buffers regulating climate and

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atmospheric humidity. They stop erosion of soil by reducing the speed of run off waters and velocity of strong
surface winds. Thus, they help prevent degradation in the physical environment. If forests are cut down, land
is degraded, soil is eroded and transported with surface run off thus polluting the water. The destruction of
natural vegetation cover causes loss of top soil. It is virtually irreplaceable as nature takes about a hundred
odd years to build an inch of top soil. As a consequence of heavy desertification, Aravali hills, for example,
have become woefully naked. Vast portions of the land are turning into waste lands. There has developed a
discernible desert that stretches from Rajasthan to West Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Kamataka.
Denuded areas are converted from a relatively stable zone into . one of unpredictable climate. Chronic
draughts in some parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat, and i floods in some other parts of the country bear a
testimony to this. Similarly, water level of the rivers is decreasing at an alarming rate. A shrinking forest cover
coupled with over exploitation of ground water has accelerated erosion along the slopes of the lower
Himalayas, and Aravali hills, making them prone to landslides. Forest cover in this area has reduced by nearly
13 per cent during the past 23 yew,. Secondly, destruction of the forest has had a fatal impact on the rainfall
pattern. You will read in a later section how desertification in the Aravali hills has led to serious problems. Lack
of adequate forest cover has resulted in water flowing off the ground. washing away the top soil which is
finally deposited as silt in the river beds. Unofficial I sources claim that the quantum of top soil displaced in our
country by water erosion alone was 6,000 Mt a year in the early 1970s. The extent of erosion itself has almost
doubled over the last 19 years. The estimated cost of 12,000 Mt of soil works out to be 6,000 crore rupees.
The overall actual losses would be even more if calculated in terms of agricultural, animal and forestry
production that is being lost every year as a result of soil erosion. It is estimated that the country loses 30-50
Mt. of food grains every year as a result of soil erosion. The loss of top soil is maximum in India, being 18.5 per
cent of the global soil . loss. This is indeed very serious, considering the fact that lndia has only 2.4 per cent of
the I land area of the world.

Mining on hill slopes disrupts the natural physiographic linkages amongst mountain slopes, plateaus and
plams. As you have already learnt, for every tonne of saleable ore about 2 tonnes of mine qpoils must be
removed and dumped. This process destroys original vegetation on slopes and also retards natural
regenerative capability while scarce cultivated terraces or orchards are irreversibly lost. Under such conditions
even from a small area of 25 hectares in Doon Valley, where limestone was being quarried, as much as 740

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tonnes of boulders tumbled down the slope in one year. Coal mining is extensive in Bihar. West Bengal, Madhy
a Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. There are 4052 working mines, including 478 coal mines,
many of these are open cast type. Ironically these mines are generally located in thick forests and agricultural
areas. The associated land degradation is through deforestation, spoil dumps and over-burden subsidence.

2 biological Environment
So far, we have learnt that every ecosystem maintains dynamic equilibrium between its living and non-living
components. Like other biotic components, the wild animals also require an environment that provides living
and foraging space, right type of nourishment for growth and better chances of escape from enemies. Besides
their natural enemies, man's greed has led to a great loss of wildlife and elimination of habitat of the species
which play an important role in ecosystem functioning. The increasing demand for wildlife products has led to
indiscriminate slaughter of many species. Many Himalayan bears have been killed for their gall bladder, which
is powdered and sent to Japan where it is valued as an aphrodisiac. Large scale smuggling of snake skin has
endangered several species of snakes particularly king cobra, pythons and rat snakes. Japan is the world's
largest trader in endangered species. Japan and to some extent France are responsible for decimating the rare
musk deer from Nepal. Over the first nine months of 1987, the Japanese market imported '8 18 kg of musk to
be used as aphrodisiac. With about 80 deer required to produce one kg of musk, some 80,000 deer were
slaughtered in this period alone - a substantial part of their existing population.

3 c) Discuss the effects of urbanization on environments

SOLUTION
I) Changes in Land Use : Towns and cities grow with economic growth of human societies. These, therefore,
emerge at locations where land provides a base for some viable economic activity both of agricultural and
non-agricultural types. These. therefore, subsist on land. As towns grow they invade the productive crop lands
and rich forests. Both intracity and regionally open lands are converted into built-up area. Thus, the land with
all its biological resources is irreversibly lost. An estimated area of 1.5 MHz of good agricultural land has been
gobbled up by towns and cities since 1950 and another 8 MHz of such land may similarly be diverted for this
purpose by 2000 AD. The first Master Plan of Delhi envisaged an area of 44,000 ha and called for acquiring
32,000 ha of agricultural land. Within 20 years, the city has expanded by about 35%. Indian cities which are 30

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years or older, have lost practically all wild life from their suburbs due to encroachment on agriculture land in
their surroundings.

11) Depletion of Water Resources : Water requirement of the urban population also increases many times and
almost all of it has to be met through the water supply system. With the rapidly increasing urban population,
and limited resources it is becoming increasingly difficult to meet the requirements of the municipal water
supply. In Bombay as against the estimated 305 liters per capita per day, only 227.5 liters are being supplied.
Delhi is no better with average water supply of 267 liters per capita per day. It may be mentioned that these
are 'A' class cities, in smaller towns the position of water supply is much worse. . Due to extensive built-up
areas, the local ground water recharges decline and the cities have , . to draw water from outside. With
further growth, the demands increase and the cities draw I from distant sources. Presectly Delhi is drawing
water from Ramganga, 180 km away, , lndore from Narmada, 75 km away and Bangalore from Cauvery at a
distance of IO{l km. Madras is seeking water from Krishna in Andhra Pradesh and Cauvery in Karnataka with
600 m lift. In each of these cases. water for the cities has to be drawn at the cost of cultivation and rural
demands. Since the water is drawn from long distances, it follows paths different than the natural hydroIogic
routes and therefore, will affect the ecosystems.

111) Building Materials : Construction of houses and other structures need large quantities of building
materials. Delhi's estimated need is 80.000 new houses every year. These would require 1',100 million bricks
annually while kilns in Delhi can make only 140 million bricks a year. The rest come from the adjoining areas
comprising fertile land thus causing further damage to good agricultural land.

IV) Industries : Industrial development goes almost hand in hand with urbanisation. Metropolitan towns like
Calcutta, Bombay and Madras are alarming examples. Nearly 60% of the industries in Maharashtra are located
in Bombay alone. Industries draw upon water resources heavily. Water requirement per tonne of produce in a
crude oil refinery is between 1-3 m" it is 5-8 m3 for. dairy, 20-40 m3 for textiles, 100-250 m3 for steel, 250-
400 m3 for pulp and paper and 400-600 m3 for viscose rayon.

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4. a) Discuss the effects of pollution on non-biological systems.

SOLUTION
1 Climatic Effects
Greenhouse Effect : During the past two centuries, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased
dramatically. The probable cause is the burning of fossil fuels and burning of forests by farmers. Scientists
have been worrying that the growing burden of carbon dioxide and other gases may change the earth's
climate. In normal circumstances, much of the solar radiation that penetrates the earths' atmosphere is re-
radiated as heat from the earth's surface, and dissipates into space. But an increase of carbon dioxide allows
most solar radiations to penetrate the atmosphere, but prevents part of the heat re: radiated by the land and
water+bodies from escaping into space. As carbon dioxide accumulates, enough heat may be trapped to
gradually warm the atmosphere. Other gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect are methane and
chlorofluorocarbons. Methane is attributed to release. from livestock manure, additional rice fields, and
digestion of termites proliferating on dead wood left by worldwide clearing of forests.

Most emissions from industrial plants and factories fall in the'areas nearby. Some are carried away by winds to
be washed from the sky by snow, rain, or mist. But some chemicals, such as chlorofluorocarbons, do not
dissolve or recombine at lower levels. They rise to higher levels and contaminate the stratosphere.
Chlorofluorocarbons are used as refrigerants and in some places, still used as 'spraycan propellants'. They aid
to the greenhouse effect as they drift upwards. Researchers estimate that the exp5cted rise in atmospheric
ternperature_wo.ulcLbe 20C by the end of the century if the greenhouse gases continue to increase at current
rates. Higher global temperature would cause glaciers to melt, and also lead to an expansion of the oceans
because warm water occupies larger volume than cold water. If the levels of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere double, sea level will rise; estimates of the average rise vary between 0.5 to 2.5 metres. This is
expected to occur gradually in the next century affecting coastal areas where about a billion people, a quarter
of the world's population now live

Acid Rain : Sulphur dioxide released from coal burning power plants, industrial boilers and smelters, is
normally carried away and gets oxidised in the atmosphere. But when it gets absorbed in suspended
particulate matter in the air such as dust, fly ash, etc. and comes in contact with moisture droplets, it turns

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into sulphuriciacid. The same, thing can happen when it comes in contact with the moist tissue imp the lungs.
Similarly, nitrogen dioxide gas from motor vehicle exhaust is convert d into nitric acid. Unless they are
neutralised in reaction with alkaline compounds i the atmosphere, these strong acids eventually return to the
earth as 'acid rain'. t Rainfall in unpolluted areas is usually slightly acidic with a pH between 5.5 and 6.5
because water and carbon dioxide combine in the atmosphere to form a weak acid, carbonic acid. The pH of
acid rain is often less than 4, even 3 to 3.5 is not unusual. Acid rain corrodes metals and limestone, causing
extensive damage. It damages vegetation and wildlife, etches car finish and erodes buildings and bridges.
Moreover, acid rain is seldom localised. These pollutants can travel hundreds, even thousands of kilometres to
rain far away with no respect for state of national boundaries. The overall effect of acid, rains on ecosystems is
not well understood, but it has the potential for serious damage. Sweden's forests have suffered a reduction
in growth rate, starting in the 1950s, thought to be dueto acid rains. The fish like salmon and trout have
disappeared from Swedish lakes and streams where the pH has fallen much below 5. The origin of acid rain in
Sweden has been traced to Western Europe, especially the United Kingdom. Acid rain has also taken its toll on
the conifer forests of West' Germany. As acids leach nutrients from their leaves and soil, spruce and fir trees
are dying. Aluminium and heavy metals such as cadmium, are present in many soils but generally remain
immobile. In Germany, they have become mobile in the presence of acids and are sucked up by trees into
their systems causing more damage to already weakened trees. Acid rains can also affect soil microorganisms,
especially those responsible for nitrogen fixation. They can influence the behaviour of bacterial and fungal
pathogens.

2 Corrosive and Soiling Effects

Buildings, bridges and other man-made structures can be soiled and damaged extensively by pollution. The
accumulation of dirt and organisms that utilise polluted products can alter the appearance of a building. But
most damage is caused by acids present both in the air and in rain-water. Stone work may get corroded. A
case in point is the marble Parthenon in Athens. Sulphur oxides in the smog over Athens chemically transform
marble into g: sum, causing it tocrack and flake off. This has caused more erosion of the frieze panels of the
Parthenon in the past twenty four years than had occurred him twenty four centuries. The Westminster Abbey
in London, and the ancient Roman Colloseum have also suffered such damage due to acid deposition.

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In India, acid rain threatens our famous monument, the Taj Mahal. Crude-oil refineries situated in nearby
Mathura, spew out vast quantities of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere. This sulph~r dioxide is carried by
winds to Agra, among other places, where it gets adsorbed by water droplets.and rains down on the Taj
Mahal. The Taj Mahal, made only of marble slabs, is susceptible to corrosion. The damage to this majestic
monwent, once it takes place, will be irreversible. Therefore, there is a need to monitor both the quality of the
sulphur dioxide emissions from the refinery as well as the wind direction in the area. It is essential, in any case,
that suitable measures should be taken for the removal of sulphur dioxide from refinery emissions

3 Ozone Depletion
The stratospheric pool of ozone is continually being proguced and destroyed. Production takes place when
molecular oxygen 01 is split by ultraviolet (Jv) solar radiation and the resulting oxygen atoms, 'O', attach
themselvel to other Oa molecules

Ozone can impair vision and breathing when it occurs in smog. But, in the upper atmosphere, 12 to 30 miles
above the ground, it protects life on earth by intercepting the sun's damaging uv radiations. During the past
ten years, however, this protective layer of ozone has become thinner over the South Pole. From 1979 to the
present, the hole has deepened within which ozone concentration has fallen by almost 40%. . Some scientists
believe that the ozone was attacked by chlorine released by chlorofluorocarbons, widely used as industrial
chemicals. When chlorofluorocarbons, which drift upwards, reach the stratosphere, they react destructively
with ozone. Ozone can also be destroyed by nitric oxides from emissions of supersonic jets. It is also possible

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that ozone was pushed aside by the up wellings of air from lower levels of ,the atmosphere. Whatever the
cause, the potential effects could be serious. If the ozone that protects us from excessive radiations,
continues to disappear, it would result in an increase in melanomas and skin cancer incidents as well as a
reduction in crop yield.

b) Explain the causes of land degradation and its effects.

SOLUTION
Causes of Land Degradation
Natural
Human Activities
Extent of Land Degradation

1 Natural
Soil is a complex body and forms the thin outer layer of the earth. It is directly or indirectly developed from
the mineral constituents of the rocks. The first phase of this process is weathering which is essentially physico-
chemical in nature. Weathering leads to simplification of complex substances forming rocks through
disintegratihn. The second phase is soil formation through the process of consolidation. This is bio- ,gee-
chemical in nature. The process encompasses certain biological influences which result in the synthesis of
many substances leading to the development of complex soil bodies with definite physical, chemical and
biological properties. This natural process of weathering is slow and is a part of the evolutionary cycle. The
intensity of this natural erosion process can be realised from the rate of denudation or the rate of lowering of
land surface. Denudation rates vary widely in India, particularly in the Himalayan belt. For Sutlej basin it is 0.21
mm per year, while it is 20mm per year in Darjeeling. But the general estimate for the earth, as a whole, is
between 0.1 to 1.Omm per year. Much of the natural erosion is neutralised by the uplift or rise of land surface.
The estimated range is from per year to 9mm per year. However, analysis of available information on soil
losses; sedimentation rates and other related data from India, leads to the conclusion that estimated uplift
rate is lower than 5 mm per year.

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2 Human Activities
Among all the life forms that have lived and are living on this earth, human beings have caused serious
transformation of natural resource base to subserve various requirements of human society. The interventions
are manifold. Often these are intended to obtain maximum from the mother eartp, and in the process, hav~
wrought severe disturbances to the balance in the bio-geo-&sicalssysterns. These have reduced the earth's
capacity to absorb adverse effects and have impaired its regenerative ability to restore the losses suffered
through'exploitation. On the other hand, there have been deliberate destructive actions, such as those during
the world wide wars which have caused serious damages to the natural defence of this planet. More
important interventions are as follows :

a) Deforestation
b) Farming
c) Economic activities : Mining, etc.
d) Developmental works : Settlements, Transport and Communication

3 Extent of Soil Erosion

Neither a comprehensive survey for the country as a whole, nor any rapid survey for a reasonable extent of
the country, has.been made on the extent of soil erosion. Till 15 years ago, no attempt was made to collect
available information from different sources and correlate it with other statistics with a view to assess the
magnitude and extent of various soil-related problems in the country. In the early 1970s, the National
Commission on Agriculture (NCA), carried out such an exercise for the country as a whole and indicated that
about 175 MHz or nearly 5Wo of the country's geographical area is subjected to problems of soil erosion and
different types of land degradation

5. Write short notes on the following :

a) Communicable diseases

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SOLUTION A communicable disease is one that is spread from one person to another through a variety of
ways that include: contact with blood and bodily fluids; breathing in an airborne virus; or by being bitten by an
insect.

Reporting of cases of communicable disease is important in the planning and evaluation of disease prevention
and control programs, in the assurance of appropriate medical therapy, and in the detection of common-
source outbreaks. California law mandates healthcare providers and laboratories to report over 80 diseases or
conditions to their local health department. Some examples of the reportable communicable diseases include
Hepatitis A, B & C, influenza, measles, and salmonella and other food borne illnesses.

b) Industrial Wastes
SOLUTION Industrial waste is the waste produced by industrial activity which includes any material that is
rendered useless during a manufacturing process such as that of factories, industries, mills, and mining
operations. It has existed since the start of the Industrial Revolution. Some examples of industrial wastes
are chemical solvents, pigments, sludge, metals, ash, paints, sandpaper, paper products, industrial by-
products, and radioactive wastes.

Toxic waste, chemical waste, industrial solid waste and municipal solid waste are designations of industrial
wastes. Sewage treatment plants can treat some industrial wastes, i.e. those consisting of conventional
pollutants such as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Industrial wastes containing toxic pollutants require
specialized treatment systems. (See Industrial wastewater treatment)

c) Radiation and health

SOLUTION Radiation is energy that moves through space or matter at a very high speed. This energy can be
in the form of particles, such as alpha or beta particles, which are emitted from radioactive materials, or
waves such as light, heat, radiowaves, microwaves, x-rays and gamma rays. Radioactive materials, also known
as radionuclides or radioisotopes, are atomsthat are unstable. In nature, there is a tendency for unstable
atoms to change into a stable form. As they change form, they release radiation.

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Radiation that can produce ions when it interacts with matter is called ionizing radiation. Ions are the charged
particles that are produced when electrons are removed from their positions in the atoms. Alpha particles,
beta particles, x-rays and gamma rays are forms of ionizing radiation. On the other hand, radiation that is not
capable of producing ions in matter is known as nonionizing radiation.

Radiowaves, microwaves, heat waves, visible light and ultraviolet radiation are forms of nonionizing
radiation. This booklet focuses on the health effects of ionizing radiation. For information on nonionizing
radiation, contact the New York State Department of Health at 518-402-7550.

How does ionizing radiation affect health?

Ionizing radiation affects health when it causes changes in the cells of the human body. It does this by
breaking the chemical bonds that hold together groups of atoms called molecules.

For example, DNA molecules, which contain a person's genetic information, control the chemical and physical
functions of human cells. If damaged, the DNA molecules are able to repair the damage in most cases; but in
some instances, damage to DNA molecules will affect the ability of the cells to do their work and to pass
information to new cells.

How is the radiation dose measured?

As radiation moves through matter, some of its energy is absorbed into the material. The amount of radiation
energy deposited per unit of mass of matter is known as the absorbed dose. The unit of measurement for an
absorbed dose of radiation is the rad. When radiation is absorbed by living tissue, the type of radiation, in
addition to the absorbed dose, is important in determining the degree of damage that may occur. Alpha
radiation, which is heavier and carries more electric charge, causes more damage than beta or gamma
radiation. To account for this difference and to give the dose from all types of radiation a common measure, a
quantity known as dose equivalent is used. The dose equivalent is found by multiplying the absorbed dose (in
rads) by a "quality factor" for the specific type of radiation. The unit for this measurement is called the rem. In
many cases, the amount of radiation dose equivalent is much less than one rem. So, a smaller unit, the
millirem, is used (1 rem = 1,000 millirem).

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d) Database on communities
SOLUTION
A database is one of the most crucial tools that any community group or organisation can have.
The successful recording, storing and organisation of data on your group's members, donors, volunteers,
fundraisers, supporters, stakeholders, associates and anyone else connected to you, can make the difference
between a healthy community group which communicates well with its contacts and one which struggles to
stay in touch with any level of effectiveness. There are a number of similar definitions of what a database is,
with many emphasising the need for it to be an organised collection of information or data. Some definitions
narrow it to being "related information", while others mention the need for the database to be "stored on
computer". However, a database does not necessarily have to be stored electronically, even though that is the
most favoured and easiest to operate methods. A database can in fact be as simple as a card file containing
contacts' details in alphabetical order. What is important about any good database is for it to be organised in
some way.

It is no use taking the time and trouble to gather and record the data if it is so disorganised that your group
can't find it or utilise it when the time is right

6. a) Discuss the concept of sustainable development.

SOLUTION The term sustainable development became fashionable in the 1980s in both the world conserva-
tion strategy and the book entitled “Our Common Future”, known as the Brundtland Report, 1987. These two
publications have led to detailed discussions over the implications of sustainable development for academic
enquiry, policy making and action.

For the academic community, there has been an explosion of interest in the definition of the term sustainable
development as well as numerous studies, which have attempted to measure or model sustainable, as
opposed to unsustainable development.

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From the perspective of policy makes, in both the private and public sectors of the economy, a growing
number of agencies has seen that sustainable development appears to be an important paradigm for the
twenty first century.

The concept of sustainable development (SD) can be defined as maintenance and sustainable utilisation of the
functions (goods and services) provided by natural ecosystems and biospheric processes. Conversely, in a
situation of un sustainability, where the limits of the biosphere’s carrying capacity (CC) are exceeded, not all of
the environmental functions can be fully fulfilled anymore. Let us recall some of the concepts and definitions
of SD which integrate ecological and economic regimentations.

b) Explain the need for wildlife conservation.

SOLUTION Each species on the planet is important for the continuance of the food chain. Wildlife and their
habitat have numerous benefits for the existence of humans as well as the flora and fauna. In India, for
instance, forests that house animals like tigers, elephants, hornbills and cobras are also watersheds of some
primary rivers of India. Survival of wildlife is therefore dependent on the survival of forests. Forests are also
home to millions of species of plants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
They are therefore a treasure house of nature. If there is a lack of trees and grasslands, it will lead to lack of
food for herbivores. If the herbivores are unable to survive, it will result in shortage of food for the carnivores.
Thus in case of destruction of forests, the food web will also be destroyed.

Not only are animals important for the survival of the food chain, they are important also because they
provide for economic activities like tourism. They add to the biological diversity of the region and maintain
ecological balance. Maintaining national parks and sanctuaries is a good way to preserve wildlife. Killing of
birds and animals is therefore banned in the country, but there is still a lot that needs to be done towards
preservation of wildlife.

The study of wildlife is also important to gain more knowledge about different species and their evolution.
Different species make for a thorough gene pool that can also be harnessed to safeguard different species.

How We Harm Animals?

Clearing Forests for Agriculture:

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Forest tracts are continually being cut to make way for agriculture and urbanization. This is leading to loss of
habitat for numerous species. It is estimated that as much five million hectares of forests in India have been
lost. To provide for the growing food needs of India, forest areas have been cleared along with fertile land and
grassland swamps. These were home to many rare species of the tigers and elephants.

Hunting and poaching:

Wildlife animals are hunted for various reasons.

Hunting is undertaken for pleasure of the rich and famous, killing many animal species. While hunting was
popular at a time when wildlife population was extensive, it is not so anymore. Today, apart from being
hunted for pleasure, wildlife is also being hunted for commercial purposes. Modern technologies which are
being used these days to hunt include modern firearms, automobile brake cables and steel wires, and anti-
malarial drugs are used to poison wildlife.

Poaching of wild animals as well as birds is rampant. They are being hunted for their horns, antlers, skin, bones
and feathers. Today, illegal global trade of wildlife is said to be almost $5 billion. Therefore, strict regulations
need to be in place to protect wildlife.

A number of animals are hunted for their fur, which fetches a good price in the international market.

Entertainment with Animals:

A number of animal species are hunted and trapped for their entertainment value. These animals are trained
to perform at the circus or in TV shows, etc. This implies a lot of cruelty to animals. For human entertainment,
animals are chained and kept in iron cages to keep them from wandering.

They are also treated with drugs to curb their normal activity and movement. The behaviour of these animals
is known to have changed due to the circumstances they live in. The small cages they are put in are packed
with other animals, leaving little space for movement. They are also made to survive on little food and water.
All of these cause a threat to the healthy survival of many of the animal species.

Livestock grazing:

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India has a large population of livestock. As human population grows, so does livestock population. Therefore,
animals like buffaloes, sheep, goats and cows are a concern for the security of protected areas. Livestock
grazes on the land that is meant for survival of herbivores. This is causing a threat to the survival of herbivores
in the environment. Livestock also cause spread of diseases, like foot and mouth disease and anthrax.

Using animals for research:

Animals are often hunted for research purposes. New medical and cosmetic experiments are carried out on
them. This often leads to death or harm to the health of these animals. They can also undergo behavioural
changes or their body parts are hurt.

7. a) Discuss the drawbacks in environmental legislation.

SOLUTION

Legislation is often not perfect. There are various drawbacks in the Acts enacted in relation to environment.
Forests constitute a vital resource of the nation. It is a scientifically established fact that the forest cover
should be at least 1/3 of the land area for a healthy state of environment. Vegetation generates oxygen. Trees
hold the soil together, and in India, the forests provide livelihood to millions of tribals and villagers living in
and around forests.

Experts and the mass media have brought to the attention of the decision makers and the public at large, the
fact that the forest cover of the country has been rapidly shrinking. Some estimates put the present coverage
at not more than 12% the land area. Fuel starved villagers, greedy forest contractors and corrupt officials are
the proven culprits.

Some time back, the Government came up with a well-meaning but potentially draconian Forest Bill. There
was virtually uproar against the Bill-principally on two grounds. One, that the Bill would make criminals of all
tribals living in and off the forests, because it prohibited the taking of all the produce, including leaves and
fruits from the forests. Two, the proposed Bill converted forest officers into judges and executioners at the
same time. The bill failed to attract public support because it adopted and oppressive colonial model of law.

The aborted Forest Bill and the raging controversies over the present and proposed conservation zones, which
strike at the root of the right of the villagers to graze their cattle, demonstrate that the central concern of all

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law-making should be man. Laws aimed at protecting the trees, animals and birds cannot in the process treat
people as marginal.

It may be mentioned here that the Directive Principles of State Policy obligate the state to its people certain
basic social and economic rights, which were described by Justice Krishna Iyer as follows:

“The Developmental directives of our Constitution are geared to social and economic justice.”

Again, the problems of individual-or-group inspired environmental litigation are different. The Water and Air
Pollution Acts do not permit individuals and groups direct access to courts.

The Central and State Boards are to act as conduits of public grievances. In other words, individuals have no
locus standi under the said Acts. To a certain degree, this lamentable lacunae have been plugged by the latest
Environment Protection Act. The number of suits admitted by the higher courts by way of the public interest
litigation procedure has made the rigid position of the Acts, denying locus stand to individuals, untenable.

How successful has been this category of environmental litigation? Some, like the Silent Valley, the Delhi gas
leakage cases, etc. have attracted media and public attention. But the same cases have also thrown up
intractable issues of standing, burden of proof, expert testimony and the very competence of the ordinary
courts to handle environmental disputes.

The rules of evidence courts to handle environmental disputes. The rules of evidence courts to handle
environmental disputes. The rules of evidence relating to burden of proof, particularly, have created and
unconscionable situation. An individual or even a committed group of individuals cannot be expected to
submit authoritative proof of objectionable radiation level, for instance. The inequality of the resources
available to the individual and the establishment make a mockery of the rules of evidence in environmental
disputes

b) Explain the strategy for environmental management

SOLUTION The Environment Management Strategy 2014-2017 was adopted by Council on 28 October 2014.
It guides Council planning, decision making and activities that impact on the greater Geelong environment.
The strategy provides a framework to build healthy, connected communities, which are able to live in a clean
environment that is respected and cared for.

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This strategy was developed with a great deal of participation by the community.

It documents the condition of our environment, key challenges and opportunities and identifies actions to
relieve threatening processes, protect and conserve our unique environment and promote ecologically
sustainable development.

Council has adopted the principles of One Planet Living to guide our thinking and approach to sustainability.
These principles outlined below provide a basis for determining where we need to be at all levels of society if
we are to live sustainably into the future.

• Health and Happiness

• Equity and Local Economy

• Culture and Community

• Land Use and Wildlife

• Sustainable Water

• Local and Sustainable Food

• Sustainable Materials

• Sustainable Transport

• Zero Waste

• Zero Carbon

Our municipality encompasses a unique, diverse and beautiful environment. Whilst rich in natural wonders
our environment is also highly modified and showing significant signs of the damages that have been wrought
through years of unsustainable development and environmental degradation.

Bounded by Corio Bay and the Barrabool Hills, our municipality has extensive basalt plain grasslands to the
north extending to the landmark peaks of the You Yangs and the Brisbane Ranges. In the southeast the
undulating hills of the Bellarine Peninsula extend through to coastal dunes.

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We are a municipality of contrasts with coastal, rural, urban and natural environments defining a landscape
rich in diversity, including many rare and unique native flora and fauna communities.

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