Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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~. . ,tJ l7{EFACE
TO. TIm. THIR.D,,.E DITI01\I
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X PREFACE TO TI-IE THIRD EDmON
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The title, Design of Thermal Systems, refie,cts the three concepts embodied
in this book: design, thennal~ and "systems. '
DESIGN
A frequ~nt product of the erig?neer's efforts is a drawing, a set' of calcu~a
t!ons, or a report that is an abstraction an? .descriptio~ of hardware.' Within '
. ,epgineering education, thl? cookbook approach to design, often practiced
during the 1940s, discredited tpe ' design effort so that many engineering
schools dropped design courses 'from their curricula in the 1950s. But now
design has returned. This reemergence is Dot a re~apse to the earlier proce-
dures; design is reappearing as a cre"ative and highly technica1 , ~ctivity.
THERMAL
Within many mechanical engineering curricula the tenn design J,s limited to
machine design. In order to compensate for this frequent lack of recognition
of thermal design some special emphasis on this subject for the next
I
.
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xiii
xiv PREFACE TO nIE FIRST EDITION
SYSTEMS
Engineering e¢lucation is predominantly pro,cess )orielZted, while engineering
practice is predornioantly system 'orien(eil. . Most
cO,urses of study in e;ngi- " "
_' neering .proyide the student wi~ aneffec~ve exposure to such processes
as the flow of a compressible fluid through' a nozzle and the .bel;l3rytor of
" ,~hydrodynamic and theI"ID:al bou,ndary l~y~rs ,at solid,$q.rfaGes,._lhe ptacti~ing
" . en'g ineer, ,however) is lik~Iy to be confronted with, a task ~ucp' as. desigmng ,
-'. : ~an: _~eG,o,n.~c:-:.sy.st~,Itl __!p~t ,}"~ceiv~~ p,~t~~ g~ _from a. pipeline- aijc;l .,stores ,
it underground '.fo~ )~fef~'~sag~'~ ·- 'Th~r~,~~~~:' a~- big~/iap.:l>.e~,een:Jmoyw~~~qg.~:,;:,~(,.j -,::,:;;" .~'S' ~':
, inqi~id~hl proces~es 4tld rl1e ,~,~tegraticm- ~f these prQc~s.s~s in ~n.·;engiriee~g. , -: '~:~. : " ,. ~~',
enterprise. - -
Clos~g the gap should ~ot b~ accomplished by diminishing the empha- .
si~ ' on pro~esses. A faulty .~no\vledge,' of fi?1dainentals may result in subs~:'
quent failure of the ~ystem. But -within a university enviroJ!illent, it is ben-
eficial for future engineers to begin thinking in te~s of. systems, Another
re~sonfor more emphasis on systems in the llnjversity envirQnment, in addi-
tio,q to, influencing the (hought patterns of students, is that there are sqme
technjques-such as simulation and optinrizatjo~-which only re~ently have
been applied to thennal systems '. 'These are usefui t601s and the graduate
should have s6me facility with them. ' ,
While the availability of procedures of simulation and optimization
js not a new situation, the practical application of these procedures has
only recently become widespread because . of ,the- availability of. the: djgital
computer. Heretofore, the lirriltation of time, did not permit hand calcula-
'tiqns: for example, of an pptirnization of a function that was dependent upon
dO,zens or hundreds of independent variables. This meant that in designing I
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PREFACE TO THE F1RST EDITION XV
ACKNOWLEDGI\1ENTS (,
Thennal system design is gradually emerging as an identifiable discipljne.
·.. Special recognition should' be given to the program coordinated by the
University of Michigan on Computers in Engineering Design Education,
which in 1966 .clearly delineated topics and defined directions that have
.since..P'oYed to be productive. Acknowledgment should be given to activities
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"A.-vi" PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
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within the chemical engineering field for developments .that are clos.ely relat-
ed, and -in some cases identical, to those in thy theIDlal stem of ll1echanical
. I
..engmeenng. _ . .
M~y faculty members during the past five years have arrived, often '
.ind~pendently, at the same 'conclusion as the author: the rime .is -oppprtune' .
'. for .dever~pments in th~rmal-. q.~.s.ign. :Mjap.y ,of th.ese. fa<:;]Jlty memb~rs have .
.-:).,. . -. ':share<;i some of.th~ir ~xperiences in the theilllal design·section' <?fMechanical" .' ~ . ... .
... ..~ ...~ ~ · ::~··~~·~~:--~:· ·Ellgineering~,:N~Ws.__ and ..h.ave, thus, pirectly and -indirectly c'oritributed to
, , iaeas 'e*p~ss'~d':jn' ,thisjJd6k;~:,=~~'."':: '-,;~,~,.~~ '~," .~,~,~ ,,\" I " , ,.~::.<:. ', ',: .:;' ~ ". " '.: . . .- .' .- ',~ , .. ' :._ : . - ..
This ,.manus'cn p~ ,is'- the'" '::. third~: id{tio~·~· (jt.~· t~:it~ ~in~ftte~a)·:: :~t:~ed~~;:iD:rtht:·:. ~'.~~ :.'~'.',. ': :
' .Design of Thermal Systems c611rse " at,th~ ,University 'ofTIlinois"at 'Urbana--- '-' .-
-Champaigll7.-I thank the students-Vl·ho have .worked with me
in this :course
for their suggestions. for improvement of the ,
manuscript. The. second . .
edition
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was an at!:factively printed ~ook1et prepared by my D~partment Publication
Office, George Morris, Pirector; June J(empka and Dianne Merridith, typ-
ists; and Don Anderson, Bruce Br~ckenfeld, 'and Paul Stoecker, draftsmen.
Special thanks are due to the Engine~Png Department of Alpoca Chemicals
.Corporation, Chicago, for their intert:st jn ,engineering·,.education and for
. their concrete evidence of this interest shown by printing the second edition.
Competent colleagues are invaluable as sounding boards for ideas and
a~ contributors ~f ideas of their own. Professor L. E. Doyle offered sug-
gestions on the econoDljcs chapter and Prof C. O. Pedersen, a coworker
in ·the development of the ·thermal systems prqgrarn "at the Unive'rsity of
illiriois at ·Urbana-Champaign, prov]d.ed .a dvice at many stages . Mr. Donald
-R. \'\tin and a class of architectural engineering students at Pennsylvania
State University class-tested '~he manuscript and pf9vided valuable sugges-
. tions from the point of view of a user of the book. Beneficial comment~
and criticisms aJso came from the Newark College of Engineering, where
Prof. 'Eugene Stamper and a group of students tested the manuscript in one
of their classes. Professor Jack P. Holman of Southern Methodist Universi-
ty, -consulting editor of ~cGraw-Hil1 Book Company, supplied perceptive
.con1ments both in. terms of pedagogy as well as in the technical feattlfeS of
thennal systems.
The "illustrations in this book 'Were prepared by George Morris of
.Champaign~ IlJinojs.
By being the people that they are\ my wife Pat and children Paul,
Janet. and Anita have made the work on this book, as well as anyt..hing else
1 dO'1 seem worthwhile.
W. F. Stoecker
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"ENGIl\TEERJ]\TG
DESIGN
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1.1 lNTRODUCTION
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sponsored projects.
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'atteritioIi has been devoted to the
.8 ..-.... ,r lIr . '. , " " e~gj~~erhi:g ~.dertakings. Studies on these .-
.
',:' -~~.~':~:.' ' '': ' ',;:. <:" diffeient~ ' an:d':no ,:oDel's~queDce~' incli.Idii:tgJ~·e·,on,~~· d,~$c;riped,~t.N.s. chapter, ,
is univers,aUy applicabl~. Since the ~starting ,.Ppjrit, the-:goar~~'::aiitf;:¢8:':sidg :,\r~<'~ ,.: 'r;:'
" c;:onditioris differ from ~ne' ~;ndertaking ' to the next, the" pIoc~dllre,s,'·':Pillst ' "',
v~. ,
The advantage of analyzing the de<;:ision process, especjal~y in com~
plex undertakings, is that it ,l eads ,to a more logi~a1 coordinati0D of the ~aJ;ly
individual efforts consti~ting the entire venture. The flow diagram in Fig.
1-1 shows ·typical steps followed in the conception, evaluation, .and execu- ,
tion of ,the plan. The rectangular boxes, which indicate actions, may'repre-
sent consid,erable effort and e,xpenditures on large projects. The diamond
boxe~ represent decisions, e.g., whether to c;oIitinue the project or to mop
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it.
" The technical engineerlng occurs mostly in activities 5 and 7, product
or system design and research an~ development. Ljttle will be said in this
chapter about product or system design because it will be 'studied in the
chapters to follow. The'tlow diagra!ll shows only how this design procedure
fits into the larger pattern of the '·undertaking. The individual nondesign
acri virie.s will be discussed next.
~
, Define need -.t!-;
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Specify criteria " '
for success
Dere~ine probability,
3
of success
',Research
Low probabilit~'-drop
, _'c:, , and , 7
development
Implement-construct
or manuf:lc(ure
FIGURE 1·1 ,
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Chl;H the pJanr will n)eet the success. criteria discussed in Sec .. 1.4, 'Only a
- li.k;]lihood or probability thai it wilJ po so.
The mention of probability suggests [he nonna} distribution cUrY"e (Fig.
1·2), an excel~en[ starting point for expressing uncertainty in the decision-
. s The significance of rhe distribution curve lies particolarly
making l?J:Oces ~.
ENGINEERfNG DESIGN
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5
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f.
FIGURE 1-2
Probability distribution carve ..
in the evaluation of the area be~eath the cprve. The area under the curve
between xl arid-X2, for example~ represents the probability P of the event's
occurring between valli~s x 1 and X2', Thus,
Since the. probability .of the event's occurring somewhere in the range of x
is unity, the integration. over .the entire range of x is equal to 1.0:
I~o>Ydx = 1
The equation for the probability distribution curve is
.y =. h _h2(.:r -a)2
--e ' . (1.1)
fo
The maxiffium value of the ordinate is hlF, which occurs when x == a.
This fact suggests that increasing the value of h alters the sh 4pe of the
distribution curve, as shown in Fig. 1-3. If hI is greater than h2 , tbe peak
of the h I curve rjses higher than lhat of the h2 curve: .
To extend the probability "idea to decision making in an engineering
undertaking, suppose that a new product or facility is proposed and that
the criterion for success is a 10 percent rate of return on the investment
for a 5-year life of. the plant. After. a preliminary design, the probab~ity
distribution curve i's shown as indicated in Fig . 1-4. Since rough figures
were u~tIoaghout the evaluation, the distribution curve is ,flat, indicating
no great confidence in an expected percent of return of investment of. say t
- .;:- J ,
x=a x
F:IGliRE 1-3
Several different shapes of the probability distripution curve,
After 5 years
After 1 yeaI
After pf operari on
construcrion
24
,o 8 16
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Retum on investment. %
FIGURE 1-4
Disr.tibutieilllAi ~eS at -various stages of.decision making.
ENGINEERING DESIGN '"/
been analyzed more carefuUy C).nd mar.keting studies have been conducted_
more thoroughly. _ . I L
The. probab il ity distribution curves at Hvo other stages~ after construc-
tion and after 1 year.of operation, show progressively greater q~grees of .
confidence. in·.the rate of retuill;after a 5-ye~r life. A.fier:.5 . ye~rs; th~ rate of
return- is kllQWn exactlY1 and th.e . :prob)abi1ifY;,distiibut~dn·"c~rve - degeD.e~tes-
- .>-,"-' into' 'a: c urve-.. that:- is' infinites tmally' ··ttli·riw·and'::illfini-tely. .:;hi gh~,~:;' -;,',;\ .:~:o ;'>:->.:~ ,-.. :~.,:-:~:.~;;. :'\.~.':.
-~h¢ re¢9ghition th.~~· pr:edj.¢.ti9~ :pf:fjJ.Jilte ?-eli.~vi6r is "rioi :deterrmriisii.c!t·"
so that only one ~Set of events or cOD:ditions \vill prevail, has spawned a ne\v
probabilistic approach ' to design (see the addirional readings p-~ the e~d of
the chapter and Chapter 19). One of the activities of this new study is .that" -
of quantifying the curves sho\vn in Fig_ 1-4. It is valuable for the .decision
maker to know not .only the most likely v3Jue of the rerum on investrTIent .
but also whether there i$' a high- or low.probability of achieving this mO${
_ likely value~ "
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Prier:
f1GURE;M~_
End resulTof-a market analysis.
8 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
Because the sales and advertising effort influences the!"Volume of sales "
for a given price, a family of curves -is'expected. Since a cost is associated' :'~,:,
with the sales and advertising effort,- sib~e a continuous increase of ,', and
this effort resuits ~n dirninishffig improvement in sales there eXls'ts an " " I
optimum level of sales and' adv~rtising effort. A marketing plan, should ,:' '
emerge 'simultaneously \vith the ,tec~cal plans Jor the undertaking~' ,
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The' feasibility ,sWdy'," ,step "6, .;n-d,: 'the" :sllbs~qu~nt'feasi@rty, :a~ci#O:ii~ :,:,~:," ~:,~~,:"
t~, w~ether the' project 'is
'everi',possibie~' It "proJecl:may ' be -feasible," ,ar
possible, ,but not economi,cal. Infeasibility may result from unavailability
of inves~ent capital, land, labor; or favorable zoning regulations. Safety
codes or other regulatory Jaws may proJ:ribit.the enterprise. If an undertaking
is shown, to be infeasible, either altertlatives must be found or the project
must be dropped.
1.9 ITERATIONS
The loop in Fig. 1-1 emphasizes that the decision-making process involves
many iterations. Each pass through the loop improves the amount and
tbe quality of infQtmation and data., Eventual]y la point lS reac~ed" ,where
final decisions are made regardi~g the de~ignt prod\lction, and marketing
of the product. The substance that circulates through ~s flow diagram
is infonnatio,n which ' may be in. the form of reports and ~onyersatjons
t
a'nd f!1ay be both verbal and pictorial. The iterations are ' accompl ished by
c6mmunicatron between people, an'd this communication is interspersed by
go-~r-no-go decisions.
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ENGINEERL"IG DESIGN 9
The 1low diagr:ln1 of Fig. 1-1 termipates with1the constnJction or begin~ ing
of lnanufacture of a product. or
service. Actually lli.~other stage takes over
. at thi:s point, which seeks to optimize rh~ ope~ation of- a given facil.ity. The
facility was designed on the ba~is , of.qc~ain,9-~sig.r:t p~ram~Fer5. which almost
jnevit~bly cha.11ge by the tirne the facility )s iri-'optration~"rr(e ,ilext ,challeng'e, :
. ,~thell ~ is": to··'op~.rate ihe-1~cility'· iri':'rJ1e-'bes't-~p'6s,s'i5ret'fri'a.n.:ne';:' ip-- 'tii:e~ Jigl11:~6..r" .""
'such facto(s a$-acnt~al costs arid ' pric~s. A' painful' activity occurs when ,th~" '
project is not profitable and the ob.jective becomes ,that of minimizing the
loss.
. S,t~p 5 in Fig. 1-1, the product or system design, ,has no~,. been discussed~
'The reason for this omission is that the system design is 'the subject of this
book from this point on. This step 'js where the largest portion of eng'i neering
, time, is spent. System design as an activity lies some\vhere between the study
and analysis of individual processes or cOillponents and the larger decisions,
\vhich are heavily economic. Usually one person coordi~ates the planning of
the undertaking. This manager normally ~merges with a background gained
from experience in one of the subactivities. The manager's experience might
be in finane'e , engineering, or marketing, for example. Whatever the original
- discipline the manag~r must become conversant with -all the fields that play
7
1~12 SUMMARY
The flow diagram and description <o~ the decision processes discussed in this
chapter are highly simplified and are nor sacred. Since mmost every under-
t~ing is different. there are almost infinite variations in startit:lg points,
goals, and intervening circumstanc~. The purpose of the study is to empha-
size the advantage of sys.tematic planning. Certain functions are common in
the evaluation and pJanning of undertakings, particularly the iterations and
the dec~[ occur at various stages.
10 DES1GN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Introductory 'bQoks on engineering design I
)
Alger, 1. R. M .. and C. V. Hays: Creative Synthesis in Design, Prentice-Hall. Englewo,od
Cliffs, N. J.~ 1964.
Asimow, M.: Introduction " to Design, 'Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.,c .1962.,_. ,_)
Beakley, Q. ~., and H. W. Leach: El1gi~1eering, ,f-n Introduction to a Creative Profession,
, , Macm,!l1an, New York, 1967. " , '
", "B'i ml; .H .', ,R.:. c..r.e~riv,e. ~ngi.neering Design, Iowa State Un,iversity Press, 'Ames, 1960-.·- .'
' : , , ',-r' " ' : .',
N. l., 1968. - ,
11orris, G. E.: Engineenng. 'A pecision-Making Process, Houghton -Mifflin Company,
Boston~ 1977.
Woodson, T. T.:-Introduction to Engineering Des,ign, McGra~-Hill, New York, l ,~§6 .
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DESIGNING
.A WORKABJ-.JE
SYSTEIVl· I
'r:
11
12 DESIGN OF TIfERMAL SYS1EMS
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of
. 1 . .Meets the requi:rem:ents of the. pllrpose~;, the system, e.g., pr~viding the . .,
req~ired amount of power, heating., cooling, or fluid flow., or sllITouild.ing
''' '''. :~!•.
! •. • . . ,1. . it spac~'vith a specified environm~nt so ·that peopI~ will ,be .. coIPf6rtable '. ,... ~
. :~~ . ~,~Qri_a~., ch~lnJca4 P.tq_c~s.~_ "Yi1Lp!oceed or not proceed .
..2~'~ ~iiil·'Na~e··:~ati~f~-~'t6~;/lif~~:~~·~fu.:~i~ten~ce·£_6s¢:/~:'!.~};,;~~c~::·.:.~'<'.:.:J :.,: .::' ~~<:: .:: :/~ : ~ -- ':'~':"'__
3. Abid~s by. ali constraints, · sllch as 'size, ' .we~ght~ .i~~p~r~trires~ ·'jpr~ss~i'e';< .' ~ '. ' "
materia) properti~s, noise, pollution,' etc. . . . .
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In summary,' a workable system ·.perfortlls .the 'as~igned ·task within the
. imposed con~traints.
The t\VO rriaj~r' steps in .achieving a workable system are (1) to select the
concept to be 'used an~ (2) 't 6 fix whatever parameters ar~ necessary to select
the components of the system. These parameters must be chosen so that 'the
design requirements .and constraints are satisfied.
2 The ·.;::;lcvauoIl of 8
<• • ill imposes a prc$sure
. I
difference of
. 3)?
(8 m)(lOOO kg/ill )(90807 mls-'-) = 7805 kPa
Arbitrarily choose. an additional 100 kPa to COlnpensate for, fg~tion in
the 250 ill of pipe. , ' . I ... .'.~' :'. ,~.".. '. ' . '
, '~2o' itccording to' the foregoi]J,g decision select a pur.o.p ,;vh:kI~l'. delivers 3 legIs
1 ,
'. '. -,--Y:.agalnst a -pres~llre-~-d.i[ference...of~\L1,8 . 5); k:f)~.<~jnqllY-'~;iselect~,a~~:g~H~,}si?;~:~~:) r:,:f.~'Y\'"
frqni- a h,!IldqQok such "thaf the pressure' drop:in 250 m··'of.Jength is-)UO··::···· ., . "
kPa or less. A pipe size of - 5~ rlli-n' (2 'hi) satisfies the requirement . ~ .
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o First cost
U
of pipe
FIGURE 2 ... J
ContribUtions to costs by pump and piping systems.
14 DESIGN OF THE.KMAL SYSffi.\1S
a higb~~ lifetime 'pumping cost.' The first cost of the pipe, the third contrib- .
uto.r to, i:p.e t~t~ co.st,. "i;>ec~m~s 'e nornollsly hi~h as th~ presSUre available -to'
overcome fricTIon ill the pIpe .r educes to ~ero. The avaIlable press~e for. the'
.pipe is the pump-pr~ssuIe rise minus 78.5 .kPa. need~d for the difference in ,
'.elevation. An appropriate' optimization technique ~ ~~ used to deten;n1ne
the optim~ pump-pressure rise,.which in Fig. 2-1 is approximately-ISO kPa~ '-, _'
, -. : . " ,.-, ., . ! " : .: " Fip~lly the pump can '~e selec~~d . to develop l.?O-J~~" p'ressur~ -r ise':," ~~, ,a , ~;,
.... .~~::.::-; .', " ';;~-<., . .' :.~ ... pipe si.ze ~an be chosen such that the pressure drop due to friction is 71.5
,-" --- , . -. :··J~P~.' or"Ie~'s ':. ~J !",:" . : ,;\'- , '
-, : • • - .-, '" --.' ." • . " '. ' : ,:' ,; " .. :_- ~ , .. - ' ... . '~" ; .,'.' .. '. :.' --
plant des ign \vv. li be based. A.fter the cO.ncept has been decided:. the inter:nal
design of the plant can proceed. I ) .
' . ...' _- . --l. · I?~Gjde-.t.o locate the .plant i~ the ·.tharket ~ity adjacenf::t~ a ~etpgernted
, ." ... :--'·:"~::' w~reflouse~~perated"by :.the -co_inpany.· . "~'" ' .0.·,,,,. -. ,; . . - . ' " : " . '. ' ".- ......
. .. shown in Fig.' 2-2. In this system the food 'particles are frozen in a flu-
idized' bed4 in' \vhich low-temperature air blows up through a conveyor
chain, suspending the product being ·frozen. This air returns from the '
fluidized-bed conveyor to a. heat exchanger that 'is the evaporator of a
: re~rigerating unit. The refrigerating unit uses a reciprocating cOlnpressor
and water-cooled condenser. A cooling to\ver. in tum, cools the con-
denser water. rejecting heat to the atmosphere.
4. The design can be quantified by establishing certain valueS. Since the
throughput of the plant has already been detelmined, [he freezing capac~
ity in kilograms per second can be .c omputed by d.eciding upon the nUffi-
.' ber of shIfts to ·be operated. Assume that one shift is s.elected, so that
DQ":' the .r efrigeration load can be' calculated at, say, 220 kW. To proceed
with the design, the parameters shown in Table 2.1. can be pinned down.
Air
Water
Pump
f:m Condtnser
FlG~ ~.
TABLE 2.1
, , 0
Temperature, .·C ,
.
~ "
.
.' ,
vVf;~h~j]
rh,e .internal design of the compression re£-:-igerfl.tioD pla.nt?
the procedure was' to select r~asonable 'tempenatures and then design each
component around lhose temperatures and resw.tlng flo'w rates.· 'Vhen one
approaches the design \vith the 'objective of optimization, aU those inter-
.' connecting parameters _are left .free to Jfloat. and one 'finds . th~ comhination
.. ~.'" of v2E~~~· of'tbeSe :" p8Iam~tef,s · :-vvhich results. in' "the opri:tnu11r'Cprdbably the
·-_/~.co~omic optiIn~rh).J"·:~<· · .., .. :---..............:. . ,. ,.'
( . . ,,- - .' .... ~
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PROBLEMS
2.1. Location S in Fig .. 2-3 is an -adequate source of \l./at~r. and location A) B ,
and C are points at which water' must be provided at the following rates of
. flow:
Points S .A, B. and C are all at the same elevation. The demands for water
at A and C occur inrerminen.tly and only during the working day, nnd they
may ·coinCide. The demand for wUler o.t B occurs only during nonworking
hours nnd is also intermittent. .GrQund-level ·access exists in II 3-m border
~g the building. ~.ccess is not permined over, through, or under the
bUilding.
'18 pESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
' '':;''J
. , ... . :~ .
. ~.
:
... . .-. - ......
_;!_l/ . \
./ \
/~~~--------~---~m---------------.~~
fiGURE 2-3
SuppJy and consumption points in water-distribution system.
1.0 .
0.8
0.6 .
0.4
c..
-c 0.2
L-
"C
2
;;
v.
:...0
!1: O. J 0
0.08
0.06
0. 04
120
--~~~"'-"Q~- . ; I I
~IOO "1 ~T ,
~g- 80 --
,,'
Z~
0
~ ~ ,S'
~~~~ , ,-:- J
-~
, ~-~ ,
,~
I, ' 2 3 "4 6
Flow rare, LIs ..
FIGURE 2-5
Pump perfonnance curves.
(a) Describe all the concepts ot" workable methods you can devise to fulfill
the assignment .
.(b) The influence of such factors as the expected life of the system has
resulted in the decision to use a' system in which a pump delivers water
into an elevated storag~ tank, which supplies me piping system. A water-
, level switch starts and stops the pump. Design .. the system; this includes
sketchjng the pipe network chosen, ,listing all the pipe sizes,"-select-ing
the pump, and speci~ying the elevation of the 'storage tank. Use pr~ssure
drop data from' Fig. 2-4 and pump performance from F~g_ 2-5. ,ENeglect
the pressure drop in, the pipe fittings and pressure conversions due to,
kinetic energy.) Fill out Table 2.2.
TABLE 2.2
Design data for Prob. 2.1
Pipe Design flow, Us Apt kPa
size,
Pipe section rom Day NIght Day Night
(S to A. for
example)
-
..
'-
, I
"
" ..........
----+'Pl~l1mp selected _'_ ->' Elevation of water in stonge tank __
20 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
(c) Review the design and list tb~ decisio~s that preclude~possible optimiza-
tion later in the design. . ..' , ,
l.
i.
202 A heating and
ventilating syst~m for ~'publ~a indoor swimmjng po~l is to be'
i ,designed. . '
I I
i ,I' , Specifications ,
.~ ..
l.- 'f
J' I
I! :
I I ',
,.- .
)
I ·
~ I( -'- ,':;:: ,.' ,~ "~';:'''~.'' ' ''~ Outdoor design temperature, -:-l~C. ~:' ~" . ' ... , '
II r' . '. .. . . ,<':..":::Oqt~oordesign humidity:~o'f'a:iiai(j5:il¢i~:;'M'.'~:;i}.i,~, .?,,,,~{,: "'~.'{'{!:,' •....,/:-'"
I
Heat-transfer coefficent,
W/(m 1 . K)
.'
DESIGN!NG A \NORKABLE SYSTE;\,1
'.!-
f::ither by heating recirculated air 'or by using convectors around the perimeter
of the building. PerfOffil the desigI.l ca~culations in order to specify ~he
following: )
'
•
. ....-
~ • •<.....:.. -
~ .~Temperature.).of.-jiis-idel·surrace::.of' gla'ss",.,·:~-.!. .~G·:.:-.,:.;>:· .~··,~""·l'~' "~:~" "::':"- "~" '''~' ~ .. :': '-<.i':" : \
(c) Review' the 'design and list the decisi<;>ns that precluded possible opti-
. mization laterin the design.
2.3. You have just purchased a remote uninhab~ted island where you plan to give
parties lasting till late at night. You need to insWI an electricpower system
that will,provide at least 8 kW of lighting.
(a) List and describe, in severai sentences, three merhods of generating power
in this remote location. assuming that , equipment and supplies can be
. transported to the is1.and. '
(b) Assume that the decision has been made to produce. the electric power
by means of an engine:"driven generator. .Specjfically, .an engine will be
(Frect-connected to a generator that delivers power to bulbs. Available
choices are as follows:
Engine 10 20 ' 30 40 50
,
"
I
J
I Output. vGRlage, V, at given
Ii Maxim~) speed1 rls
)
!, allowable
I, , ~D.erntor PoleS Efficiency current, A 10 20 30 40 50
Engine Dumber_
·. _
Generator' number__
Engine-generator speed__ rls'
, Frequency_ Hz
Power delivered ' by . engine~ kW
Power d~livered by, generator__ kW .
Voltage_'_ V
·Current_·_.· A
Number of bulbs aI;ld circuitin~
, (c) Review the' design and list the 'decisions that preclude possible optimiza-
.0\:" lion larer in the design.
2.4. rude oil is to
.
be transported overland in Alaska In suc,h a way that the
, environnlent is not adversely affected. I ' . •
(0) Describe two workable methods of transporting this oil.
(b) Of· the wOTkabfe methods, a pipeline is- the method chosen for ' further
examination. The inside diamete.f of the pipe is 600 mm,and the pjpe
will carry a crude oil flow rate of8:ii0 The distance between pumping
stations is 32 km. To facilitate pumping, a heater will be instaJled of
each pumping station, as
shown in Fig. 2-6. The pipeline is to be buried
in pennafrost whose temperature at design conditions is -4°C. The
penna fro s1 is not to be mdted. Insulation may be- used on the pjpe~
and the external surface temperature of the pipe or insulation in contacl
with the permafrost must pe ·maintained ~t O°C or be]ow. Heat-transfer
',data appljcable to the pipe and insulation are shown in Fig. 2-7. The
~---1
Heater
~--------~--------32km------------------~
FlGURE 2-6
----
'Oil pipe]i~.
•.
DESIGNING A W9RKABLE SYSTEM 23
-. :;.
.. .
~
FIGURE 2-7
Heat-transfer da~.
available thicknesses 'of insulation are 25~ 50, 75, and 100 mill. The overall
heat-transfer coefficient U between the oil and permafrost in watts per ,square
meter per kelvin 'bas¢d on the .inside pipe ~ea A i is
,1 I . x 1
--=--+ +---
UA,. I13A; k[(Ai + Ao)!2] 7.2 Ao
wh~re Ao is .the outside area of the insulation. The 1emperarure 'change dt ill
a differential length of pipe (see Fig. 2-8) is expressed by
lVcp(-dt) = 'UlID[t - (-4°C)]dL
._AJ ,
, ' I
I
I
J .
Insulation
r t
_4
J
I J
f dl J
I~ ~I I
F1GURE2 ..8
Differential length of pipe.
1800
-5 '- 0 . 5 10 15 20 25 , 30 35
Outler oil temperature,oC
flGURE 2-9
Oil pressure drop in 32-km length of pipe.
The pressure drop in the 32-km sect jon of pipe is a'function of the inlet' and
/i
'p outlet temperatures of the oil because of the influence of these temperatures on
)
viscosity. Figure 2-9 shov.'s pressure drops for 32 krn. The maximum pressure
the pipe can withsra,nd is 2350 kPa ga'uge: Specify the follo\ving:
Insulation mm
Inlet oil temperature Il_oC
Outlet oil temperature f2_oC
Pressure drop__ kPa
Temperature of surface in contact 'with permafrost (highest in 32-km
run)_OC
(c) Review the design and list the decisions that preclude possible optimization
later in the design.
2.5. The rube spacing and fin height are to be selected for th~ steam-generating
section of a furnace, ,shown in Fig. 2-10. The furnace section is 1.8 m wide;
[he tubes are 2.5 m long and are
arranged in a square array, six rows high.
The tubes have an OD of 75 min, and they ,can be either bare 'Or equipped
with fins. The fins are 2 m~ thick and 'are spaced 6 mm apart along the
length of the rube. '
'The stearn temperature in the boiler is 175°C, and the entenng ten'lper-
ature of the stack gases is 560°C. The minimum spacing between the center· '
Jines of the rubes, whiCh is dictated by the smallest U bend available, i'5
r-I r£) + + + +. +- .+ I !
+ + +
1
· ' l@ T
I I . ..:.- )
.
\ ' .'
l-l@ · @ . @ @ ..@ @ @ @ H
~--------~--------~1.8m ------------------~~
;,~
FIGURE 2-10
Steam-generaring secrion in a fumace_
·125 mm. ·There -are ~wo restrictions on the design: (1) th.::re must be 3 rom
clearance between the fins of adjacent tubes and betwee·n the fins ~~·d the
walls and (2) the maximum meta( temperature t which occurs at the tip of the
fins, must not exceed 41SoC in order to limit oxidation. .
The essential requirement of the furnace is that the produc[ .of V A for
t.ne boiler section .·be 18,500 WJK or higher. The U value, based on steam-
side area, is
I
U = Rto'tJI = Rncam + Rtubc + Rgm
TABLE 2.3
Fin data )'
, )
Table 2.3 gives fro 'areas per meter of tube length, the fin effec'tiveness,
and values 'o f the expressIon for the fin-tip, temperature as' a :fu.riction of th~
, root temp~rature. In' tum the root temper~ture can be computed from
175
troot -
560 - 175
, Specify the numb~r of tubes in each horizontal row and the'fill height
so that the assembly fits into the space available (abiding by the necessary
clearances), provides ~ UA of 18,500 WIK or more, and maintains a, fin-tip
tenlperature of 415°(: or less.
REfERENCES
1. D. F. O[hmer and J. W. E'. Griern-?mann, "Moving the Arctic OiJ: Pipelines and the
Pour Point:'·Mech. Eng .• vol. 93, no. II, pp. 27-32, November 1971. describes further
approaches to moving all under Arctic condjtions.
#)'
I I ' C~IAPTEP
>·3
. . . _; ..
" ~'_. , ~.:. :,~l-:.· . - ". '.
, r'
J'. . ";:.' . ' ~ '.0;, !.
"
'ECONOMICS
3,,1 INTRODUCTION
The -basis of most engineering decisions is economic. Designing and build-
ing a device or system that functions properly is only part of the engineer's ,
task. The device or system must, in addition~ be economic, which means
that the investment must show an adequate return. In the study of thermal
systems. one of the key ingredients is optimization t and the function that
is most frequently optimized is the, potential profit. Sometimes the designer
seeks the solution having minimum fIrst cost or, more frequently, the min-
imum total lifetime cost of the facility.
Har~ly ever are decisions made solely on , the basis - of - monetary
considerations. Many ,noneconorrllc factors affect the decisions of indus-
trial organizations. Deci'sions are often influenced by legal concerns, such
as zoning regulations, or by so~ial 'concerris~' such as the displacement of
workers, or by air or stream pollutjon~ Aesthetics also have their influence,
e.g., when extra money is spent to make a neW factory building attractive.
Since these social or aesthetic con'cerns almost always require the outlay of
extra money t they revert to such economic questions as how much a' fum is
'willingor able to spend for locating a plant wh~re ·the employees will live
in a district with good schools . . , ,
~.
27
28 DESIGN OF TIlERMAL SYSTEMS
This' chapt~~ fIrst explai~s tbe practice of charging interest and the~ '
,p:roceeds to the ~il)p]ication of interest .in eva}.uating the worth of lump sums, .:.
of series of uniform paym.ents" .and of p~ymeJi1ts that vary linearly witp. time .
. Numerous applications of these fac~or~ win be explored, including such
,
" staridard ' and important .ones as' ·c<?mputing tli~ ' value of ·bonq,s.
' , " . ... Methods ' ~- )
".'of makin.& ~co.nomi~ comp~soDs -?f .al~emativ~s, th~ influe~~e .of"tax.es, "
.
. .,-., . . .several methods ,of comp~tmg depreClatlOn, and .continuous. ,compollndmg "..
~;"' ~,-"~,,;;r,:~:' will :?e~~*p!f~e~~ i;~" r,;" '~'C: d' "i .. .
:.. - -:'':~:~~).'~',~'J.. ~ :, .... :· ·I~· ,
W.',', ....
• i'
,.. ;
.;
•
-~ "
-'
# .... ~., ...
....
._~> ~ ":.~., ~ ..'
3.2 INTEREST
. ,
Interest is the rental chcu-ge for the use of. money ~ When renting a house, a
tenant pays rent but also returns possession of the house to the owner after '
the stip:ulated period. In a simple .la,an, the borrower of money pays the
, interest at stated periods throughout the duration of the, loan, e.g., every' 6
.' ' months or 'e very , y~ar, and then i,etums the o~igin~l sum ~o the lender.
The existence'of inter~st gives money ,a time value. Because of jnterest ,
it is not, adequate simply ,to. total 'aU the
expected lifetime receipts and ,in
'another coluum total 'all the expected lifetime expenditures of a facility
and subtract the latter from the former to determine the profit. A dollar at
year 4 does not have the same value ,as a dollar at year 8 (even neglecting
possible inflation) due to. the existence of interest. A thought process that
rrn.i.st become ingrained in anyone 'm aking economic calculations is that
the \vorth of money has [wo dimensions ~ the dollar' alllount and the time.
Because of this extra dimension of time equations structured forso]ution of
I
economic problen1s must equate amounts that are all referred to a common
time base.
The most fundamental type of inter~st 'is silnple inlerest, which will
be qui.ckly dismissed because it is hardly ever applied . .
TABLE 30J.
I I
Interest
. Year dur ing year ; mo unt S ail: end, Df year
P + Pi = P(l + i)
J • ...;:-.'
I Pi .-
2 .PO +. i)i . 'j~, (l + il) + P(l + i)i ;=: P(l + £)2.<
.. ,j;I!~':;.-; ;··:" :·;·/t<·~·/-I~/ i,e" "0""; ("I: ~: ~)~~;.:~:; (;~:' j;:'--;~',,-=; ;tr:~~":;r~'o .'.'":' .•. '.
:.. """.
, During the second year the interest is computed on $540; so that at the end
o~ the second year t.he value is
Example 3.3. What amount must be repaid on a 5-year $500 loan at 8 percent
annual interest compounded quarterly?
Solution
t .
Amount [0
. .= (S5P<) (0.08)
be repaId. 1 + -4-
20
= $742.97
,
The interpretation of the 8 percent interest in Example 3.3 is that one ..
fourth of that rate is assessed each quarter and there are 20 quarters, or
compOltD}:ing periods. in the ~-year span of the loan.
30 DESIGN OF THERMAL SY STElviS
The factors that' translate the value of lump sums bet\veen present-and futu~e
worctis are ':
....;:-,
, ,
The two factors are the' re¢iprocal of each other, and the' exp,ressions '
, for the factors are- ' ' ,
,
f/p '= (1 + lJ; and
171
mn p/f
(1 +
1 '
i/nz)mn
J SolutiOJi
I,
, (0.05
Future amount = (present amount)l f/p, -4- •. 20 periOds)
' 0.05)120
Future nm.oun! = ($5000).[ J + -4-' = ($5000)( 1.2820) = $6410
Example 3.5. A family wishes to invest a sum of n10ney when a child begins
,elen)enwry school so [hat the accumulated amount will be $10,000 when the
child begins college 12 years ]~teL The m0!ley can be invested at 8 percent,
compounded semiannually. What amount must be invested 7..
Solutiol1
0.08 24 periods J
')( p"If'"-2-'
Present an10unt = ~ f,uture 'amount
I '
= (J +$ JO.ooo
O.08/2)~~
:c:
,
10.000
2.5633 :1 $3901.20
...
ECONOMICS
-
In general. the
. .
future Worth S of a unifonn
.
series of amounts, each of.
which is R, wi.rh an interest rate i that i.s coinpoun~ed at the .same frequency
'8.S the R amounts is .
S = 'R[(l + i)"-1 + (1 + i)n-2 +' ... ~ (1 + i) + 1]
The term in the brackets is called the series-compound-alnount factor (SCAF
or f/a) .
. f/a = (1 + i) JI - 1 + (1 + i) Il - 2 + ... + (1 '+ i) + 1 (3 . 1)
A closed form for the series can be develop~d by first multiplying both sides
of Eg. (3.1) by 1 + i
(fJ a) ( (+ i) = (1 + i) n + (1 + i) n - 1 + ... + (1 + i) (3 .2)
R Time
o / 2 3 4 5 6 7
Furure
worth
32 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
and so
. (1 + i)n - 1
.ffa = .'. i I I .
Example 3.6. A ne\\; machine has just been installed in a factory, and the
management \\~ants to set aside and invest equal .!lmotints .each year starting
1 "year from now so that $16,000 will be available in' 10 years for the
replacement of the . machine.' The interest received on the money invested
is 8 percent, con1pounded annually. How much must be provided each year?
R R R
Present worth = + + . . . + --.......--
(1 + i)1 (1 + ;)1 ( 1 + ;)n
.-
ECONOMICS 33
A A A {I A .]A '1\
R~~~!_
" ~I----,-
r ------,----I-.-------1-1-----'---------,---
" I_I
.?i:
] 2 3 4· 5 6 7
. '. ". '.::,FIGURE .3-2 ....'- .'. ,. c;:'-'." "''''~,;,\, ,-:,:,- .....)~~ ..-:-._ .•;.~...~ . , •..'. , :; .' . ' .. ,~ ' . =' ~::: ,.. - (,
~: .<",
Present worth of a"seri,es .of ~ourts",~ ~." .
or
I~. both sides of Eq. (3.5) ar~ mUltiplied by (i -+- i)n, the expression in 'the
b~ackets after mUltiplying by (1 + i)n is .the same as ffa in Eq. (3.1). Thus
. (1 + i)11 - 1
(Present worth)( r + i)n R(f/a) = R . . :=
. . '1
Ine series-present-worth factor pia is' the one which when multiplied by R
yields the present worth. Thus
(1 + i)n - 1
4
Example 3.7. You borrow $1000 from a loan company chat charges IS
percent norn.jnal annual interest compounded monthly. You can afford to pay
off $38 per month ·on the Joan. How many months will it take to repay" the
loan?
Solution
$1000 = ($38)(pJa, 1.250/0. n months)
(1.0125)ft - 1
1000 = (?8) (0.0125)( 1.0125)11
(L0125)ft = 1.490
Present worth . _+
= G (GPWF). = G { -:-1 [ (1 i) n - 1
. .- ' n ' ]}
.
. . l 1 (1 + 1) n (1 .+ 1) n _
ExampJe 3.8. The annual cost of energy for a (acility is $3000 for the fIrst
year (assume payable at
the end of the year) and increases by ]0 percent,
or $300, each year thereafter. What is the present worth this 12-year of
serjes of energy costs. as shown in Fig. 3-4, if the interest rate is 9 percent
compounded annually?
(n .,.. 1)G
4G
3G
o . ). 2 3 4 5 n
y~
,
FIGURE 3·3
Gradient ~erit::s ,
~---
..
-
!ECONOll;L!CS 35
I I
~ 6300
,.j:~J ~,,' .":O~O_:",_,; ,. '. "'", . 1.,., -, A';: _,", -"",:< :',." ~.,: :, '" ' " ~
II
.
• ,..: ... ;
.. . ''' .~
V -
o 2 3 I"J" 12
Year
flGURE3~ "
Progressively increasing energy" cosrsfi1"ExampIe 3.8.
" SoZutf.on~ "The series "of amounts shown in Fig. " 3-4 could be reproduced by
a combinatiori of "two series, a unifoffil 'series of $3000 and a. gradient series
in which G == ' 300. Thus " "'
,Present worth = (3000)(p/a, 990,12) + (300)(GPWF7 ' 9o/c, 12)
TABLE 3.2
Summ~ry of intere~t factors
Factor Formula
f/p
fia
GPWF
1[( 1+ olt - I n ]
j /( 1 + i)1t (1 + ;)~
36 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
cated sitUations. In most of these~problems the solution depends on setting " -.','
. . .
:up an.,equation that expres$es the equivale:pce of amo-qnts existing at, differ-,~' : '
ent times. Many of these problems ~e' thus -solved by qanslating amourits t~' ...' '.
the same basis, such 'as the futuie ' worth orall arrlOl1!1ts, tJ?e present \Vorth~'
orthe annual ~orth. One point to emph3$.iz:e.is that the infJuep~Y-Jof interest '.
me?Us tha.t agiv~:q.,.sum.1:;t~s.differi~g v~ues at diffe!~nt times; As a con~- . ,.
quence .the .equatiC?ns just. mentioned sho~ld never. add-or s'u btract ,amounts·
. ':<":~':' ;'appl~caRJe.~tQ:Aiff~r§~?r ~~me~~' The amounts ~~s(~ ~.~a'ys ~'e J:~:arlsl~ted to ~.
,.."T" ..
. One of ~ the i~~~;~t 'fi~~n~ia.i '· ~~~~~t"i6~s. ·is ...ili~.· .iss·~~~~ .·sei~g:,·. ".
and 'buying of bond$. Bonds will be the (list applic-ation of the combination
.of factors shovv'n in Table 3.2.
8 percent, but would haye to sell the bond for less than $1000 if the going
rate of interest were 12 percen 1. In other words, the current price of the
bond is· such that the total investment earns the current rate of interest.
" The principle of setting ,up an equation that ref]ects alJ vaJues to a
common basis will now be applied by equating what should be paid for the
bond to what i's acquired from the bond. Arbitrarily choose the future worth
as the basis of all amounts oJ
Ihe
rT1-
ten.T}S JIlEq. ('J~J" 8'
....--. .c 11 n
- j are as ro_ O\VS.:"";j}
th e ,I e_t
f·dSI .e Of- tne equatIon
.'It ' •
is the future vrorth of the investment, \vhich1i)S the price to be paid for the
bond translated to .the future. The interest applicable is L"1e current rate of
interest, -v:.'b.ich is assumed to continue from now until fficlttllitv of the bond.
, . . The [list tetm, o'n the right,of'Eq. · (3 ..'8) is the futu~e worth of ~tUnifolm'
.series 9'f 'the',s'emiiLrinli:a1.inte paYm;~l).ts 'on<th~)!gngl')r, ,~'?" q~~b,\~l~d:, .that
.rest
.'; >, ,'. '; . ' :the"'mves:toF "immediately. .remVests·"'the interest i:paYin-ent·s·~·.at;· tb,e:'::goingyrate;.<·,.:::,' 11-
J
'
, . . of iriterest ·ic·. . ·The other ' term .cur.the right' 'o tthe' eqLi~ti6n is" $TOOa~ ' whIch '.....
,"IS the 'am~~t ili~ fmn'wii{ pay'
b~ckto th~ owner 'of the bond .at ~aturity.
This $1000 is 'alre~dy at the .lruh~e time, so no correction need' be made.on
it.
Example ' 389. A $1000: bond that has '10 years to maturity pays interest
. semiafi~llally at a nominal · aimual rate of 8 percent. .,An investor wishes to
earn 9 percent on her investment. What price could she ·pay for the bond in
order to achieve this'9 percent interest rate? .
. Ph = $9.34.96'
t !1t 2 3
1 .t .1 .. 1
4 5
I
7 8
0"
Year
FlGURE 3-S
First amourif' in 8 series appearing at time O.
38 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS '
. ~
SOlUtiOll . .If an' amount X starts drawing interest at. the beginning of year a
and is compounded .q~arterly at an. annual rate of 5 percent, the value Y at
the end of the year is
0.05)4. .'
Y =X 1
(
+' 4 =X(L0509) =X(l + 0.0509)
Ex~mpJe 3.11. A sinking fund is established such that $12.000 w~ll be avail-
able to replace a facility aJ the end of ] 0 years. At the end of.4 years fol- t
lowing the fourth uniform payment, management decides to retire the facility
at the end of 9 years of life. A~ an inteft'st rate of 6 percent. compounded
annually, what are the puyments during the tirst 4 and last 5 years?
·i~ri}ai.nder of- [he $12,000 must be -provided by-·th~ five additi6iia~ p~y'!nJ~n-~s '"_
. :.-..-"" '.' 1. :~'plus interest .~:."'.·i,,;·'," ." .' .' .- ~.,: '. '.. ' .'. .. - :, . .I
..
R(f/a, 6%~ 5) = $12,'000 -f3982.71)(f/p~ 6%? 5)
TABLE 3.3 _
Economic d~~a for Examp]e 3.12 :
' :-'.
Building A
Building B provides a greater "tate of return, aI?d the flrm must ·now decide
whether even ~e 16 percent is adequate to justify the investment.
3.15 TAXES'
The money for operating the government and for financing services provided
. by the government COllles primarily from taxes. The inc'lusion of taxes in
an econorrUc analysis is- often important because in some cases taxes may
be the factor deciding whether to' undertake the project or not. In certain
other cases the introduction of tax
c~Dsiderations may influence willch of
two alternatives will be more attractive economically ..
In most sections of the United States, . property taxes are levied by
a substate taxing district in order to pay for schools, city government and
sen'ices, and perhaps park and sewage systems. Theoretically, the real estate
tax should decrease as the facility depreciates, resulting in lower real es't ate
taxes as the facility ages. Often on investments such as buildings, the tax,
as a dollar figure, n.ever decreases; It is therefore a common practice to
plan for a constant real estate tax when making the investment analysis.
The eff~ct of the tax is to penalize a· facility which has a high taxable
value.
~ederal corporation income. taxes on any but 0e smallest enterprises
- amount to approximately 50 percent of the profit.' tn Example 3.12 the
rate of return on the investm~n.[ in building B was 16 percent, which may
seem very favorable cOlnpared with the usua] ranges of interest rates of 5
to ] 0 percent. The rate of return of 16 percent is before taxes, however;·
, after the corporation income lax has been extractM the rate of return I
ecpllomic analysis than p.foperty tax; income tax \Ivill be discussed furthe~.
f\n ingredient of income tax calculatio I1 s is) ?epreciarion, ex.plored in the
next .section.
' ..;:- J
'.':':,. ." ..
;~. Depreciation. . is' can -·~amo unt-· thai..; is'.;-.} isted'.- -:as .. ·an~ -annhaI,' expense~' -~"" the':, lax'!"" ':':t,~" '-..
.c~cu'l9-tion, to a~lqw- for replaceme:lIi ··of·rhe.:./?c'ility''"ar the: end" 'o f its -HfeD '
Numerous rrtethdds of computing depreciation ire p~m1itted 'by th~ Int~mal -
Revenue 'Service-, e.g., straight line, sum-'Of-the-yea{~s digits? and double-
f?te declining balance. The first' two will ·be explained.
Straight-line depreciation consists .- simply 9f dividing the 4iffen~nce'
between the
fIrst cost and salvage value of the facility by the number of
years' of tax
life. The result is the annual depreciation. The tax- life to be
used is prescribed by the Internal Revenue Service and mayor may not be
rl?-e "same as the economic life used in the economic ana1ysis~
. In the sum-of-the-year's~digits (SYD) method., the depreciation for a
given year is represented by the fOffi1ula
.. N-t+l
DepreclatiOn., dollars
. . ".
= 2 . (P - s)
N (-N + 1)
, (3.10)
To see the -effect of depreciation and' feq.eral income tax, consider' t.he, ,
, following simpl,e exampl~ of choosing betw,e en ,ltemative investments A .
and B~ 'f or ,whjch ,the .Qa.ta.~f:l. Table, 3,-4 ,apply. \ .. ' ~~.1 -
. '. - . .
Alternative A: '
FIrSt c'ost on annual basis (200,o.OO)(a/p, 9%, 20) , $21,910
.Annual opera~ng expense 14.000
Real esta'te tax and insurance 10,000
Total $45,910
,Alternative B:
'Frrst cost on annual basis (270,OOO)(aJp, 9%, 30) $26,280 .
Annual operating expense 6,200
Real estate tax and insurance 13,500
Toial" $45,980
TABI...E 3.5
mC0111 e tax n LV{O Cl.lteJrn a i uves I J
First-year :;;:~::enses
.. . ,~Profit . =
. inc01pe .~ expenses' , 8.000 . 7 ~OoO · . :
. Income Lax (50% of profits) . :. 4,000 3,500
f/p = (1 + ~ rn .
The flp factor for continuous compounding (f/P)cont is found by letting J11:"
approach -infinity .
, Therefore
, ," . ', (f/p\orit ' . e~n 6 • ..:. .. ,
(3.12)
• ' ~ :.-J ' ·... ... ~.--:l '-.' .~ ~-:~''''~I'' ..... ~- ::1 ~ . ~. ' ! -' ~
~ample 3.i3 .. · Compare the VallleS of (flp, 8%, 1.0) and [(f/p) cant , 8%~ 10].
'-. .
Solutio~ ,~" " " . . .... ' . '
, "1"
~(l + iJ·mn-l +
In 111
!!.(l + ~)mn-2 + ... + g(l + ill + £
In n! 172 m m
J
(3.14)
If we use' the analogy between Eqs. (3; 1) and (3.3), Eq. (3.14) can be
translated into the closed form
" 1 (1 + i I nz ) mil - 1 (1 + jim) m J1 - 1
(f/a)tlo\\, for $ J per year = ~ - ------
' 111· ilm i
As In approaches infin"ity, t~e term (1 + i/nl)mn , approache~ e in , s,o that
,
(f/a)~(JW for $1 per year - (3.15)
..
ECONOM1CS 45
There are several , levels of economic analysis higher than that approached
by this chapter., The complications in accounting, financing" and tax com-
putations involve sophistications beyond, those presented here. The ,stage
achieved by this chapter might be describ~d as ~he second level of economic
analysis. The first leve'l \vould be a triv'ial one of simply totaling costs with
no consideration of the' tirpe value of money. ' The second Ievei introdu~es
the influences of interest, which imposes the dimension of time as well as
.amount in assessing the value of money.
The methods of investment analyses explajned in this chapter are used
repeatedly in engineering practice, and in most cases engineers are not
. required [0 go beyond these princip~es. These meth.ods also are the base for
extensions int~ more complex economic analyses.
PROBLEMS
3.1. Using a computer, calculate your personal set of tables for the factors f/p.
fJa, pIa, arid GPWF. Devote a separate page to each of the factors, label
adequately, and c()1culate at the interest rates of4, 5,6,7,8,9,10,11. 12.
14, 16, 18, 20, 25 percent. Calculate for the following interest periods: 1 to
20 by' ones, 22 to 30 by two~, and 30 to 60 by fives. Print out the factors to"
four places after the decimal point.
3.2. Annual investments are being made so that $20,000 will be accumulated at '
the end of 10 years. The jnteres~rate on these investments is initially expected
to be 4 percent compounded annually. After 4 years, the rate of interest is
unexpectedly increased to 5 percent, so that payments for the, r~maining 6
years can be reduced. What amounts should be invested annually for the first
4 years nnd what sums' for the I~t 6?
Ans.: Final payment, $1547.
3.3., A fum wishes to set aside equal amounts at the end of ea'Ch of ]0 years,
beginniRB at the end of the flist year, in order to have $8000 in maintenance
46 DESIGN OF THERMAL
, , . SYSTEMS
#'-
funds available at the end of the seventh, eighth, ni nth, and tenth years.' What
is the required annually,payment if the1money is invested and d,raws 6 per,cen't
compounded annually? " I , '
,
Ans~: $2655. '
3.4. ,A ,home inortgage ' extends for 20 years at 8 pe.rcent interest compounded
monthly. The' payments are ,also ni~de monOlly. After hoW 'many months 15·
J
half of the principal ' pkid offlJ ' " , ,. , , " , " : ', , '
" Ans_: 164 months., :. ' ,
,- ',: ::' 3.5.,"·A lender 'offe~,a,-, l~yeat. I9?P ,a,t ~:~hat;:,he!, ,c;alI,S;:8~R~rc,~~)n t,~~e~t J:~~~:::requ~re~:,~:
, the inJ.erest ,to be paid at, th~.,beg~n~iI:lg ' rather: than- at' "the', ie~'~ . 'pf'~tij¥:ye~~ ~:~"
as the usual practice is. To what interest rate ,qomputed ·in .. the. :conventional
manner does this interest ~h~ge c~r:t?sp?nd? ." '
Ans .. : 8.7%.
3.6. A loan of $50,000 at 8 percent compounded ann u all y is to' be p~id off in
25 years by upifoffil annual payments beginning at the end of (he first year.
These ann'u al payments proc~ed on schedule until the end Df the 'eighth ,y~ar.
,when the bo!!ower is unable to pay and misses the payment. He negotiate$
with the 'lender to increase the remaining 17 payments in such a way that the
lender continues to rec,eive 8 percent., What is the amount of the original ~d'
the :(inal payments in the series?
Ans.: , Final payments, $5197.44.
3.7. An $18,000 mortgage, on which 8 percent interest is paid, compounded
monthly, is to be paid off in 15 years jn equal monthly installments. What
is the total .amount of interest paid du,ring [he life of this mortgage?
Ans.: $12,964.
3.8. What wiJl be the future worth 'of a series of 15 annuaJ $ I 000' payments if
the nominal annual interest rare is 8 percenI and the interest is compounded
quarterJy?
Ans.: $27.671.
3.9. A sum of sufficient magnitude is to be invested now so that starting 10 years
from now an amount of $2000 per year can be paid' in each of 8 succeeding
years. The unexpended money remajns invested at 8 percent c,o mpounded
annually. How much must be allocated now?
Ans.: $5749.50. '
3.10. A mortgage that was originally $20,.000 is being paid off in regular gunner])' ,
payments of $500. The interest is 8 percent compounded quarterly. How
much of the principal remains after 9 years, or 36 payments?
, Ans.: $14.800.60.
3.11. A' 20-year n)ortg~ge se[ up for' unifonn monthly payments with 6 percent
interest compounded monthly is taken over by a new owner after 8 years. At
that lime $12.000 is stil1 owed on the principal. What was the amount of the
original loan~ ,
Ans.: $16.345.
3.12. An investor buys common stock in a firm for $)000. At'the end of the first'
,year and every year thereof/er, she receives a divide'nd of $100. which she
immediately in\'ests in a savings and Joan institution that pays 5percenl intet·
es" compounded annua)]y. At the ,end of the' tenth 'year. just after
. ... .
rece'iving
.
'
ECO;VOMlCS <~7
. her di vide nd) she sells the stock fOf $ 1. 200. \Vh:J.t is the f3te of interest (on.
aD arlnu~l compounding basis) yiel.ded by Itf1is investment program?
Ans:: 9.41%.
A. sun~ of $20,000 . is' borrovved a.t an interest rate of 8 pefcern on tpe. unpaid
~a1ance compounded semiannuaUy. The loan is to be paid back · \v'ith~-10 equal
. paymemsjn,., 20 .y.ears .,.,The.·.paymenlts 'a~e , to be 'made every 2 ye;:rrs; sl~rting
; . ':.,:". ' .- att he endoLthe·.~ec.o.nd.~y.ew.,.,. 'V~at".is, _ the..am6unt:. ,oJ..~.;!ph . bi. ~np.ial p~Ym~Il~?"!..."~ " ... ':
'. . · ··.-'Ati.~L: $429-r~r . .. -.. . '.~ ~ . , '. . . . . . ....: .".. : . . . . . . . . .
The packing in' a ,cooling tower that cools condensing water for :1. power '
plant progressively deterio!'!tes and results .in gradually.rising costs due to
·re.d uced plant efficieJ)cy. These costs are treated as lump sum.s at the end of
the ' year, as shown in Fig. 3-6. The cost "is zero for the first year a.nd men
increases $1000 per year unril me packing'is 16 years oJd. when replace~ent
is mandatory. At a point 8 years into the life of the pilck,:ing (ju~t after 'the
$7000 ann.ual cost has been assessed), a de~ision is to be made on ~e plan for
to
the next 8 years, i.e., whether r~pltlce the packing or to continue with the
existing packing. Money can b~ borrowed at 9 pen;::el~t interest. compounded
annually_ What is the maximum amount that could be paid for the packing
in or~er to justify its replacement?
Ans.: $44,279.
3.15. The anticipated ta'\es on a facility for its IO-year tax life decline in a stp3.ight-
·line fashion a~ follows: ' .
. o
~
o
o~
'"
~
./
./
./
./
Vi
o
u
d New packing
=:J
C
c::
<-
. 0 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16
Year
FIGURE 3-6
Increasing !¥F':t., dn~ to cooling#[ower d~Jeriora[ion.
-
48 DES1GN OF TIIERMAL SYSTEMS
In an economic analysis of the facili ty the present worth of this series must
..
be .computed on the basis of 6 -percent interest compounded- annually. - _
(a) Using a combination of ~va11abl~'!factors, determine a formula for ,'the '
present ,worth of a, declining series l~e this 'o ne. .
(b) Using the formula from part (a), compute the pre~ent worth of the above
• .~-.J
.
The interest rate applicable is 6 percent compou!l.d~d annnally.
Ans.: $33~560.
3.17. A $ 1000 bond was issued 5 years ago and wiD mature 5 years from now.
The bond yields an interest rate of 5 percent, or $50 per year. The o~ner
of the bond wishes to sell the bond. bur since interest rates have· incre'a sed,
a prospective buyer wishes to earn a rate of 6 percent on his inve~tment.
What should the selling price be? Remember that the purchaser receives $50
, per year, which is reinvested, and receives the $1000 face value at maturity.
Interest is compounded an'nualIy.
Ans.: $957 ~88.
3.18. Equation (3.8) relat.esthe value of a bond Pb to the bond intere'sl and current
rate of interest by refiecring all values to a future worth. Develop an equation'
that reflects all val ues. to a unifonn semi?nnual worth and so} ve Example 3.9
'. with this equation.
3.19. Using'a computer program. caJculale tables of the price of a $1000 bond that
will yield 5.0,5.5,6.0,6.5,7.0.7.5,8.0,8.5,9.0,9.5.1 10.0, ]0.5, and
, 11.0 percent interest when the jnterest rates on· the bond are 5'.Ot 5.5, 6.0,
6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 8.0, 8.5,' 9.0. 9.5, and JO.O percent. C,?mpute the foregoing
.table for each of the following number of years to maturity: 2, 3, 4,,5, 6, 7,
8, 9, and ] O. Interes[ is ~omp'ounded ,semiannually.
, 3.20. A municipality-
must buildI a new electric generating
' ,
plant and can choose
between a' steam or a hydro fllci1ity. The anticipated cost of the steam plant
is
'$10 million., Compararive d~la for the IWO plants are
i? ECONOfl.'lICS - 49
3 .. 27. A sum .of $10,000 is in-yested and draws<. interest at a rate of 8· perce-
compounded annually. ' Starting at the end of the first year ,and each y __
thereafter $lOOO is withdrawn.' For how many years can this plan contiL
, until the mopey is exhausted? .
Ans.: 21 years.
3.28. A frrin borrows $200,000 at 9 percent nominal -interest, compounded month:_
and is- to ' repay th~' loatf ill "12 years-'with regular -monthly payments -=
.:.:__ _ $2276,Q,6,. 'The. firm has the option 6f paying off in ,advance, 'an,d aft~r -. .:
"sixth year. makes an, additiq~,~l.~~,~,~O.O, ~axmeDt_.)! if-c~n~ipue'~"the::$g~l~~ ~:
pay_rpents" h0}V inany' additiona!,-·moiitl:;ls,. are. ,re'qu'ired: to 'pay 'off·the.-16an? .
Ans.: 39 ,months . , ,' ,
,~t29. A car rental agency which leases cars to another firm buys cars for $9,00-:
anq. sells them for $6,000 two years later. It, charges a monthly rate th~
second year Df rental of 80 percent of that of the rust year. The agency ,seeks
"1 percent per month return. What are the monthly , rates each year?
. Ans.: 2nd year, $177.74 ,"
3 .. 30. A 20-year loan is to be paid off by monthly payments of M. The nomina:
'annual interest rate is i. Develop' a, closed-form expression for the unpaic
'balance at year n.
3~31.· A finn has capital on hand and is consjdering an investment in a plant 'that is
expected to show a net annual return (income less expen,s.e) of $80,000 per
year. The life of the facility is 10 years~ and the salvage value at the eDd o ·
rhat time js 20 percent of the first cost.. If the firm wishes a ]2 percent ,retum
on its investment, how much can it justify a.s the first cost?
Ans.: $483,131.
3.32. The first cost of an lnvestment js $600,000 borrowed at 1] percent interest
compounded semiannuaJly_ The expected income (less operating expense)
for 'every 6-month period is $60~OOO. If there is no salvage value, how jong
. must the plant operate in order to payoff, the investment?
Ans.: 7~ years
3 .. 33. A IS-year mo{tgage of $40,000 at 10 percent interest 'c ompounded monthly
is to be paid off with 'monthly payments. How much tota] interest will be
paid during the fust two years?
Ans.: $7,763.57
3.34. A sum of $1,000 is invested and draws interest at the rate of 8 percent
compounded annually. At the end of the first year and each year thereafter $50
is withdfi3wn from the invested amount. How much money is still availabJe
in the investment after {he 20th annual withdrawal?
Ans.: $2372.96
3.35. In a certain financing arrangement the sum of $iOO,OOO is loaned at 12
percent compounded monthly as though it were 'to' be paid off in 25 years.
At th~ end of 5 years the agreeme'nt calls for the borrower to pay back the
unp3id balance at that time. What is the unpail balance after 5 years?
Ans.~$95,.653.
, 3.36. The expected annual inGome from a new fndlitY_,.that is under con!-iideration
L<; $120.000, and the anticipated annuaJ operating exp~nditures are $60,000.
The salvage value ar the end of the - expected life of 12 years wjJl be 20
ECONOMICS 51.
perceni: of the first cost. \Nhat first cost would result in a rate of retum Df L5
percent? ))
A nsD: $337,868.
30370 .A. .processing plant has a first .cost of $600.000 and an expected life of 15
years with rio salvage value. Money i~ borrowed ' at 8 percent comp-ounded
annuaUy, and the ,f'ust cdsLi"s .paid· cj!ff with 15 equal annual paymejjrso The
, ;;(.,:~~h·;"" expected" , ~nnua1,~.iu.~pp}~e. ~s . $~OQ,OO.o·,: and' ann: i.lqI;)?pe~-~~~g exp'enses.. ,r:lfe . .".... ,.:,:. ,
," ,$40,090 .. ' C6rpq'ratiiji( income ":tax' ,"is '5a:-p'ei~ehr of' the·' profits''5ef5i-e' :;iliXe's: =:. , .< -.. '
. and the'.' SYD, method of de'predation ' 'I s :applicable on the ~taXJife of .'¢~: .. ' .
fac.ility I whic'h is 12 years 'with no salvage value. Compute th~ income .fa.'\:
for (a) the first year and (b) the se60nd year. " , . ,
. Ans.:' (a) '$ 9846; (b)$14~576.
;f.. 3.38a A dieDt who is constructing a warehouse instructs the contractor. to omit
insulation. The client .explains that he will operate the building for severa)
months and . then install the in~ulation as a repair, so that he can deduct the
expense from income tax at the end of tbe first yeat rather than spread it
I .' as straight-line depreciation over the 8-year tax , life of the warehouse. The
. contractor points out that a' later installation will cost more than the $20~OOO
cost of installing the insulation with the original construction.' How much
. could the cli~nt afford to pay for the .later installation ,for equal profit 'i f he
,plans on a 15 p~rcent return on his jn\~~~tment p.nd corporarion income taxes
are 50 perceiii?' " ' . - - .. .... ---.
Ans.: $25,461.
3.39. A $200,000 facility has an 8-year tax life, and the fiim exp~cts a 12 percent
return on its investment and pays 50 percent corporation income ta."t on
profits. The firm is con1paring the relative advantage of the SYD and straight-
line methods of depreciation. If the taxes computed by the two methods are
expressed as 'uniform annual amounts~ what . is the advantage of the SYD
meiliod? .
Ans.: $1630.
3640.. A fum borrows $250,000 for a facility that it will payoff in 10 equal install-
ments at 12 percent interest, compounded annually. In computing income
tax the firm can deduct the aCTUaL interest paid during the year. What is the
actual interest paid the second year?
- Ans.: $28,290.
t 3.41. An investor pays $80,000 for a building nnd expects to sell it for twice that
amount at the end of eight years. He can depreciate the building on a straight-
line basis during the eight years, or he can charge off no dep~eciation at all.
On the capital gains of the sale at the end of eight years, which is $160,000 -
($80,000 - depreciation) he pays half the income tax that he does 'On regular
income. State which is the mo~t profitable depreciation pIon and ,give all the
Ie3,$ons why it is most profitab1e.
3.42. Regular payments of $1400 ~e to be made annuaIJy, starti~g at the end '
of the first year. These nmounts' wil1 be invested at 6 percent compo~nded
, continuously. How many yenrs will be needed for the payments plus interest
to accumulnte to" $24,OOO?
Ans.: 12 years.
»
-McGraw-Hill. New ,York, ' 1962" " " ' ', "
DeGarmo, E:P.: Engineering Economy, Macmillan, New'Xork, 1967.
Grant, E. L. t anq. W. G. Ires,on:, Prindples of Engineering Economy. _4th ed. Ronaid Press,
J
,
',
4
. : . :.' '~'I
J• •"' •
• , ,J . , ~. __ ...,,:': ,. \: • •
. .
"EQUATIO'N'
:"'"','
'\
FITTING
.- . ,~
53
54 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
certain laws that suggest a fo~ for the equation, and this insight c~ b:
used to advantage, as shown in Chapter 5. . .. ' >,.;....:.
Where do the
data come from on \Vhich equations are based1··Us~an·
. the da~a used by a designer come from tables.. or ~aphs~ . Expe_riment~
, " .
.' data from the laboratory
-
might provide the basis , and the
"
techniques' . "
E -:-)
.,," . this 4lld the· next ·ch~pter: ~e ap'plicable ·to.processing laboratory . data ..~ Bu:
', . ~ "':"_"". . . system designerS,'are usually onb."step removed from the laboratory and ~e
: '.,.: .',:>."... ' . selecting CQgID1~rclally available components for :which the manufacture.
r.·· . ." . . .... , ., /!~:: 'has_. p~o vid~~ ~'peifoim~ce;.:datif>In/.aiJew:~ei~iMt.31?:C;:~,§.'JP:?~ ~X~ctnrers~ma)
4.2 MATRICES
All the operations in this chapter can be perf9ITned without using matrix
tenninoJogy, but the use of matrices provides .several conveniences and
insights, In particular, the application of matrix tenninology is applicable '
to the solution of sets of simultaneous equations.
A manix ·is a rectangul8! array of numbers, for exa~ple,
all '012
OIn]
[~ -r] [-~~] [; ~l
-2 021 022 .. . 12n
1
[
a I~l; . 'Q'm"2' • " .. .
a mn
The numbers that nlake up the array are caJled eleJJ7enfs. The orders of
these matrices, from left to right, are 3 X 3,3 x 2,2 x 2, and nl X n .
A transpose of a matrix (A], ~esjgnated [A]T, is formed by interchang~
ing rows and columns, Thus,. if '"
(AJ = [
2
3 -1]
0
~
then [A]! =' [
-1
3 2
0 -2
·41
4 '-2
, . To multiply two matric'es,' multiply elements of t.he fjlrst ·ro1w of ,the
left matrix by the corresponding elements of the first column of [he righr
EQT6-ATION FITIlN.G J .:?
Inarrix~
b1en sum the products to give t~~ .ele,ryent of the first row and fir~t .
column of the product matrix. For ex.ample~ , the multiplication of the t'i,:vo
m_atnces
-, ....
, gIves
, ,
2t I - Xl '+ 3x) =6
, Xl + -3x 2, =1
4Jt- I - 2x 2. + x-) , 0
ca!1. ,be vlrritten in matrix form as
2
1 3
'.-1 3][XI]
0
.[6]
X2 == 1
[ 4 -2 1 x) 0
'· -The determinant is a scalar (which is simply a number) and is written
between vertical lines. For a 1 x 1 matrix it is the element itself; thus
lalll = all
A technique for evaluating the detenninan-t of a 2 x 2 matrix is to sum
the products of diagonal elements, assigning a positive sign to the diagonaJ
moving downward to the right and a negative sign to the pr:oduct moving
upward to the right: '
al2 aJ3
a22
032
a23
a33
- +\+ \ + \ I
-) -) - J
".= a II a22 G33 + a l2 a n G31 + a 13 Q
21 a32
-------
;;-
-aJt"£j22 G 13 - a32 Q 23 Q 11 - a33 Q 21 0 12
56 ,DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
1 2 -1 0/·
o 1 2 0
3 -1 1 2
4 ·2 1 5
, Solution.' Two elements of the' second ,row are zero, so that row would be a
convenient one about which to ,·e xpand.
1 -1 0
= (O)A21 + (1)( _1)2+2 3 1- ·2
4 1 5
1 2 0
+ (2)( -1):!-:-3 3 -1 . 2 + (O)A 24
4 2 5
= 0,+ 10 + 46 + 0 = 56
, . . . :. . .. ... J .. ' . .
.• .. ;". c. . .:
:
. -". .
[i
-}
-2·
0
1
-lfl] -fJ
2
3
X2
X3
- 9
0
Solution
2 3 .....,...1
1 9 2
-1 0 3 30
= =- = , -2
~l2
.2
1
1
-2 . 2
-11 -]5
-1 0 3 .
XI - 4x 2 + 3x 3 ::= - 7 (4.4)
Xl - 4X'2 t ,
3X3
!
== -7 (4.7)
~3X2 ~:' llx3l = 35 (4.8) ,
<" :9X 2 - 5 X 3 == 19 , , ,(4~9},
. , ,. . . · Th~ last part ofstep lis .to m~l tipI Y F1 ,!4J~) 1?y.~nlWdadd to ~Eq; (.4.9), ...
~:-.,.'. ",~, .;;";,,,.biSl:tS~p1p,Je ~~~~th e, tri~gul ;ui~~tkm'c0,-,;~ ,~::<::.,:;•.,:" . :" , , ..",,"'.' :.; .; ....;". c'
': ', ."':'~-. ' .. : . ' x}'.:..- 4x 2 +. ,3X-3-' ==. - ,,7 " " .' "-, ,(4.JD). ... :: '-: _
. .' ~~
In 'step 2 the value' of XJ Cp.D be detennined directly from ~q. (4~I'2) as,
X3 = -2.-,.Substituting the 'value .of X3 into' eq. (4.11) and solving' gives '
.x2 == 1.' Finally, substitute the values ,of -X2 and X3 into Eq. (4.10) t?, find
that x 1== 3.
If a different set of equations were. being solved, and in the equation
corr~sponding to Eq.' (4.8) if the coefficient of X2 bad been zero insteaq of
13, it Wquld have been necessary to exchange ,the posjtions of Eqs. (4.8)
and (4-.9). If both the X2 coefficients in' Eqs,. (4.8) and (4.9) had been zero,
this would indicate that the set' of equations is dependent. '
Ivlost computer departn1ents have in their library a routine for solving
a set of simultaneous linear equations which can be called as needed. It may
be convenient to \vrite one ~ s own subprogram using a method like gaussian
elImination. 1 It \vil1 be useful for future work in this text to have access to
, an equation-solving routine on a digital computer.
\vhere a o ,to Gil are constants. The degree of the equation is the hi,ghest
_ exponent of x, which in Eq. (4.13) is 11.
Equation (4.13) is an expression giYlng the function of one variable
in tenns of another. In other common situations one variable is a function
of [wo.or more variables, e.g., ~n an axial-flow compress~.r
, Flow rate .= f (inlet pressure, inlet temperature I
- the ~I.best fit" to the data points (see Sec. 4.10)0' , . ".:;-; ,- .
. ' .' .- J' .' ' . .' .
.1JJe· fi~sL and -.'simples.t caseJo "be considered :is where one variable is. "
. -Y·a1u:nc.ti6~ of anot~er"van~b~e.·;and·, .the·{ nl1mbef..·:bf~data~':p·oints!".equarSr:-n-'~.:T~,'h'· :t::,:·<.;:::.'.·~'
"
. "
Yl = a o + alx I
For a second-degree, or q uadratic, equation~ three data points are
needed; for example, points 0, '1, and 2 in Fig. 4-2. ' The x y pairs for the
three known points ca~ be substiruted into the general fonn. for the quadratic
equation
(4.15)
F1GURE 4-1
Two points describing 8 liDeru equation.
60 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
. l
.)
-2 ,
.... ..,
, 4 .;:._,
... ','
: '~' . ' .J " :". j, A•• , ; • • : ;-:,: ' : ' . ~ _. • _ . J _ . • ~ . ~
" '
"': . ..:. . '. -' ":" .., ' . " ,: . ., ";-" . j _ ~ _ • ~• • • ,J " .
,.....:.: :...:.- ., . .
. ,
,. . . . .~ \'
' ,- "
, "
[i ;~;m~~] [~~] 2 2,
=
The solution of these three linear simultaneous equations provides the v~lues
of 00' a J, -and 02 . .
The coefficients of the high-degree terms in a polynomial may be quite
small~ particularly if the independent variaqle is large. For example, if the
, 'enthalpy of saturated water vapor h is a function of temperature t in the
equation
h = Go + all + ... + 0515 + Q6t6
where the range of f extends into hundreds of,degrees, the value of as and
a6 may be so small that precision problems result. Sometimes thjs difficulty
can be sunnounred by defining a new independent variable, for example,
f /100.
- f - 1 .-~ - f)6
h = Do + 0]-
100
+ ... + a5(--~r +
\ J 00 .
06(-'-
100
, To find a 1 to 04, first s~,bs'titute the (Xl, ),1) pair into' E'q. (4.16)
2
4(xJ - ,x o) [4(X1 -'X O)J , [4(Xl -~Xo)13.
/1V '1
.,
= at
R
+ G'I
' , -. R
+ '
a3
R
+a4 [
4(X 1 -: xo)l~' (4.17)
R '
Because of the unifonn spacing of the points -along the x axlS, n (x ,! -
xo)! R = .1 and so Eq. (4.17) can be rewritten as
t
(4.18)
4
y
I 4 Range g R ~ ,
, I '
FIGURE 4..3
PoIynomjal....repr~ntation when point! are equalJy spaced along the x axi~.
.... :- ..,
62 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
TABLE 4.1
~ons,tants .41. Eq . (4 .. 16)
' -I .
:. : I " I1:Y2 . .
· ·Fourth 2 -fly]
." . -3~~'''-'7a~
• ~ :'."'~~'~."~; • .)\' • ~.""', ~I- : _ :., 1"1" : ' •• : ••
----------..,............,.....-.--.,~-~:___--.:...~~--_o__-____:_--'---~
. "';'" ,~
. Cubic . . .' .kC;~yr:.+:·A)'J . : : ~C~'2. .~.··i.AY"I) . ". ' ~ A);I '-: q2 '~: a~'
" ," :" .
Quadratic
U sing the' (X2;: X2) parr 'in4 th.~ 'fa~t that ;1(X2 - xo)/R == 2 gives
Ay~ ::;: 2al + 40 2 + 8P3 '+ 1604 ', (4.~9)
The expressions for Q! to a4 found by solvjng Eqs. (4. 18) to (4.21) sitnul~
taneously are shown in Table 4.1, along \yith the constants for the cubic,
qua.dratic, and linear e9uations.
(~.23)
EQUAT10N F1ITING 63
&-
Tbg tJ:rc:c a:vail~b e d~t 8.. points are (Xl: ~~JI)! r'~21 Y2), an~ (X37 Y3). E.quation
(4.23) could be mul tiplIed out and teI!TIs coUected to show the c9rrespoD-
dence to "he form in Eq', (4:22). .
By se tting ~'( = . Xl, Xl, and X3 in tum in Eg. (4.23) th~ .cqn~t?-nts .can
be found quite ' sID:plX:.. ..< .~ ~.~~ . ,'.J.,:... .... . ;- ...... .
. '. I... . , ' .... .
~ ~. " ~.'
. _~ .. ...:1-'.:.:';_ .
"'<7':"'; .,-.:" '. . ..' ,'. . ·__v 1 .. ",. '.;.',., :.:.... ,:'..: :::".: ....:.~ . " ..... ;", '
. I. .,CI = . " .
. ~ ...... (..t· l·:~.:~ti).Cx i ~"x"j) ,'- ', ..... I
. ..d.
,The general form oJ the equation''for fllldmg the value of J; 'for'a give:q
w~ \vhen 11 . data points · are' known is
V'
' ~
== LY'
nn. -ex. - Xj)
.
omitting (x -.x i) (4.24)
"' i= 1 .1 j = 1 (X; - XJ) omitting (Xi - Xi)
", ~
, .~...,::- J -
.,.: .. :::~". :
FIGURE 4-4
performance of a centrifugal pump ..
w~ter is 25. 9°C and so the temperature of the entering water is 25,'9 + 10
I
TABLE lL2
~O ~t.lu.
~'~'aDl ;' - - ;;ia " \::
... .... t it
0. "("
.5.
"'e
l ,., P .? ~<1: k. ~ ' ~ o
il _J _ .!I. al '; U'.' "-: ?
°iL
r-· , ('
'V_
t I )
ForW'BT =23°C
I '
(4.33)
The nine sets of t-'R- WBT comb'ina'tions expressed in Table 4.2 can be
substiruted into Eq. (4.33) CO develop nine simultaneous equations, which can
be solved for the unknowns c1 to C9' The c values thus obtained are
~ -
-of two independent variables,' for- example, if z = I(x ,Y), the form can t:
chosen '
1
',I ,.
'z = co(x - X2)(X -'X3)(Y - Y2)(Y - Y3) ,
' +C12(X' -X'2)(i:.-',X3)(Y -Yl-)(Y -':')'3). . .::-: -
, -: - - . -- . -
~
, ' ,
': ••• •" : •••> , ' . :>-', , " ~ , :'. : ,'+.~..... ~."C31(~ ~~ :X.t)(x. ~.X2)(y·-' YO~(y -- Y.2}-::i ..,: ·:..·.(1·34
.. -.. ~6re~~s~ni~e 4a~ ta~le 4~2; ~ couldref~
in to !he teolPer- outl~t-\\1ater
ature, x the WBT, arid Y the· range. In Eq. ·(4.34.) Xl .- 20, X2 == 23, and
X3 ' ,= 26, while YI ' = 10,}'2 = '16, and')'3 =' 22. - "
.. ,'. ' "'- To determine the magnitUde of cn,
for example', values. applicabJe
.
when x = ' x.land
.
y =)'2 can be substituted
.. .. -
into Eq'. (4.34). ' '
27.0
C12 = "(20 - 23)(20 - 26)(16 '- 10)(] 6 - 22) = -0.04167
. ,
."
JOOO
I
,-
- JO I
I
I
I
I
FIGURE 4·5
Graphic~ determination of the constant b and exponent m.
,.
EQUAT10N FInING
0-
67
y V iI
)')
.':
~.
..:. ' . .,.
.'
~.
.,.
~----~----------~~
x
(a) (h)
FIGURE 4-6
Curve of the equation y =b + ax nJ •
establis.hing the 'coefficients in such ~ eqUf.tion called the method of least :'.
. I ." ' .
is
squares. ' . .
Some people proudly announce their use of the method of least .squares
in order to emphasize the care they have lavished on ·their dacii · ~aIysis. .
: Misuses of." ~e .method ·as. ill:ustratedj~;·B.ji~~A.~J,ct-:and·1i;~~e~·n~f.ti~cQnnnf)lfA~.:~
-. " " .< . '
1.
.,;. I' . .., ,.
, . . ._ . . ..... . . ~.Q.;-
.,In/ . ~ig~:·: .4-74;. . ¢hile)a:: straigp.t" line can, he"fourid thaf~resllltS iIi the least":" , .
:'squares' .deviation," the 'cprrelation betWeen the .,. x ·~d y variables seems
, questionable ~d perhaps no such device can i,m prove the corr~l~iob.. The
scatt~r J!lay be 'due to the 6~ssion of SOIl1e significant variable(s). In Fig.
" - :-~"4-7b , it w'o uld 'have' been p~eferable to- eyeball.in the, curve, rather than to
.fit. a straight line to the data by the least -squares method. The error was not
in llSing least squares but in applying a curve of too low a degree.
Th,e pro.cedure for using the least-squares method fo~ frrst- and seconcl-
degree polynomials will be explained here. Consider -frrst the linear equation
of the fonn
y = a+, bx (4.37)
where m pairs of data points are ayailable:' (xJ' YI), (x2,Yi), .'~., (x m ',
Ym). The deviation of the data point from that calculated from the equation
is· a + bx i - Yi' We, wish to choose an a arid a b such that the sumrriation
m
L (a + bx j - Yi)2 ,---7 rilln~um (4.38) .
i=l
The minimum occurs when the 'partial derivativ'es ofEq. (4.38) with respect
to a and b equal zero. '
m '
~ .2
a"'-'
I= I
(a+bx·-y·)
I '
- - - - - - - - = L2(a + bXi - Yi) = 0
aa
y 'Y
o
o
o
o.
·0
, I
X
Co) (b)
FJGUR.E 4:2
Mjsus~ of th~ method of least squires.
EQUATION fffTING 77 -
i-
, i ..
.: x y
2 2
:5 :2
4 2 2
; .
Determine the values of' a and b that give the best fit oJ the equation to the
data in the sense of least square deviation.
Ans.: b = ,-:-0.35.
4.17 .. With the method of least squares, ' fit the enthalpy ,of saturat~d ' liquid Iy by '
means of a cubic equation to the temperatur,~ t in degrees Celsius using the
11 points .on Table 4.3. Then compute th~ values of hi at the 11 po~nts with ,
the .equation just developed.
A~.: hi = -0.0037 '+ 4.2000t - 0.000505r 2 + 0.000003935-t 3.
A frequ~ntly used form of equation to relate saturatjon pressures t9 temper-
atures is
B
Inp=A+-
, T
With the method of least squares and the 11 points for Table 4.3, determine
the values of A and B that give the best fit. Then compute the values of p
at the 11 points using the equation just developed.
Ans.: In p = 18.60 - 5206.9/T.
tt19: The variable z is to be expressed in an equation of the fonn
z = ax + by + ex y
The foJlowing data points are available, and a least-squares fit is desired:
Z :c y ~
0.1 1
-0.9 J 2
, 2.0 2 2
-1.8 3 1
)'
Approaches ~ I
J
Approaches y axis straight line
FIGuRE 4·13
Function in Frob. 4.19.
4.20. Tbree points, (XJ,Yl), (X2,Y2), and (X3,)'3), lie precisely on the straight line
y = a + bx. If a least-:-squares best fit were applied to these three points to
detenninc the values of A and ·B in th~ equation y = A + Bx, show that the
process wo.UJd indeed give A = Q, aT1d B ~ b.
4.21. An eguatjon is to be found that represents the. function shown in Fig.
4-13. Since one single simple expression seems .inadequate, propose that
.)' = 11 ex) + fz(x). Suggest appropriate fonns for II and f2 and -sketch these
functions .
./' 4~22. The enthalpy of a solution is a function of-the temperature t and the concen-
tration x and consists of straight lines at a constant temperature, as shown in
Fi.g. 4-14. Develop an equation that accurately repre~ents h as a function of
.x and t.
4~
40
35
30
,
2 :!5
r:
.r:.
c 20
!J.)
_.
10
5
0
,. 0
,
p.S I
1.0 '
Concentration. :r
FIGURE 4·14
Enlha~clion of lempera!~rc and concentration in Prob. 4.20.
BtUATION FrITI;-..IG 75
' , . .
. .\ . . . .
,
y = a + ox + cx-
")
has been prqposed, to pass through the -thr~e (x ,y) points (C3). (2.4)·~ aod
(2, 6). Proceed with the solutio l1 for a. b? and c. '
(a) Describe any uriusual problems encountered. . '
(b) Propose an alternate second-degree relation between x arid y ' [hat .. will
successfully' ~epresent these three points.
:f4.So Us~ data from Table 4.3 ?t I ' ~ o~ 50, and 100 to establish second-
0
e a
degree p.olynomial that fits hg to t. Using the equation. compute hg a[ 80°C.
'Ans.: :2643.3 kJ/kg. ' '
4.6. Using th,e data froD1 Table 4.3 for Vg at I = 40, 60, 80 and 100°C. develop
a third-degree eguation 'similar in form to Eq. (4.16). Compute Vg at 70°C
using this equation.
Ans.: 4.91 m 3 Jkg.
,t 7 .., Lagrange interpolation is to be llsed to represent the epthalpy of sary.rated
air~ hs kJlkg, as a function of the temperature tOC. The pairs of (h s , t) values
to be used as the basis are (9.470, 0), ,(29.34. 10), (57.53, 20), and -(99.96,
30).
(a) Determine the values of [he coefficients Cl [Q C4 in' the equatiori for' lIs.
(btCaIculare hs at 15°C. '
A.ns.: (b). From tables 42.09 klfkg.
TABLE 4.3
Prope .... ties of saturated water
Temperature Enthalpy
Pressure Specific volume
l,oC ,T,K p, kPa "r' m) /kg hb kJ/kg hi' kJ/kg
js to fit the following three . (x~y ) point,s: (1., 4), (2, 8), al1d (3, 10). What ·
, are the vallle~ · of Yo? al ~ and Q2? . '~.'} .
, ~'.' , . . . . , . Ans.: a 1 . = 5 ~ .. . J ,. . ,
~. ' .. .,h,>-',' . ,. :.~~:: The pumping capacity of a refrigerating 'compressor (and thuS the 'capability
~ '. lir~ok4:" ........ -•• " - , , ' "" " . - . ' •
..'. ;' .' .~~-<.·,.f9! :~eve~~p'ing~. r~frigerating· ·~Q~P,.~·S.rU.').::~:i,~ '~~\~~~:~9~\"~f .~~ :, evaporating, and· "
'. ~ condensing pre~.s.~s:·. The)'efrigerating~ capaCi.'ti~:s..,irr' kilovhftti:·.o4~?;.q~~t~·i~{.::,:;; ,.
. reciprocatirig compressor 'at combiiiations·of . thr.ee·,o.jff~rent 'eyaporating"and:~:~ ...,-":.".
c9ndensjn~ temperattires ~e'shown in Ta~le 4.4. Develop'an equ'atiori ,simi1ar. ~ .: .
to the fonn of Eq. · (4.33), D.runeJy, '
• - ........I _ • •
TABLE 4.4
Refrigerating capacity' q, kW
;
Condensing temperature, It, °c
Evaporating
temperature /" °c .25 35 4S
,
0 1.52.7 J 17. J 81.0
.5 182.9 14J .9 JOl.3
, 10 ~15.4 J70.7 126 ..5
.;;:=.
*
.'
EQUATION FlTTiNG 73
y /.
j '..::.-:
',' -' ,- - . ( .
·X
FIGURE 4':12
Combination of two forms.': .
, sales ~oIume vs ~ years for many products w~~ch J;1a¥~~ low sales when first
introduced, experic;nc'e a period of rapid increase, then reach saturation. The
personnel required in many projects also often follows the 'curve. The form .
th~t re presen ts Fig. 4-11 is ..
I
Y == ab~ (4.44)
where Q 7 b, and c are constants and band c have magnitudes .less than
unity.~
Combination of Forms
It may be possible to fit a curve by com.bining·: two or more fOnTIs. For
example, in Fig. 4-12, suppose that the value of y approaches asymptotically
?l straight line as :i increases. A reasonable y!ay to attack this modeling task
would be to propose that
m
y = YI + Y2 = (a + bx) + (c + dx )
• - • ~ • &
. ~ "
is to choose the proper terms (exponential, polynomial, etc.) to include
.in the equation. It'is possible, of : cour~e, to include all the terms that
could possibly be imagined~' ev.aluate the) coefficients by .the method of
least squar~s, and then eliminate tenns that proviqe little contribution . . This
_process -is essentially .one of regression. analysis,5 whicl;1 aJS.9_,lS us~d ,.to- .
" < '. ,:assess .w hich varia~les are ipiport?Jilt in representing the. depeJ;1dent vanable, _
: " .... The field of statistical ,analysis of data is an exrensive one, and this -
.: , ':-',: ' ", ,~~' ". ~h~~ptei ti~·~~~i'y ~,c~~qh~~.:;.~~:.s.pifa~~·. ~Q9. 9?e other hand, much of the ~ffort'
in th~: statisticii "ana:lys'ls, oT·:·data' is:.di:tec:t~10Waffu;fi~;~g~;~~p~~~nt~da~;;t:::;~:. ~
to ' equations wher~ 'rartdom .experirrie;ntal. e~9i' .occtirs-:··· ' IIr· eqil'arion,\£1'tiltrg"':-~:~
the -design
for of thermal systems, since .c atalog tables- and 'charts are --me . -
most frequent ,source of data, there usually has already been a proc~ss of "
smoothing of the experimenta.l data coming from the laboratory. Because '
of the growing 'need for -fitting catalog d~ta to '- equatiOll'S1 many designers -
-h ope that Dlanufacturers will present the equation th~t represents the table'
or graph to save each engineer the effort of developing the equation again '
when needed. .. - .
This chapter presented one approach to math~matica1 modeling where' '.
the relationship of dependent apd independent variables was'- developeq.
\vithout the help of physicaJ laws. Chapter 5 explores some special irriportant
cases where physical insight into some thermal equipment can be used to
advantage in fitt1ng equations to performance data. Chapter- 13 'extends the
experience on mathematical modeling and also con'centrates on the impOJ;1:ant
. topic of thennoqynanllc properties,
1
) 1: -2
.-2. ,_2 3 . -2 ~.[Xx~Jj _ [5J 18 [
[- 1 3 .I - 4 .~ 3 - - 6,' I
1 - 3 5 - ~\.,t 13
:: )~.
. I I
?o 70 R
-~~ ~;
. '-'~."
~ -
, 15 , - ~~.
'• • I
:,~~.
' __ , ' · r ,"
5 ,
~~Y=4
-0 o
o· 2 3 4 5 y 0 ' 2 4 x
(a) -, (b)
FIGURE 4-8
Cross plots to aid in developing the :form of the equation.
, 2
Z = aD + a IX + D2Y + a3 x
Several frequently used fonns merit fur¢er discussion.
P9lynomiaJs
If there is a lack of special indicators that other forms are more applicable,
a polynomial would probably be explored. When the curve has a reverse
curvature (inflection p'o int), as shown in 'Pig. 4-9, at least a third-degree
polynomial must be chosen. Extrapolation of a polynomial beyond the
FlGURE 4 ..9
x .~' At lease a third-degree poJynomial Deeded.
72 DESIGN OF THERMAL SY$1EvfS
• I
y '.
.I
I
I , • . ; .. .' •
. ,
. , . ... " ." . }
. ~' .
.. .. .. ...
r- ;- '. , ·FIGURE 4il0' .'
,:: !; ~~'I ~· ;:-."·1, · . ',,~. " '- . -', ' .: ., . . _ . Ne~ative exponents.'-.of~R91yp.-omia1s for _ a curve that
; :'~ . " ...'-.-....;........,,...;.....:..---,----,-..,.....,. ... . .......,~=-:-::;-
~ : .•-.-..-,'--:'-. x-'~ .. ' .!~~::::rfl~~~;:otf.,';·~ '.~. I ; .. ' : ...~.: ~.{.~.;.: .~.~.. ~:.. .}:.:...:' . ?;~ ~;'~~-:".;\ ~.· <::,f :"'::
-
."i l l
. -borders of 'the data used ' ~o develop the ~qllation often results in serious
error. .
E~onential Equations
. Section 4.9 has described sever~ examples of exp-onential forms. The shape
of the curve in Fig. 4-10 might also include a c-~ term. Plots on log-log
paper wO\lld be a routine procedure, although a simple plot of log y vs .
log x yields ·a straight line only with equations in the form of~. (4.35),
Gompertz Equation
. The G.ompertz equation,4 or S curve (Fig. 4-11), appears frequently in
engIneenng practice. The Gompertz curve. for example, represents the
----"----"-'------
, -----------
F1GURE 4-11
:x Gompertz. or S curve .
.. '
EQu~_nON FTITING 69
and ,
I I
m
.. a i 2: (o -+ . hr-
= 1\ - -' I
_y.)2
l .
- - - -.a-b---- == 2:2(a ! bXj - y;)Xj _0 ,I ''';:1' ;
.' I .",_ .
.'. , -;'-." DiYi4in.g.. -by.2: and seti~Ja.tiD.g the :at~ove-t':'vvo ·'eqhat?',ons" inltd'.~qividlla1 tf;rrn.-s· -
. : g1yes,,' '" ::. .: .,'" ~:.: .:.-.:,~.~~~.:.,~ ';' j"i') " :'~:~ ~'~':.';:':/'.-'.' t_ .. ,~ ,:;,~;::,:: .. _.: ~.": .~ ,~--:.?":~: .'. ::"':>' ":-,.:\. ..:~.:-:;.~-:>.-: ' --:': ,>":;", _..
j.,.
... :' .
a"x-
4 I + ; b>x:-J
.-I = "x-y·
£..i I I '(4.40)
Solution. The summatioris [0 substitute into Eqs. (4.39) aI:ld (4.40) are
,
,X I' )'i x:-I X;}'j
and m = 4
The ~imul~eous equations to be solved are
4ao + 14a, = 49.9
14ao + 62a, = 213.9
yielding ao = 1. 968 and a 1 = 3.019. Thus
y = 1.908 + 3.019.x
A similar procedure can be followed when fitting a parabola of the fonn
y = a + bx + cx 2 ( 4.41)
. <
' ;" " ,~, 4.11 METHOD ,OF LEAST s,QuAREs~,~ " '"\- ,' '" ~,. " " " .','
~ ,::' ; :~," -" ' ~""-?~:APPLIED-.:T, O ',:NONPOLYNOl\lIIAi, FORMs ," ,- "
, ', ,' ": -~ ' , , - '" " J:'-::" :'-r :-~~!~ ,,-i,;'; ~::;.":~'.' :',:, ~~);:,':, :;:~:o:i,· ,:-i . - : 0':- ,~,~'..... "" ',~, :._ ~ , ,;:;,:' , :' .::'
,, ' ,-" ' ,' ,- ,: '~" ",''<', 'I, :
The- e7Cplana.tion of the ,p1~Ui:6d bf 'Ie'ast 'squares ,was~, 'appl-ied-~:to" jJolyno ' .-=
' forms in Sec. '4.10, but' it ,should not be suggested' that ' ,the--:metho :~
limite4 to those faIms. The method is applic,a ble ,to any form which con ... ·- -
constant -coefficients. For ~xaIDp~eJ- if th~· form otthe ,e quati,o n is
y = a sin 2x +.b In x 2
the su~mation comparab~e to Eq .. (4.38) is
m
L(Yi '-asin2xi~ 'blnxl)2 .
i=1 .
-,J
, , '
. ' : . '!',
.. , , " .
,. I: ' , J' ' : - f " .: ..
, .' ~ " .,
" ':...;'
. . . .'
80
MODELING THER.."vt-\L EQUIPMENT 81
the .h.orizons of applications 'of tht? future ~opics of simult;ltion and optimii:a~ ,
. • . J .
tIOD. . , . '.
. ,T he third 'class of thennal equipment tr¢ated in th,is chapter. i~' Ujrb~-' ". ~'
,'::--,..'.'<;', machi~erY' the; performanc.e of which can often be .~x:piessed in ' .· :of -.: " . terms
'>/:: , «~. ": 'diWensionl~ss. gro~ps. This chapter wlvi sho~v hpw " ~§_ :~$e' o{dim~.nsi~.Q.~e~~ · " :~,: -.
" '; -
\.. ! : :
._~. ~; ,~:;'
•• -
-
': , : II
'-' " ,
,
.:
• [ ;. ' -'. • - . , :... •
':: .. •
'
,
.,
•
, ~.> ~', ~:"·'\'5~2' · '. 8ELE CTlNG·· VS·.- .SIl\tIULATING · ' .' , .
J
.... , ' . " . . ' . ' .. " . '. ',"_ ..... 1,":- " .
-A',HEAT EXCHANGER . " -,." ,
A cbriunon engineering task'is' to .selec~.~desigri; or speCifY'aheat ~xchaDge,r· . , ,~ - .
to perform a certam . heat-~ansfer duty~ .Th~ ·. ellgitleerthen -decides on .th~·
" type ot
heat ' exchanger and its deta.iis.- Three of the 's~vernl: dozen types'
. '. of he'at· exchangt:~ '~va,i'~able' ate:' S~o'~Iljn Fig. 5-1. Figure 'S-la 'shows a
, .~. sfiel I"" and-tUbe' heat ~xchanger, com,monly .p sed transfer.lieat between two to
", ~.iqu.ids. On~ ~9f ,the fllfids 'ffow~ j!1side the 'tubes and i~ called the tube-side
.... '.~ 'fluid, while · the .'other flo~s over' rh,e<outside',:of the tubes and is caI1e'd the '
'. ", .sh~il-sid~' fl~id'. · th~ heafex'chang~r i~ Fig. 5-la,::has ~o tube pass.es, which
.: means .that the tu~e--s.i(:le fluid flows' through half th~ tUbes' in one direction
" and back through t~e other half. The ~ead' of the heat exchanger on ,the. left .
end.is equipped ~ith a' ~ivider .that sep'arates the incoming from the outgoing
'tube-si.d e fluid. · Baffles are placed iri the shell $0 that the ' shell-side fluid
flow~·a~rogs ttle'tubes"a flu'mber o.f tilTles bef~re leaving the heat exchanger,
instead of sho'i t-circuIting to the o,utlet.
The.fipned-coiI heat exchangerin Fig. 5-1h is the ~ often cho.sen to
transfer heat between.n gas' an'd a liquid. Since the resistance to 'heat transfer
on the gas side is u's ually, high .b~caus:e of the low heat-transfer coefficient
of. a gas, fins a.re installed on the gas s~de to increase .the. heat-transfer area ..
The third type of hea~ exchanger, shown in Fig. 5-lc, is a compact
heat ~xch~~er; .it usually consists of-a stack of metal p~ates that are often
t +
W!uer
(b) Finned-coil (c) Compact
FIGURE 5-1
Several types of heat exchangers.
-
EQUllJ10N FITTING 79
Y A
.~- ;
.; - . , '--~ "-'
:' !'" ,.
-1' ,. ' ,
FIGURE 4-15
Gompertz equation in Prob. 4~23.
cx
4.23. In a certain Gornpertz equation: which. is y ,= ab and represented by Fig.
4-15, 'c = O.'5,yo = 2 and the asymptote has a value of 6. Determine the
values .of a and b.
Ans.:a- = 6.
REFERENCES'
.1. Procedures for Simulating the PeifomzQn.ce of Components and Systems for Energy Cal-~::
culations, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, arid Air-Conditioning Engineers,
New York, 1975.
2. M. W. Wambsganss. Jr .• "Curve Fitting with Polynomials," Mach. Des., vol. 35, uo.
10, p. 167, Apr. 25, 1963.
3. C. Daniel. and F. S. Wood, Fitting Equations to Data. Wiley-Interscience, New York,
1971.
4. D. S. Davis, Nomography and Empirical Equations, Reinhold, New York. 1955.
5. N. R. Draper and H. Smith. Applied Regression Arullysis; Wiley, 'New York, 1966 .
.-
82 DESIGN bF.11-I.ERM4 SYSTEMS
cor:rugated an~ arranged so that th~ t\vo.f1uids tJow through alternate spaces
between the plates. " ') ' .. '
, We now return to ,the ' distinction ,between selectiIlg ,anq simulating a
,heat exchangeI:' To select a sheIl-and-tub~ heat exchanger; for example, the
: -., ,flov/ rates, entering temperatures, and'lea~ing t~mp'efatuies 'm both fluids
',; 'would be ,known~ The task 'o f the ,designer is to select the combinaticin":of
~..
". i
!"
- "
,.
. .... .. ~ .,'
~.
:." , :>·. ~h~ll_Plame.ter.,.,;.tub~·'" le~gth~ ,f:tri.mPe~ pt::~~~j~~,,>,'nllpJber-"of tUbe,passes~ and
,: ~the," baffle , spatmg. that. will::accomplish,: tli¢' ~p~pi:fi~d':'he.a,t.~tpt,n,~~8~" duty =,. Ihe __
de~ign 'must also en,s ure :'that certain 'p ressure-drop Iiini,tatiopso~',of-ttie.JJbiclS~-
flowmg through the heat exchanger are
Dot ~xceeded. ' ' '
. In ~imulation" on the other hand, the heat exchanger already exists,
either in actual hardware or as a sp;c1flc , design. ' FllrthenDOre the pedoi":
mancechantctenstics of the heat exch~g~r are- available, such 'as Ithe ,area
and overall heat-transfer coefficients,_ Simulation of a heat exchanger COll-
o sists of predicting outlet ~ondjtions,. slIch as temperatures, for'variolls inlet '
terp.peratures and flow rates. The emphasis of the next several sectionS wi,11
be on' predicting outlet condit~ons of a -given heat exchanger when the inlet
conditions are known.
12 ./C
}1'2 kgls
cp'J.1/(kg ",K)
II,jOe
l(
U', kg/s
cp k,....g_-K_)..L-L--"'--_ _ ~
. ,
FIGURE 5-2
A counterflow hear exchanger.
n-;
MODELL.'\fG lliER¥.AL EQU1PMENT OJ
coun terFo'vv heaL txctanger 'Vt/ith the sYrn?ols Ithat vlill be used in developi,ng
equ~tions. , )
Th·.-ee equations for the rate of heat transfer q. in w'arts are
;:r .
...;.-: -
, \vhere q =
rate of heat transfer, \V
wI, W2 = flow rates
of respe,ctive fluids? kg/s
Cpl, cp 2 :::: specific heats of respective fluids, J/(kg,- K)
t = temperature, ~C
, . ')
Solving for 12.0 in Eq. (5.4) and substituting into Eg. (5.5) gives
Define D as
~ (-
D=UA 1 --
1)
WJ . W2
TIJen
II./ -:-/2/ - (W J IW2 )(tl.l -/1.0) = e~'
t 1.0.... - 12.i -
. 84 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
". :;-' ... .. ~ , '.: .~~-•.: .~ ' . ' " , _. ' \ ."..."~ tl 0 = 11 i - (t1 i ...:- 12 i) '. w'- 'D , (5:6 I :.--.' • •'
~ .~': ",', " ,,-~; .." ? >:c;-:'.~~':,::, ~" _"-,.._"'_~_~ / 2 - e , ' ," "
. . ., _ . '. . Equation .(5.6}·cp~rinit{:t.O~P¥t~~o:n.,';o~<ou~;·~.QVu.t1:~.: ~~p.~E~P!r~~ ?r;-~
.heat exchanger of known ·charactepstI~s~ . wh~n " both·<·el1·~~~g:... teinperatu're'~
,~ ~)rnown. T!t.~,other 'o utlet temperature ~~ be computed-bY 'appliGation:of-
Eq. (5.4), and q can be' computed from Eq. (5.1). If the outlet'temperature
of fluid 2 is the one sought directly~ subscripts ,I and 2 can be iJ;1terchapged
in
Eq. (5.6) and in the equation for D. -
1- J + UA (1 - ~Vl + ~ [ UA (1 _.WI
J' J' ] 2 + ...
1 '- eD WJ W2 2 WI W2
----- -
W1/W2 -e D WI [ '. 'W))'
W2 - 1 + WI 1 - W +
UA( I[VA(
2'
W1J·]2
WI 1-'W + ...
}
2 2
Canceling where possible aAd dividing both the numerator and denominator
by 1 - l¥]/ W2 re.suIts in
,
~'
MODELING ~"\!AL EQUIPMENT 85
Finally let ~Vl ~, Wi and call this COD1.t'lJpn \f~llie H' . Then
1 ~ eD ,U fil Vi 1
'WlVf - e D 1 + UAjW - "W"JUA + 1 . .~-; ii l~
-.' Stlbs,t~~~itin,~,' back into , Ego (5J5i gives I ,: - 5\ t2ft,:..-~\- Cr& ~
:~" , l't-,,' Jl \'
..J'-\ 'L -' ..
C) :,
;
<:';. ," -- '
t, '.
= t '. - ' " . - '
' ., '.' .
" '
.1,0 1.1 .' WI UA + l ' . 1". __ . " , :
Starting at the left edge of the graph in Fig. 5-3, the inlet temperature t2.f of
fluid is ~pecified, and there is some o'u tlet temperature of fluid I, designated
t1.01 yet to be determined., Regardless ~f the value of {I,o' the slopes..,of the
temperature lines are fixed for the first rncrement of area dA
Since the sldpes through dA are identical, the temperature d,ifference after
dA is stil~ tl,o - 12,i' and qy similar reasoning the temperature difference
remains constant through iPe entire heat exchanger. ~us the temperature
/ r.J 1 I. ;
12.0
• • ~ , -.- - _ • • ,'..... . : • ..:.;._ • f"
I I
, 1,0 I ' I
I I dA
~ ~
J I
I~j I I
I I
I J
FIGURE S~3
A -
.- Arc,a. m2'
Counterflow heat exchanger where
WI Q W1 .
86 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
line$ are straight" parallel lines. The choice of 1'1.0 \-vas arbitrary, but now
, w'e see that it must be chosen so th~: the) tIl 'line ~errninates' at the specifi,ed
inlet'temperature of t I,;. Since t.he, mean temperature difference in the he,at
e~changer is t I ,0 ' - t2,i, the rate' equation can: be written
. '..;.-,
I'
- . .- ,' .
.. 'r: ",,~ :: :"f:! :~ ,;;. I "" .~ I ••" r -: . ' i :·
and
WIl ..; ,+ UAt2.;
t 1.0 ' -~
,UA +W
, Example 5.1. In the counterflow heat exchanger shown in Fjg. ·5~, '2 flow
rate of 0.5 kg/s of water enters one circuit of the heat exchanger ata temper-
ature of 30°C, and the same flow' rate of water enters the other circuit at a
temperat.ure of 65°C. The VA of the heat exchanger is 4 kWIK. What is the
Dlean temperature difference b~twe~n th,etwo streams?
Solution. The pr,odl!cts of the flow rates and specific heats of the two streams
are the same, (0.5 kgJs) [4.19 kJ/(kg' K)] =2.095 kWIK. For this speciaJ
case whe!e the wC p products are equal, Eq. (5 .. 7) gives the outlet.temperature
for the hot stream 1l.0
1 = 65 - 65 - 30= 420C
1.0 2.095/4 +
, I O.S kg/s
VA s: 4 kW/l<
, UA ' In t c - ti = -In t f; - to
WC p Ie ---: to te --. Ii
(5.10)
For a heat exchanger of known characteristics Eq. (5.10) can be used to
compute the outlet te~perature of the fluid that does not change phase when
its entering temperature and the temperature of the boiling or condensing
fluid tc are knOWD.
The characteristic shape of the temperatUre curVes, of the two fluids is
shown in .Fig. 5-6, applicable to a condenser.
t . tD
(
tI
w Cp
" Ie
FIGURE 5-~-
.. - - -
An evaporator oi- condenser where one (lwd remains !It B. constant temperaO,lCc.
J. .
, :...::-,
. '.'
• ..' ... #
" .. : .
.,7 • .1.-' •
-FIGuRE 5-6
Temperature distribution ~il flu-
At:ea ids in a condenser.
50 - is To - 15
-
110 - 25 110 - 15
New to = 42.9°C.
I '
I ! 'Oil
I 2,6 kg/s
,V 60°C
.
1..5 !~g/s 2.2 klJ(kg " K) . ~- :
- -: .; . , ',
30°C
, 4.19 r-J/(kg ~ K) ',- '1
Infinite area
FIGURE 5-7
-Oil cooler in Example 5.3. ,
Solu.tion. The break in the heat exchanger indicates that to achieve the max-
imum rute of heat transfer the area must be made infinite. The ,next question,
then, is: What are th~ outlet ,temperatures? Does the oil leave at 30°C, or
does the water leave at 60°C? .
From energy balances those two options give the folIowi,ng conse-
quences:
Th~--G,?:c,ept [hat Example' .s.3 has exposed is that the maximum rate
of heat tran·sf~r occurs when the fluid with the minimum produ'ct of flow
. 90 DES1GN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
rate and specific heat changes .temper~ture to the entering temp~rature " of -
tl:J.e other flu.id. Equation '(5.11) can 'be re\yritten .. ': ,J ,
". ', .' :l
qacrmJ. . ' .
E= , ":, .(5.)2)
"".; . . ( wep).min ( ~ hot.in - t col!:f.in) . , . ~ .. :
,,' .... ,;,~.. : , . :.:. ... ' ..where.' (W' Cp)~n"! is' tPe: sma11erjvtp .of th~" tw() riu,ids ..
--',;..~ : .?-~- .::.;... . . .. -~ .. .. ' ~ . ' ... . ,- ..
_" . ' :• • : ' '':'' • I ..,. _. . . ....
;5.:; ~ .'fE~ERATcirE~R6~ES·~ · . . ,,:,.. ••. .•": • " ". ..' '" - ,'
" """ _
. . -
~~ ~p.?:pes of the t~~pe;ratuf(~ curves in . the coUnterflow heat exchanger ·
. are 'shown 'by Fig. ·S-Sa o(.l!. The minimtim produc~ .o f wC p' is possessed
by fluid 1 in Fig. 5~8a and
by flUid 2 in' Fig. 5-8b~ \Yhich is indicated by' ·.
. the fluid whose temper~ture changes mO$t. The c~rves . are ste.epes( in the'
portion of the heat exc.h~ger where the rate.of heat transfer is 'highest~ anq .
this region occurs ' where the temperature differences are larges~.
5.8 EFFECTIVENESS OF A
COUNTERFLOW HEAT EXCHANGER
The form of Eg. (5.12) can be applied to the equati6rl' for a counterflow
heat exchanger, Eq. (5.6}, to 'd evelop an expression for the effectiveriess of
the counterflow heat exchang~r. Denote fluid 1 as the fluid with the lesser
value of wC p . Note that
, (a) (b)
FlGURE 5·8
-
Te!p-pcra.lUCc profiles ;n
~
2 counterflow heal exchanger.
~
MODELING THOOAAL EQUIPMENT 91
~'! .. . - •••••'
where
(5.14)
(
~
Z?/!//I/J/}/R//I//////1///1/4
lOQ
80
w
~ 60
c
1.)_
.~
t; 40
~ "'"""'-----0.75
W
20, I '-----LOO F1GURE 5..9
Effectiveness of 8 counterflow heat exchanger.
I (From \Y. M. Kays and A. L. London. Com-
o pact Heal &chansers. 2d ed;, McGraw·Hill
o 2 3 4 -
Book Company. New York, 1964, p.SO, used
NTU = UA/WrrM • by perntission.)
.-
92 DESIGN OF TI-IERMAL· SYSTEMS
100
'.J
. ..She~ fluid
'_ .
. -.
f
.' . ' -", -
. '0 '
,
~,~.,
•. -:..t.'r•• ".= ....
J . ... . .... .
'" ,' >, J '~60
w'.
FJGURE 5·10
Effectiveness of a parallel counterflow heal exch.anger. (From. W. ,M. Kays and A. L. London,
Compact Heat Exchangers, 2d ed., McGraw-Hill 'E ook Company, New. York. 1964, p.54. '
used by pem1ission .. ) · ' .
So lu ti.o J1
l1'a = (6 kgls)(4.1 kl/(kg' K)J=24.6 kW/K
~Vh = (3.8)(3.3) = 12.54 kW/K designate Wmin
NYU == , VA = (1.1)(16) = 1 40
Wrni~ ] 2.54 .
Wmin 12.54
1V = i4".6 = ,0.51
2
eUng was approached was to predict the pe~foI)il1ahce C?f an existing heat
exchan,ger, which is a common assignment in systems simulatiolJ. The outlet
remperatlu-es can be C01TIpllf.ed if the inlet temperatures and effectiveness ~e
known. The effectiveness can be , compu[~d or detennined froni agraph '.X/hen
~e product of u.A:, ~~ .,tf?:e ,pro,~¥ct~ 9t wa:$:~ . Ia'~~ -of ,flow and;"specific he2tt ":- ':,)
,', a:re,
,
·l~~o-v/n_
',
'EqJl,atlons
' , -, ' ,
,fOF i4~ ,~~ff.~~ti,y..eness_qf.a;<c.QunterflQY'!: .heat:~xcbariger .: , " ,
,.; . ',-' , ' 1 ' , " " .' , ' , " ", .",. '"
ha ve bet3ri"presented,' C).nd ,~,grapl).s- are .avaiJ,ab Ie· ~ fOF' variOUs." configUrations- ';, , ' "
,'of heat exchange~s'~' \i\lors¢e-Schmidt2 and H¢gaard lZuudsen have provided '
c6efficients for equations. th~t fir 'the curv~s' of 'Fig. 5-10 as' well as .othel-
heat exchangers.
5011 TEMPERATURE-CONCENTRATION-
PRESSURE CHARACTERISTICS
The temperature-concentration, t-vs.-x, graph of a binary mixture for a given
pressure is shown in Fig. 5-12. The abscissa is the fraction of material A
and a complementary scale is the fraction' of material B. TPe fractions can
be expressed either as mass fractions, for example,
~ ,
mass of A. kg
Mass fraction of A := ............------~--......---
mass
(
of A. kg, + mass of B, kg
FIGlLRE 5-11
A binary 50lution.
94 DES1GN OFTIiERMAL SYs1EM.?
..
- ':'9' : ....:.
...
.' ,' I :. . .·
Boiling Vapor
1.:
'# • ..::"/
.- ,:
...... :,-
. .
: • • ' . ......" _ . ':. : : ... LJ.. • : : . .: ~~;'::;,":.,.; '.~
=.. .. . .
BoiHng
temperature ..
. of pure A
o LO
. F~.ct~on of A, Xa
'. ' - '
FIGURE 5..12
LO .0
Temperatnre-concen~tion Q.iagram of Ii
Fraction of B, Xh . binary soiut~bD ~t a cdnstant preSsure.
"
.::.: 'l.... . ~- . . ;. ....: ~ '. . - :.. ( .... :J. ~.- ."--"" ...-'" ~ :' : ~. ./(
Liquid
Vapor
FIGURE ,5.14
o 1.0 Pressure--coDcen~ioQ diagram.
,.-
·96 . DESIGN OF THERMAL ~YSTEMS
. ~ , - .
The' three tools used to deve~op the binat>j properties are (1) ¢e' :s~hl
ration pressure-temperature rel~~~$hip~ the tv/o substances, C2) RaoillCs ?f
la~~ and (3) Dalton's lawo ' . . . . . ':.. ' -
, . : relates .pressure ·m.d .temp~ratur~!at sa~ted 'c onditions (see ~ob .. 4.-l8) .45 _
: .- "., ' 0( , J' ~ ,J ~ I ' :. ,- ~ •
Db
In Ph = Cb +y ' (5.16)
. Dalton's Jaw. Dalton's law states that the total pressure of the.v·apor mixture
is the sum of the partial pressures of the constiruents .
PI = Pa + Ph (5.18)
. FUI1hennore I , pa = Xa.vPI (5.19)
and Pb = X b,,,Pr (5.20)
where P, = tota] pressur~ k,Pa I
I ";:''','
...
..
~ ., . .... ' . .... _. ,. .... ...1
". ,/,',.'
.;
" . ....i;. ~ . . ..' .
p
Exam ie .5.S. A binaDr ~oLution of n-butane .and n~heptane exists i,n 'Iiq-
uid-,:,upor equilibriu.m at a pressure of 700 ~a. The "saturation pressure-
temperature reiationsh.i:ps are .
, . . " ' ·2795
~utane: In P =!= 21.77 - T
" 3949
Heptane: In P = 22.16 - - -
.. T
. .
where P is in pascals. Compute the n101e fraction of butane in the liquid and
in the vapor at a temperature of 120°C. .
300
280 '1-
. -"
. z~o, '1
1
"
',' .
.' • - I"
. 240'- ·
.'
."···,:;:,<··<.l.·:t~~::::,:·,
-:;
' 220 " ' 0 • •
. ,.1
100
80·
60
40 p = 700kPa ' ..
20
o FlGURE 5~16
o 0.2 b.4 0.6 ~ 0.8 1.0 Binary system of n-butane and
Mole fraction of n":butaie n-heptane.
. for a specjfic binary mixture as in Fig. 5-16. Assume that th.e condensation
takes place at a constant pressure 0[--2800 kPa and vapor enters wjth a
mo1e fraction of 0.6 n-butane. Point. 1 is superheated vapor at a temperature
of 223°C, which is fIrst cooled until point 2, where the temperature is
218 C ~d condensation begins. Removal of heat from the mixt~re results in
C
.. ,
2 3
....-,::::!5. ~~
. .' . "
AU liquid SubcooJed
,
liquid
FlGURE,5-17
Coc:do.ll&aIoiQA of 8 binary mixtu~ ,.
MODELING THER~AL EQUIPMENT 99
A s~~ple di'stillation unit,is the single-stage 'still shown ,in' Fig. 5-18. If the '
a
still operates at pressure for v/~ch the bubble-point and dev/-point ,curves
are sll1ywn in' Fig. , 5-19, and jf the entenng Jig uid to partial vaporizer the
is at point 1, various outlet -conditions o,f the -vapor~and , liquid are possible. '
Th~ limiting cases are combination 2-3 and combination 2 "_ 21 If,the iiquid I.
is heated to point 3, only. liquid wouJd leave the still and no vapor. If the
vaporizer carries on the process to 2' I, only vapor leaves the still and no
liquid. The desired operating condition will be 2 /-3', for example, where ·
there IS some separation in
the sense 'that the vapor leav~s with a high '
r'------'-------;!>-' Vapor
2
Separator
Liquid feed
Partial vaporizer
3
'--------!l- Liquid
F1GURE 5-18
Single-stage sriH.
- .- .. FlGURE 5.. 19
Some possibte outlel conditions from
o 1.0 the sriH in Fig. ,Sa 18. .
10,0 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
::--
. ', ~ample 5.6. A' single-stage ,disti!I~on tow~r receives 3'.2 molls"of.:butane-
,heptane (Fig. 5-16) ~ Liq'ni<i enters with a mole frac.tion 0f-O .4, i but:ane,. the
.: still operates' -at ;00 'kPat1mq: the miXrure leaves the partial v~porizd' ,at a
.' . " , . ..;, . ~, . ,I'temperature
...... ... :- ... :.:-- ~c;.
' -J·-.1
of
'tIl t 9
120°C. , Wh~t are~ ~e flqw rates ,of liquid and: .vapor leaving
. . .
. ":'.:'; .'.'" .:. .
' : ' ,~.".. ~ ._. · ~~... , e : sep~ or. ; ......>: ~,'!. ::,~'~:...:~.;.~ :;" J<.<'::. .': , ." , ..:<~ .~ < ~.
. " SO[l!ti.on. At 120°C· aI?-d. ,2 . pr:es~tiIie .of ?,oq kPa; "the 'mol'if"fr,i'ction: of'bir~e:- -
.-:-- ~in the liquid is 0.242 and in the vapoi:. is··O.80?:. A .~aterial hruance OD ·the:..
butane . states that
. .
'(3.2 mol/s)(O.4) = (w'/ molls)(Q.242)
. .
+ (3.2 - w/)(O.8q3) I
. .
WJ'= 2.30 IJ?olls WI' = 3.2 - 2.30. = ' 0 . 90 molls
5 . 15 RECTIFICATION .
. The single-st~ge still described in Sec. 5.14 perfOrn1S a separation but has
rather poor per.formanc~. The other end of the performance spectrum IS'
. Cooling
j
Liquid -....
feed
. "
FIGURE 5-20
A rectific8rion column',
.'
f>
MODELIT--JG THER.i'v1AL EQUIPME."iT 101
FIGURE 5-21
,Stat,es' of binary system in rectifica-
o Mole fraction Xa 1.0 tion column.
an, id~al r~ctificatio~ ' tower~ ' shown in ,FIg. 5-20. The ' i-vs_-~t' properties-
, , ,cor:responding to the key locations in the rectification celumn are shown in
, 'Pig. 5-21. 'Liquid feed, assumed saturated, enters at point i., passes- through
- ,
5.16 ENtHALPY
Enthalpy values of binary solutions and mixtures of vapor are necessary
when' making energy calculations. < For sys tern simulation (Chapter 6) -the
enthalpy data would be most convenient in equation form. More frequently
the enthalpy data appear in graphic fonn, as shown in the skeleton diagram
- of fig. 5-22. Figure 5-22 is an entha\py-concentration, h-vs.-x, diagram for
solutions and vapor. Since pressure has a negligible effect on the enthalpy
of the liquid, the chart is applicable to subcooled as well as satuIated liquid I
·1
'. '.Perature
." .' .. :,..•:0 , . • ;.;' .~", ., ., . ~: ,~<' .J
\ .- ,; .. ' - . ,",
. I
i.
FIGURE 5-22
Form of an ~ntha1py:- .
o Mole fraction .of A . 1.0 concentration diagram.
5 .. 17 PRESSURE..DROP AND.PUl\1PlNG
POWER
A ' cost that appears in most economic analyses 'Of thennal systems is the
pumping cost. The. size of a heat exchanger tral?sfemng heat to.a.liquid can -
be reduced, for example, if the flow rate of liquid or the' velocity for a given
flow rate is increased. The cost whose increase eventually overtakes the
reduction in the cos.t of the heat exchanger as the velocity or flow lI)crease
. is the pumping cost. Another example of the ,e mergence of pumping cost is
in the. se1ection of optimum pipe size. The smaller the pipe the less the first
cost but (for a gi ven flow) the higher the pumping cost for the life of the
. system. .
Since the pumping-cost term appears so frequently, it is appropriate to
review the expression for pumping power. The pressufe drop of an incom-
pressible fluid flowing'turbulently through pipes,. fittings, heat exchangers,
-and almost any confining conduit varies as w n
t1p = C(wn)
whereC is a constant, w is the mas.s rate of flow, and the exponent n varies
- between about 1.8 and 2.0. Generally the .value of Ii is close to 2.0, except
for flow in straight pipes at R~yno)ds numbers in the low turbulent range',
The idea] work per unit mass required for pumping fluid in steady
flow .is J v dp. and for an incompressible fluid tbe power required is
, w
Power == -Ap
p
wheJt-p is the densi;ty. ..
MODELING TIiERJyfq\L EQUIPMENT 103
. .t.-:
'vvhieb is· . further··modified bY;:di~'idirlg . by. ~he · pUl)ip:~· .f9P~ -9'r .. cQr,4p~:es.sor, . :., .. ,
-...;- -ef-flt?iency . '<"' :!""/'<.:~,. '.:~' --....--.;;:· -.'7~,_.;.:.·.:··-· :>.':_ :I:J";"':~-"/;-'- "~ . : ,·' ,: " ,.' .' . ' : . ~
. .
-'
The rn.ethods of ffi2.thematical fi):odeling explained. in. this .c hapter- have geper-
ally been limited to expressi~g one variable as a functio-n of one or two qther' .
varial?les. In prinoiple ' it is possible to extend these m~thods functions to
of tlire.e variabl~s, but the execution might· be formidable. Turbomachines,'
such ~ f~ns, pumps? compre~sor~j and turbines, are used in 'pnictic:,!lly all
themial systems, an~' in these components the dependent variable m~y. be -
a fun~tion 'of three of more 'i:ndependent yariables'. Fortunately, the tool of
dimensional analysis, frequently pennits reducing the number of indepen- '
dent variab l.es -to a, smaller numb.e r by treating groups of tenus as i.n dividual
variables~' The perfonnance of a centrifugal compressor, for example, 'w ill
typicaUy appear as in 'Fig. 5-23. Instead 'of attempting to express P2 as a
. function of six v'ariables, an equ-ation could be developed 'to express P2/P(
. as' a function -of the two other dimensjonless groups. Then in calculFtting"
roD
- - ::: constant
""c T I
p
,
ww. 2
D PI"
FlGURE 5-23
Perfonn;lll~
of s, centrifJgaJ compres.sor expressed in dimensionless groups to reduce the
l1umber oT iril1ependel"i [ 't1ar1abJes" ..
104 DESIGN OF 1HERMAL SYSTEMS
.,. .
·P2 ,the .two iIidependent variables wDI -JcpTj and :,v )Cp TI/P2pl would.·be
"c~culC1ted frrst ~d · ~ext p21p~; ·fiDai~y') P1.} would l?e c~mput~d from /!2iPl
and Pl.
• _'""_, I •
,/:. - ,"
' . t' '. ' ' :' - • : \ . ',' - • ~ •• : ., - ' .• I . • _ ' . _ - ~ • - . ,
. , ;>'.:'" ',":-i:::'>'.. ~', ~.~l .. · ·~h~t..is the.. '~ffectiveness' of. a ~Qunterllo~. heat _exch~ger that. ha~ a UA :
- ~ ,': - ', . .<~~'~:: .value' pf 24- -kW!K~if:th~;:-r~$.p,~cti¥~,;;m~:s:.1:"at~ ,of flow and sp~d.pc . h~ats of
J. . . . ·thetw~~dt__te~.IO kg~S; 2·kJjcki·:kr~41~!Vs;:'~kJf(k~: ~)~,._~:f;;~;·· : ~ .
a
,5520. · W~ter fl.ows tJ:rrough one ~ipe of a heat~xchanger with -flow -rate- of,'O:2 7
' ,
, kgls rising in temperatUre f~om · 20 to 50~C~ The specific heat of w~ter is 4.19
lcJ/(kg . K). The fluid on the 'other side of the Q~at exchanger enters. at 80°C
~nd leav'e s' at 40°C. What is the effectiveness' of the heat exchanger? ' ,
Ans.:. ,O.667. , .
'5.3. A flow 'rate of 2 kg/s of ,water, ,cp = 4~19 kJ/(kg . K), enters one end of. a
~ounteiflow heat exchanger at a temperanrre of 20°C and leaves at 40~C. Oil
enters the ' o~er side of-the heat exchang~r at 6Q'?C and leaves -at 30°C. If the
hept exchanger were mao.e infmitely.large while the entering t~mper£).~es
and flow rates of the water and oil rem·?ined constant, what would the rate
of heat transfer ~ the exchanger be? ,
Ails.': 223.S kW.
5.4. Tht? evaporati,n g fluid in an evaporator has a temperamre of SoC and the heat
. exchanger transfers 50 kW. The U , A of the exchanger js 12 kW/K, and the
u'cp of the fluid being c;:ooled is 8 l-wlK. What are the' entering and leavIng
temperatures of the fluid being chilled? ' -
5.5. Stream 1 enters a mUltjpass heat exchanger at a temperature of 82°C V!jth a,
, flow rate of 4.1 kg/s; the flujd has a specific heat of 4.19 kJ/(kg . K). Stre·am
2 enter~ at a temperature of lSoC, wjth ~ flow rate of 4.5 kg/s; the fluid has
a specific heat of 3.2 kJ/(kg . K). The effectiveness of ·the heat exchanger is
0.46. ,What is the rate of heat transfer in kW in the heat exch~ger?
5.6. A counterflo.w heat e.xchanger having a VA value of 2 kW/K receives stream
1 at a temperature of 60°C and stream 2 at a temperature of 20°C: The flow
rates are 0.3 and 0.4 kg/s, and the cp in kJ/(kg' K) are 3.2 and 4.19 for ·
streams 1 and 2, respectively. What is the outlet ,temperature of stream 2'1'
5.7. Fluid 1 enters a counterflow heat exchanger at a temperature of 60°C having
a f1o~ rate of 1.0 kg/s 'and a cp of 3.2 kJ/(~g . K). F1uid' 2 el1rers with
a temperature of 20°C havjng a ~ow rate of O.S kg/s and a cp of 4.'0
kJ/(kg . K). The , VA value of. the heat ex~hanger is 3.0 kWIK. What is the
outlet temperature .q'f Fluid l? . . ,
5.8. A./1ow rate of 0.8 kg/s of water' is heated in a heat exchanger by conqensing
steam at lOOcC. When wa-ter enters at 15'cC. it leaves the he~~ cxch'anger
at 62°C. If the inlet water temperature were changed to 20°C while its flow
rnteand the condensing temperature remained constant, what would its outlet
temperature be?
:Ans.: 64.2°C;
[f:"
~n: '.
~~i:, MODELING THERM;}L EQUIPMENT 105
I-
~g~~: '
5.9. A CDU_,[cr:[ , -: -h eal exchanger coo:s5 kg/, of oil, cp = 2.4 kJ/(kg - K), wirh
vlater that has a flow rate of 7.5 legis. 1-be specific heat of water is 4. 19
r.,~":t;_-'.,~:·~;_.',r: .
•. kJf(kg . K). Under the original oper;,ting conditions the oil is cooled from'
75 ·to 40°C ~wben. water enters at, -25.~C. To what tenlperature w~l1 ..£the oil rbe· .
cooled if it enters at '65°C ,and if there is no change'in the entering water
~".;. :.,,;.:,.,. ,...... ,. " : . remper~.i~re? the: flow ,ra'tes
~9f e.~me~· fluid, or ,the .he a t-transle< ~gefflci~nts? , ." .'
.~ :; '.' - A\ns 37°C' :.,,=.,:-.:,- > .......:' " .: . .
4
' .... . '
!' 5~<:Ul,~ ~n a pr~ce~Osing pI;~;': ~~~~a~erial ' m~~ti be .~·b~~!edl~orri ..~O · ·~o~·'8Q~C~. i~ · oi~ei~· ,
.
: for· the desired reaction to proceed, yvhel!eupon. the material. is'·c.ooled in a' , .
" 'r egenerative heat exchanger" as' shown in Fig. 5-24 ..The specific .heat of .the ,
ma~eriaI before and . after' the
reaction ' is 3.0k1/(kg· K).' If the ·UA o{this'
counterflow regenerative hea'£ exchanger is 2.1 kVIfK and the flow rate' is'
. 1.2 kg/s, ·what is the .temperature t.leaving the 'heat exch~ngei? '
/~.. Am.: 57·.9°~. . ',. '~. , . -", ' .
. 5 .. 11 .. A condenser having a UA value 'o f 480 kW/K condense.s steam· at a temp~r-
,a ture of 40°C. The cooling \var.er enters at 20°C with a flow [(lte of 160, kg/so
·What is the outlet temperature of the coolirig water? The specific heat of
,water is 4.19 .k:J/(kg . K). . .. . ,
Ans.: 30.2°C
A heat exchanger with one shell pass and t\~tube ~asses (Fig. 5-10) uses
seawater at 15°C, cp '=
.3.8 kI/(kg . K), to' cool a flow rate of fresh water
, of 1.6 kg/s enteri.pg at. 40.°C. The specific heat of the fresh water is 4.19
kJJ(kg . K). If the VA of the heat exchanger is 10 k;WIK, ~hat must the flow
'rate of seawater be in 'order to cool the fresh water to 22.S0C?
~/' Ans.: 7kg/s.
5.13 .. A double-pipe heat exch\anger serves as an oil cooler with oil flowing in .one
direction through ,the inner tube and cooljng water in the opposite direction
'through' the annulus. The oil flow rale is 0.63 kg/s, the oil has a specific heat
of 1.68 kl/(kg . K), the water flow rate is 0.5 kg/s. and its specific heat is 4.19
kl/(kg . IC). In a test of a prototype, -oil entering at 78°C was cooled to 54°C
'when the entering wat~r temperature was.30°C. The possibility of increasing
the area of the heat exchanger by increasing the length of the double pipe is'
to be considered. If the flow rates, fluid properties, and entering temperarures:
remain unchanged, what will the expected outlet temperature of the oil be if
the area is increased by 20 percent?
Ans.: 51.3°C .
. ~
.P/./ .
l~ kg/s
,
F1GURE 5-24
Regenerative heat exd: ~ nger in Prob. 5.10.
.106 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
~4~O ventilate a factory ~uild~g, 5kgls offuctfu-y air; ~lemperature Of. 27°C
' .~s exhausted, and an IdentIcal f19w rate of outdoor rur at .a temperature of
-12°C is introduced ~o take i~ ,plaoe. To r....cover so.me of the ' h~t 9f the
i
yVrJ\')
,
2 kg/s water
Cp = 4.19 kJ/(kg·K)
FIGURE 5-25
Heat-recovery system in Prob, 5,'14 .
'~'\-\-\ '-'~
Trruispannt sheet
\ \ \ )-m
\ \ ' \
~ ~ ~
Airflow
0.02 kp)s
I = J5°C
cr == 1000 JI(kg· K)
sheer
,
FIGURE 5·26
S'oJar air heater ·in Prob, 5.) 5,
'i"\'
;;:::J'.
~:~~
I
".t;i~~r',!":;.~:_,;'~,: ,;:l:
h m ilie [ansp~ent sheet to me
air being heated to the transparent sheet is 45
a~bientl ::~~L::G
Vv/(m~
:/::A~ ::U~::~:m :::
. K). The air enters wi th
a temperature' that is the san1e .as the aD;1~i~n.t, namely lSoC, ana t~t;_ flow ' r~te
'. , 4 .
[i~: ' of 'a~r is 0.02 kg/s' per meter width. Develop the equ~tjon fQfth~ t~rhper:al'Jre '
)? 'of
-. of h~4t~d, air ,t " ~s .. a .func'ti:o~ :,length " aI~ng the ': collector' ~1(, aSsuming. no
k:' ,< -<:o~!l,~:s~; i~, ~(!f~~~j~~~~r;:~~ij~- airflow. - s-:':" '.-'< . . ' '.>
c. . ':0' '. «
~ir @~r The chain of·heai exchangers sho;"'nin Fig. 5-27 has the purpose of elevating '
the t~mpera.ture of
a fluid t? 3~O K~ at \vhic~. temperature_~q,~~sired chemical.
reactIOn ta~es, place. The flUid has a speclfic heat 9(3:2~PI(kg . K) ~oth,
be~ore -and after the r~3ctlon., and its flow r~te is~ '.~-kg;s. , .The en[eri~_g
·temperature of the flUId to heat exchanger I IS 290 K and the UA of tins l
Steam 375 0 K
Heal e~changer II
II
Heat exchntnger I
Rextor
flGURE 5·27
Chain of hea~t.-e""'xc""h'--a-ngers in Prob. 5. J 6~'
108 DESIGN OF THERMAl.. SYSTEMS
f:
. : ., .. ."'.- . . '~. ' : . . ,. . ·:i· ·· ...t . /.. ~ ... ::.';.~" '~ ..•;-: . ':: • .'. f;~·86 ~ ~. 5·~'<:~:. ·
. . _. _ ill P -
1
:: "2~~ ::::e-·-. '· '··
where P = pres$ure Fa t
t . ~ absoh,lte temperature; K
· Presentthe T -vs.-x curves for vapor and liquid neatly on a full-size sheet of
grapb paper, where x represents the mole fraction of propane.
Ans~: One pOlnt on vapor.c~rve, x = 0.5 when T = ,260 K.
5.21. A distillation tower (Fig . 5-28) receives a two-component solution in liquid ·
form. The two components are designated as A and B, and x indicates the
mass fnKtion of material A. The ceflcentration of the feed .x 1 = 0.46 and
· the entbalpies entering and leaving the still ru-e hI = 80 kIJkg, h3 . = 360
kJlkg, ·and 115 = 97 kJ/kg.The condenser operptes at .1 = 30 D e, at which
state X2 = 0.92, h2 = 320 kJlkg, X4 = 0.82, h4 = 23 kJlkg, and the condenser
rejects·S50 kW to the cooHng water. The reboiler operates at t ·= 210 ClC, at
which temperature X6 = O.081h6 = 108 kJ/kg, X7 = 0.13, h7 = 41S ·kJ/,kg,
and the reboiler receives 820 kW from high-.pressure steam. Complete Table
5.1.
Ans.: Flow rate at f = 2.18. kg/so
Sri H
- Feed
,
nGURE 5..2.8
6 DistilJation tower in Prob . 5.21
Iv10DELfNG THERMAL EQUlPl'lfENT ~ 109
'IABLE5~1
Opera6.ng C, flu-if s of distiHation tnvver
' ..&.-}
.3 360
0.82 23
5 97
6 0.08 108
7 0.13 415
5022a Dunensional analysis s~ggests that the performance of a centrifugal fan can
be express~d as a function of hvo dimensionless gro~ps:
SP
and
D 2 w 2p
D = diameter of wheel,r'm
,w = rotative speed, radls
p = density, kglm 3
Q = volume rate of airflow, O1 3/s
,.
For a given fan operating with air at a constant densitY, it should be possible
to plot one curve, ~s in Fig. 5-29, that represents the perfonnance at all
speeds. The performanc~ of a certain O.3-m-diameter f~' of Lnu Blower
COIl1pany js presented in- Table· 5.2.
(a) Plot neatly on graph paper the, above performance data in the form of
Fig. 5-29.
FIGURE 5-29
.- Qlhl Performsnce of 8 centrifugal fan .
110 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
TAJtHJ~ 5 .. 2 .
·Perfor~ance of fan in ·Prob. 5.-22 .. " .
~ ··r·~'~> ~
..
~ ~ ';:: .~: -
REFERENCES
1.' ·\V. M. Kays and A.L. London~ CompaCl Heat ExclzQngers; 2d ed., McGraw-Hill, New
. York, 1964.' ' .
2. P. Wo[s~e-Schrnidt and H. J. H¢gaard Knudsen, "The~aJ Modelljng o(Heat Exchangers
for Simulation Purposes!·' 25th Hear Transfer Fluid Mech. lnst., Davis, Calif.: June 19'76.
3. Vi. Badger and J. T. B-anchero, introduction loChemica/ E11gineering, McGraw-Hill, New
York~ 1955.
-1. W. L. McCabe· and 'f. C. Smith, UniT Operatiolls of Chemical Engineering, 3d ed.,
McGraw':Hill, New York, 1 9 7 6 . ' .
5. C. M. Thatcher, Fundamentals of Chemical Engineering. Merrill, Columbus, Ohio, 1962.
6. C. G. Kirkbr!de,. Chemical Engineering FlIlzdc:menlals, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1947.
~.
.- . .....
) I
..... . ..l :•. . :., . , ... . J ' ...: .. - -, ..: . .. '- ...... " . - .l .
'6' " ..'.,-.
. .
.:~ '_,r: _. :"~.l~ : ~ '. '~J :- _, =" .. . ,...: ..... " • ' -~
. -: ,' : \ . - -
. =--
. :"'_' ~ . . .~ . . '?::;'.;, ;-;,,~::.~ ,.-"., . ~.~ I.... .
'.' .f '
,., J ' . ""', - . -,' : .~. , ~. ', 'I '':' .-', ' ," ,,'.
III
112 DESIGN OF mERMAL SYSTEMS
. "~ '" .
even -'solid particles, flowing at such rates relative to .particle sizes that the
stream can be considered as a conrinuum. In discrete ~ystemSt the flow is
treated as
a certain number of integers. The · analysis of the flow of people ·
through a supl:lmarket invoiving the ,time spent at various shopping areas
and the checkout counter is a discrete system. Another example of a djscrete-
system analysis is that perfonned in traffj~ control expressways and cit;y on
streets. OUf concern, since ir is primarily directed toward fliuid and energy
systems, is continuous sys[e~s.
. Another classific~tion js delerlnini.sfic v. slochastic. In the detennin ..
isti,e ~Jlal;'6 Iis the input vadables are precisely specified. In s[ochas[ic .anal),-
SYSTs:M SIMULAT.ION -'i_l.l .'l:.. .
sis the . input con trIaDS are uncertain., .eithrr being cornplet~ly random o r
.' (more commonly) following some probability distributionc In simul:J.ting
the pelfoHl1ance of a s[eam-electric generating· plan t tIl.at supplies both.
process steam and electric povler to '3. facility 'J for exam:ple, it dererm~rtistic
. analy~,~s s~?Its \Vi~.h ·'Qn~. ~~p~c.i.fi~~t Y-~lJ.~ .of ~be st~arp demand cliong with one
. . .: sp~ci4e~ y~~Iue _.Qf th~ pqwe~ ~d.em_~nd. ~ ..f." 'st6cQas:tic ,:~ui~y_~is .migJJ:t_beg.~,., : ...
......-'.: . :.".~ ~":with. some probal#titY ··\ge~C'~ptiq~. ·of·~pe:.~$teti'rii' a~n(r p'Qw.er :Jqeiriands~.:·~· We""·' '." ~:~~.
. -: .: . ;:shall cop.centrate i'n :Lhis 'chapter on deterministic analysis, 'and reserve,Jor.-
Chapter 19' the stUdy of probabilis.tic influences. ." .' ...
. ' Fin~lly. system 'simula~ion ~ay be classed as st~ady,~s~ate·or. d}·nar[lic,
. \vhere in a dynamic simulation the~e ·are cha~ges of operating. \:arjables w.iiJ~
respect to time. py:o.amic analyses are .used for such 'purposes as the 'study
of a control system in order to- achieve greater precision of coritrpl and to
avoid uns.table operating cqhditions (Chapter 15). Th,e djnamiG .sirp.u!a.:tioP.1
of a given system is more difficult than the' steady-state simulation, .since
. ( "
the steady. state fall$ out as one special case of the transient analysis. On
~he other hand~ sreaO:y'-state simulations are req~ired much more often than
dynamic simul-arjons and are normally app~ied to much larger systems.
The simulation to be prac~iced here will be that of continuouS'~ deter-
ministic steady-state systems.
PI--~
W
'-8
- ~~>tl
~
-~-.fI_0-t;_,",_.t_e or
(0) (b)
FIGURE 6·1
(0) Ct:nlrifogtlf pt:rT.p -. fluid-flow di,ng.ram (b) possible infonnation-f}ow Mocks, representing
pump,
114 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
and .l-VB. The 'equations for -the water flow rate througb open hydrants are
l-VA = CA ~P3 ~ Pat an'd WE ,~ CB ~P4 ~ Pai, whe~e. CA and CE . are. constants
,and Pat is. the atmospheric p.ressure~ The "equation for .the pipe section 0..;.1
i i
is Par -: PI, = C1 W + hpg, wher,~ el w_ aCCO,unts ~or frictIon an4 hpg is
1-4
in
the pressure drop due to the change elevation h. In .pipe sections 2-3 ane
. . .
, . C 2
and P3 - P4 = 311'2
.t WA t WB
,-....:~2~· _ _ _ _ _ _ _t.'-
'kll~
' H_Y_d_ran_'_1_
3
A __
w:! -...:.
t
1,
Hydrant B
, hm
t Pump
..
characteristics
P.,
0 J J( P" P2' w);:: 0
~~. ----1
FIGURE 6-2
Fire~w3ller ~y51em and pump characteristics.
SYSTEM SIMULATION
/;~
115
Hydrmlt B
. ,h. (\~B' P4,)
FIGU~ 6-3
Infonnation-flow diagram for fire-water system.
(6.6) ,
or (6.7)
3.l1d
'Or (6.8)
Steam
:...
J
Absorpt ion
.re.frigenui~n
unit - . ...: .. ;
. -,' . ',=. ~
• • I
. . '. _.~ondensale
.:· Y;~-~' f"::;~~-:~':' :.: .:,~~ :><.~,... .;,." q. ~frigeration
. ,, - .. .
FIGURE' 6-4
On-site power generarion with b eat recovery to develop ste~m ~or refrigeration.
Speed EXhaust-gas fi o-
-
I
Engine
Input r""1
....... Elec[ric Power "
generator
'Electric- "
~ Exhaust-gas
power Engine
demand
.. tcmper.lwrc
Steam
, '
RcfrJgenJlion '.....-_fl_o_w_--I
BoBer
Re£riget:Hion un.i t.
,capaci.y 10-_ _- _ _....
, flGURE 6-5
information-flow diagram for an on-site, power-generating plan', of Fig, 6-4,
- .-
Sy~ SIMULATION 117
Fig. 6-5 is I r:s:- ~-:.:.~ :::; :-':'- c S ~·i'!1 u.ltaneous s/r..f1ulation requ.ired for the illfor-
. mation-flo\¥ di2~gram or Fig. 6-3 . Sequential s1ffiulations' are straightfo0~ard~
but simultaneo us s imulations are the ~baH:enges on iNhich 0-e remainder of
th.e cha.i?ter c n ~ eri.trates . ' .,. : ..
" ~.. . ;.'. !., . ; .: .· . 1\ , ."," ' . • ~ , ;.1'", r ••
.... •. ,.:, ~'.:. . . ..f~ .'-'--"-::~: ,...... ;. . . ,'" :
':'-:"".: '::>-":~J;-.. 'T'W' ~-~~HODS::·,()F"~SjrMUtliTIOI~:.'·~':~ :'·:<;;· ~-- · "":<!i~:r:;::-~:·',·:-~,:~- : /.'c.,?'-"~'''':>'' -:';' ' ·
::,~r _ .~ . . ·.SUCCESSIVE § UJ]STITUTJrON ' AIW" ' . . ' ., .,'
NE1tYTON~RAPI-IS'O N
·The ta'sk 9f simulating a system~ after -the functional relatiopships and inter-
connections have been established, is one' of solving a set of sirnultan~ous . .
algebraic equations, some or all of which may b~ n·onlin~. Two of ;the
methods available for t't~.is simultaneo.us sp1ution are sLlccessive substitution.
and Newton-Raphson.Each method has advantages and pis advantages which
will be pdipted out. '.
T
. ' . ..,. .
J. • . : . . .. ~.: •
.. '" .
.W2 . . "
. )
)1' " ..
~~Pl
F1GURE 6-6
\Vater:"pumping systeTI?- in Example 6.1 .
111' Elevation
and
fricrion U'
wJ Ap
Mass
~1
Pump 1
Balance
...
I
Pump 2
,
, I
FIGURE 6·7
Informat'ion-flow diagram J for Example 6.).
't.
~
',: \)
1: j focmation-flovY diagr axn
:J.p ·w~
.-. ,
, .
. _-.638J15" - ,.. 2.0.60... .. , , ~.<. . 5...852. : _ ,' " _.: 3:.,:}9.2: .. <: .... ~-<.• •,,';:-. ,,;,~ ,.~;., .:•• : .~~.:... . ~;:. -<.~.~:.~.:;, :.. ;" ~: '.~ '
9~J.16 ":....~ .... '; 1:939" ., ..... . . '6 ..112 ,-:'.' " 4 . 174-·., -, ... ...... .
640.34 2~052 .: ~5.-870 . . - 3-,818
659.90 . . 1.946 6.097 4.151 .
• .. - ..... - Q • - .. _ ...... " , " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .j, ...... t ........ v ....... ..
l:lp Elevacion
~ and
."
friction w I
1
I
W'2 IIp
Mass
w, Pump 2
- I
,
Balance
..
,I
Pump I
I
I
- ,
I
.:IGURE 6-8
:)formation-f)o\t'dtagram 2 fcr Ex~mple 6. r
120 DESIGN OF THER.,\1AL SYSTEMS
.' ,". .:
. ~. '-~" .
I '. ', : .-
l . ' ., -
Pump 1
~1
w Elevaticm ' : '" ,", li.~
Mass
\i:'2 Balance - . .---and "
j I friction ', ,'- , '
, . " , " . ' < 'i" · . · ',
JrAJBIJ8 6.2 . .
It.erations of information..flpw diagram 2 '
Iteratio~ . Ap w WJ
TABLE 6.3
Iterations of informatio~-flow diagram 3
Iteration /lp )1'1 W,2 w
problem resulted in compil~i.I}g. ,y~~.,\~.nd ~W2' h~re ·because the. eqnat~ ons 'wer.e
'- H~.aq.ra1=ico· An lier~ti~vi iechntq~.e·,._·.\vhich.m.ay J~e_ requited....in~~9me...cases~js:-:;:·.i':J·,:..,··:·:. .
.'.':' .~' des·crj.be.~ .iIl" S~~. 6 ~]'O:' . "~.:. "
I .. " ". . ;." . . .. " : " : .... - .. . ' .' .. '.' . . ..:' . •.. .• . :..
a2 z(a, b)
I a2 z (a, b) 1 a2 z(a b) I
( 6.17)
C3 = 2i1 x 2 C4 = ax a y es ="2 ay 2
For the spe~.oe:9·e where y is a fl3nction of one independent variable .x,
.he Taylor-series ·expansion about the point x == a is
,' '12~ DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
y = y (a)
,
+ .dy.(a)
" (x :
- a}
[ I-d 2y
+ . +-
(a).] , .'
. -' (x '- a).2 + ' ~,~ ~
. . '9 x.
2 dx 2 ,
, : .' , I
,The general expression' for-the Taylor-series expansion if y'is a f
. ' , <ti~n '. ~f ,no :variab~.es .~.l' xi, x~' .. aroun~ ,the '-point- ~(X.1 ,='.a;.,. x:
'j '•.•.,
": ;;'i.',~~, ' ~l:~1.:;.~.: ~~;./!).:~,.~P~!;;,~;.t.i:. <~: .,/.' , ; / /:,c:.~ i,' "' . (':;::' ,c i;".' ':'~' , :;;,;:-:,,-,~,:< ::"
-~ . " ,i .., ' Y.{Xl,":X2,' .. ~ xnJ -:- y(al', 't;li, ~ .. ,' an) .
,, -. . ..
'., +.'L' n . ,
8y(al;' ~' .. ' , an)
" •
(x" - c.
. i}x· J.
_ J ~1 '. J ._' ..
. Solution'
x2 '
Z = In y = Co + Cl(X ~ 2) + C1(Y - 1) .+ C3(X - 2)2
CJ = a z (2, 1) = 2-.; Jy = ~ = 1
ax .:'('1/)' x
C3 = ~ a~ ~.~; 1) = M-x2~) -l =
, _ o2 z (2, 1) _
C4 -:-~",'
, _ '.'ox'a"
. - 0
'J a2z(2,t 1) ] 1
c - - - -- -
~ - '1 ay"J - 2.\'2 - "2
, The first sev,eraJ terms'elf 'the expansion are
' order ternlS become n~gligible . The". eqtI:ation then n~duces ,ap:proxiI11:ately ,to ,: ", .'
. ·-."i ," : _ , ' ."';" ",:,;:" ?"':',;t~)::: ~~,:[.y' l(alJ(x'~~·';:~" 'dY~'~~~-:"·"- :' , -:. ,- ", '~:' (6:: 26Y: ~:~':'~\-;
. . . , " ,
.• . I. ' ..: . ~ ..... .. # - ' . • • • _
Define y as
y(x)=x+2-e i , (6.22)
and denote x c - as the corr~ct value ofx that solves Eq. (6.2'1) and make,s '
y . 0
(6..23)
,The Newton-Raphson process requires an initial assumption of the
, value of x~ Denote as x { this temporary value of x. Substitudng x t into
Eq., (6.22) gives a value of y whjch almost certainly does not provide the
desired value of}' , . O. Specifically, if x t = 2"
Y(x I ) := Xl + 2- eX, =2 +2- 7.39 ='-3'.39
Our trial value of x is incorrect, but now the question is how the value of
, x should, be' changed in order to bring y closer to zer09
Returning to the Taylor expansion of Eq. (6.20), express y in tenns
of x by expanding about ,x c
y (x) = y (x c) + [y' (x c) ] (x - xc) (6.24)
For x' = x I, Eq. (6.24) becomes
Y(x r ) ~ y(x,c} + [y'(Xt)](x, -xc) (6.25)
Equation (6.2:5) contains the further approximation of evaluating the deriva-
tive at XI . rather than at Xc, becau~e the value of Xc is still unknown". From
Eq. (6.21) Y (x ,) := 0, and so Eq. (6.25) can be solved approximately for
the unkn,Qwn value of x, ' < ,
_, ,y(x,)
Xc ~ X, - '( ) (6.26)
• y x,
In ¢e numerical example·
-3.39
,- Xc = 2 - ..
1 - e2
= 1.469
124 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
.. . ",
~
- I '
4 1 S~,ond tri'P' x = 1.469 , '
.,.: \.
dyJdx ,
~ ..
. . ..
:. ~
2 I ...... .- -
-2
--4 ' , ,
F1GURE 6~ 10
, Newron-Raphson iteration.. .
The' value of,x == 1.469 is a more 'correct value a,nd sbould be used for the
next iteration. The results of the next 's everal iterations are
fl(X).X2.X;4) =0 (6.27)
, I
,The' procedure for solving the equa~iolls \is an iterative one' in v;hich
the follo,vin,g step~ ar~ follo\.\led:
,.t;.- ,
1. Rewrite the equations so ' that "all .terms are on one side of L'1e: e,qualiry , '
, sign [Eqs. ,(6.,27) to (6.29} alre~ulY ,.eki,stir. 'tJJis' fom~i.r· ', :",'. ,' ,'
,,' ",; 2':.:.~j~.ssfime~' ieill:pofaDL~<al}l.~~ ·fbL ili~.v~'~b.les';\dellote(hx'yj-'; ~ ';~~~:t' ~,:: ap4"~t-'~:~~J~"," ~::.: :~': .:.';, ",
"3~ Caic4Iate·the' y(lln~'s off" ~'-'i' f2".,~df3 :.cit'the:'t,emporary :vaiu~ of ~l~ :~'2~ . ;,' ',',
,.and ,x 3·
4. Compute the partial derivatives of all functio.ns with respect to ~l1., vari- .
ables',
, '
+,- afl(Xl.l'
.
~ Xl. X3.1) ( _"
a Xl"
I :
,x 1,1 -
~)
X I.e
'
aX2
(X?
,-.
r - x? c
" -~ .
(6.30)
6. Solve the set of linear sim,u ltaneou,s equatioI!s (6.31) to determine ~l.r -
X i,e'
7. Correct the x s t
, Example 6.3. Solve Example 6.1 by the Newton-Raphson ,method.' , "<~ '~
I
'Solution
STep 1. .:, • • 1. -
'.:>"\ ".
\,' .
Step 2. Choose ¢aI values of the variables, whj~h are here selected
as /lp = 750, ' 11.'1 = 3. l"'2, ::::; 1.5, ,and w = 5. I
Step 3. 'Calculate the magnitudes of the /'s at the te:r;nporary values 'of
. the variables, 11 = '177.7,12 = 48.75. '1 3',= .15.0, andf4 = O.50~, '
, Step 4. The p~rtial derivatjv~s are shown in Table 6.4~ " '
Step 5.' SUbsti.tuting 'the temporary vaJue~ of the variables into the equa-
tions for the p~ial derivatives fonns a set of linear simultaneous equations
to be sol ved for the co;rrections to x:
LO " 0.0
1.0 47.5
0.0
0.0
-72.0][01:J.-l]
0_0 .6. x
[177.7_]
48.7)
2 _
Jlp = 750.0 - 98.84 = 651.1? H'I = 4.055, w;? = 2.041 11' = 6.096
These values of the variables are returned to step 3 for the next iteration.
The values of [he I's and the variables resulting from continued itera-
tions are shown in Table 6.5.
The calcufations converged sut·isfnctorily ~fter three iterations.
TABLE 6.4 ,
~.
...
SYSTEIIJr s1MULATION 127
After
iteration. f I :W2 . w ·
., '- 8.68.) "4.170 . 8.778: .:O.oqO ... ·__.-;:.?~l..~~..,. 4-~055: ·· . . 2:04"'1: "":;.6·.09~~: .. '
. ~O:.0'81 O~OI48"·'· . O.fJ~~6· 0.000, .. <650.48 '" '3.992" . ·' L998.- .. .5 ~989··. ' ' . '
'O~O??,: ~.. ~0:000.' .:",:'..\_. ~~O.qo~~,-::;.O_OOO, ~~ ~ ~~0-:49:': :':~ ~ .- 3':·9.9-1~)."~:,..,:ji997J~..;,,,,;.5~988-.:~:':~,,~!~.,,~,~.:, -"".
, .
~. , .. 0" • • ..: ~
.'
I)
2 Combustor . 3
P3
'2
p..,
Shafl
" qkW Turbine
Compressor Ec kW
. £ JeW
P
" w kg/s 4-
.. I P, :=
I
10 J 'kPa P4 = 101 kPa
FIGURE 6.. 11
Gas-rurbine cycle.
-.-- -
128 , DESlGN 9F'rJ:IERMAL ?YSTEMS
. .
1" Assume perfect-gas propert.ies·~o~ghput the cyc~~ arid a cp constant at
. 1.03 kJ/(kg· K ) ' .: , ! . '. '.: ,
~o .Neglect the r,nass added 'm the form of fuei in tlJe combustor ~o'~that : the
, mass fate 'of flow w is constant throughout the cycle .-
3". ,Neglect ~e pre~sure 'drop ,in ~eJ c?~bust.o~ so Lh~t = p~ :'~d ~~ ~gli .
P2
pre~sure ill ,tl}e system. c~ ,be desIgnated, slI~ply as p. ' : :',," ' .:' ". ' :'
' ...," "-:~:'~ :~Negl~ct :hc:a,~ ~~.t~~, .t? ~e env~~nw~~t~: . ' . ' ., .: ~ ' :. ',, ~_
'... .. ; ,',' ~ ; '.'.-~::t ;" ,~:' ~-:,:,:: ~:r.:.,.( . ;.'. .,~,,~. .,.~ . i~;· · " -::'.':! <.~ -.:,,~:' _' ,~ '>" '. ','., ::;~::'-;''''', .:.._'"~..~<-.;!::~-
,I ' ' ,"
. - ,.'
. .
. The .perfO:nriance. ch~acteristics.,of tb~- axia.l~fIow. ~o.tnp'ressor,, ~d ,the' .
gas tUrbine l operating at 120 rls with an atmospheric pressure,of lO~.kPa that
,wjll be used,in the simulatiqn are sho~nin Figs. 6':"12,and 6-13, respectiyeiy . .
With the techniques preseI!ted in Chap. 4 equations can ·be developed
for ,d?-e curves ih Fig. 6-12, '. . " .1 • • . '
a,nd
Ec = 1020 - O.383p + O.00513p~ _ (6.33)
\\,lhere p = discharge pressure of compressor, kPa
w = ' mass rate of flow, ·kg/s
E c = power required by compressor, kW
When operating at a given speed and discharge pressure, the charac-
teristics of the turbine take the form shown in Fig. 6.. 13. V{ith the techniques
600
500 2000
:E
oX
~
oX
c.i 400 ..: ] 800
L.. IJ
::l 3
v.
Ir.
e 8.
~ ] 6QO-
c- 300
o §.
f!l
r. ~
..r::: Co.
(.)
v.
200 E 1400
0 8
100 1200
l~ ~ __ ~ ______ ~ __ ~
6 8 )0 12 14
100 200 300 400 .500
Flow rale.• kgls Dischruge pressure, kPa
Co) (b)
,
FIGURE 6 J2 . e
Performance ofaxial~f1ow compressor operating at 120 rls with 101- kPa inJet pressure.
- .
SYSTEM SJitIULATION 129
-woo .I . i
e3 10
. =:J.
u: . 8
6
1000 ~----&-'_ _ _....L.....-_ _- - - - - t _ - . l I
.; FIGURE 6-13·
. Pertormance of gas turbine operating at 120 rls and 101 kP'.:i discharge pressure.
of .Sec. 4.8 eqyations can be developed for the curves in Fig . .6-13
.' '-- . . .
w = 8.5019 + O.02332p + 0..48 x IO-4p 2 - 0.02644t .
. +0.1849 X IO-.:l,2. + O~000121pt - 0.2736 X lO~6p2t
(6.34)
anQ
E, = 1727.5 - IO.06p + O.033033p2 - 7.4709t + O.OO39~9t2
+O.050921pt - 0.8525 X lO-4 p 2f - 0.2356 x lO-4pt 2
+ 0.4473 x 10-7p~t'2- (6.35)
:. ' ~i '_:;C"~f;~on~~'
i .'. .,
c" I~: ~ -:':~:1~~~ ';:· ;;o~ ·:::":';~O.8: .: J569;:h~;:';&7;5 :';"
:~;.: '10.77
i
. . 354.8'
K
>.
'1~30~O '. ' ~ 'I62.8'"
3(1'11;0::
1~97:.7 . ... ; :·884:2·..· ·3.127.7 . ,.
3 " .'. '10.77 . 354.9 1530.1 '173.0 1598.5 . .884.5 ,.. ---3'12.8.6
.4 . . .. .. 10.7'7 _ .... 35.4..9 . 1530.1 173.,0 1598.5 . :884.5 3128.6
. '. . ·The· exe'cuti~n of the solution follows the steps outl~ned in Sec. '6 ~ 11. A
summary of the trial valueS and results aft'e r the Newton-Raphson ite~tions ·. "
. is presented in Table 6.6. ' . ' .. , -
, . The
. .
shaft power delivered by this system is 1598.5 kW. ,
PROBLEMS
~~.; The operating point of a fan-and-duct system IS to be detennined. The .
...-/ equations for the ,two components are
Use successive substitution to solve for the operating point, choosing as trial
values SP = 200 Pa or Q = 10 m 3/s .
...4 D.S • 6 m31s and ,350.P'J.
132 DES1GN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
~:J
---)
1
-
' I I S? ' ~
,-7>'"
\ '
T (J)
• .Load Load
FIGURE 6·15
FJow diagrams in Prob. 6.2.
...
SYSTEvr SIi~i1JUl.TION 133
2 2 '[
3 3
6 .;L seawater desalination plant operates on the cycle shown in Fig. 6-16,
(f..;eawater is pressurized.~ flows through a heat exchanger .. where its [empera-
i
W'r e is elevated by the condensation of what b'ecomes the desalted water, and ,
flows next through a ste~m he,a t e=<:ctIanger, where itis heated but is still in
, a li~d. state at poin.t 3. In passing '¢rough the flo'at valve the pressure drops
and soipe of the liquid flashes into vapoI:, which is the vapor that condenses
as fresh Water. The portion at point 4 that remains liquid flows out as waste
at point 6. The following conditions and relationships ?Ie kno\.vn: .
V~ ~~
t = 15 0 C
Seawarer
5
w = 10 kg/s
Fresh
w8't er,
6 Condcnsare
150°C
, 3
FIGURE 6·16
if! Prob. 6.3.
Desalinatioo..ptW[
- ,-
134 ESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
, Compressor
shaft
(J) rev/s
l , ' .i .~ . :;
I .
I Feedwater hea~er ··
~===-=''''-===:l
Ft!ed water"! laooe
-<:i;---~~f.----I"1V\.1rv V\r---fl~~_~ ~.......
3 kgls'
B[o~own
Co~densate
Sep~tor
1- r--
f
I
I
Level____
,tIl_...:...._. . ~
control
FIGURE 6-18
Blowdown from a boiler in Prob. 6.5.
!., .
where . some of the nitrogen and hydrogen combine-'to form ammonjuo The
ammonia product formed leaves the system at the condenser and the remaining
'H 2t N'2 • .and AI recycle to the reactor.
'The presence of .the inert gas argon is detrimental to the rea~tion. If no
argon is present? the reactor converts 60 percent of the incoming N2 and Hl
into ammonia, but as the flow rate of argon through the re~c[or increases. the
J
I
,
'2
. .
percent co~version decreases. The conversion effi,ciency follows the equation
,' ,
Conversio~,. % ~ 60e-<!'·016w
.where w is the flow fate of argon through the reac'tor i.n moles per ,second:. ·r . . •
6.8. The heat·. exchanger in Fig. 6-20 heats water entering at 30°C wi.th .steam'
/ entering as sa~ated vapor at 50~C and leaving as condens'at~ .at 50°C. The '
,f low of water is to be chosen so that the heat exchanger transfers 50 kV!. The
area of th'eheat exchanger is 1.4 m 2 , and the .a value of·the heat exchang~r
based on this area is given by .
. '
1., 0.0445
-(m- . K)/kW
V . ' = wO. 8
+ 0.185
(
Water. 30° C, W = ? A~ 1.4 m 2 ) .
~ Condensate. 50°C
FIGURE 6-20
Heal exchanger in Prob. 6.8.
-In normal operation the flovv rate is 25 kg/so The pressure drop in the pipe' is
proportional to the sq uare of the fLay! [a~e. If one pumping stalion falls and
Lh9:t station ~ypassed? v~l o,t ~ill be the flotv rate. provided by ~e .re~aining
n_~ ne stations?
6~]Lt In a 'clos~d·loop a eentrifiigal and gear pump operate in series to d~1ivef ,fluid
1-/ . . through a long pipeo The ~qllati~:mr reI~ti~g ~P and the :q,?~,~~,~.fo~ the th~,:~'
' . .: . ;:"~- :':','- .. <.C?InP"Qrie~ts~,~e::,.,w::~,.,,:.~,.~.,.,:,..:::r,,:'. ',":' ".-,:: .", "":""""',>, . '.:;,.,." ,.,", . ,,' ' .. :"",",""":'
, ~ -~ /. oJ
~ centrifugal pump-:---: .. , .. flp :=,'!i.~t 2Q '-_.oo,5Q_~ ... ': ' ' ','
pipe:
I?p = 1.2(Wbp)~
\rv\Vapor 120 K
h = 1460 kJ/kg
\e\-Mv"
,VA ;:.. ··1.57 kW/K
T = 200 K. h = 230 kJlkg .: ~ : "i':. 4.. •. flow rate = ?
liquid. flow r.lte = 1. J kg/s- T == ?
cp s:: 2 kJ/(kg • K)
,
FIGURE 6--21
..
Cryogenic liquid cooler in Prob. 6. J2 .
.-
138 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
fr' ,
I .~ . . .:; ~
I ;':" . :"~: ...
w
where the flow rates ,are in kg/~ and' the, pressures -in ,kPa,. ,U se the N ewton- .
Ra.e.hson.techniqll_~ ~? _d:et~ne w ~ w p , Wbp and P2 -
6.l4. Air'at 28°C with a flow rate of 4 kgls flows through a cooling coil counterllow
to ~oId wate~ that eJ;'iters at 6°C, as shown ,in Fig. 6-23 . .Air has a spe,ti:6'c "
heat, c~ ' ~ 1.0 ,kJ/(kg . K). No. dehumidffjcati~n .of the air occurs as it passe~
through the coil. The . product of the area and heat-rransfer coefficient for
the heat exchanger is 7 kWIK. The pump just overcomes the pressure drop
,through the control valve and coil, such that Pl = P4' The pre~sUre-flow .
c~aracteristics of the pump are
where ·W lt • is the f1o~ ~ate of \\'atei in kilograms per second. The specific
hear of the water is c p = 4. I 9 kJ/(kg . K). The pressure 'drop tlu;"ough ,the
coil is P3 - p~ = 92QOw·~;. The outlet-~ir temperature regulates the control
M·., kgls
Water
,
FIGURE 6-23
CooHng coil in Prob. 6.14.
...
SYSTE:VI SIMuLATION
j-
139
~: C I' Iess ~,than 0.000001 ~ Li~t 'the n~mber 'of iterations-,to 10. " " .
, Afis.~P2:= 64~355 (ba~edonpl = O) .. [~ == 14~14 •. Cl' ...:...·0.0108-.
60 15~ A two-stage tiir' compressor with Intercooler shown in ,Fig .. 6-25 compres'ses
. a.ir (which is assumed ..dfy) from 100 to 1200 kPa absolute. The folloV'jing
. data apply to the compo~ents: . ,
"
1A
. ,.
The polytropic exponent n in the equation PI v7 = P2V~ is 1.2. intercoole.r The
is a counterflow heat exchanger receiving' 0.09 kg/s of water at 22°C. The
-----------
I
I
r
I
I
.I
II
I
I
I
I
I
J
I .
, "
10 11 12
FIGURE ~24
Our Jet air temperntun:.oC Ch'aractenslics of valve in Prob. 6.14.
----
.-
..-
140 DESJGN OF THERMAL SY~TEMS
1200 kPa
1
Intercooler 1
.,;". :
, A.i!.
,·,100 kP3. .
flGURE .6-25
Two-stage air compressio~ in Prob. 6.15.
product of the oyer~ll heat-transfer coefficient and, the area of tills h~t
exchanger is VA = 0.3 kWIK. Assume that the air is a perfect gas.
, Use 'the NeM,on-Rapbson meth.o d to sim1:l-late'this syste.m, ~eterm.injng.
, at least the values of W ,Pi, 1'), and r3.'Use as a test for convergence that all
'variables change less than 0.001 during an ite~atio~. Limit the number of
iterations to 10.
Ans~: w = 0.18 kg/s. I]. = lOl.Soc, Pi = 387~7 kPa, 13 = 43.84°C . .
6.16. A helium liquefier operating 'according to the flov,' diagram shown in Fig.
, 6-26 receives .high-pressure helium vapor, liguefi~s '? fmc[ion of the 'vapor,
and returns the remainder t.o be
recycled. The for"lowingoper;:tdng conditions
prevail:
8 7 6
Separator
100 kPa
w = 5 g/s VA =:; lOO\V/K
4.2 K
3
'. .
4
ThrouJing
-- w = '4 g/s valve
T=~K
h = 53 k1/Kg
'FIGURE 6..26
Helium liquefier in Prob. 6.16.
141
and condensing temper?rUres '!e and tel respectively, is giv,e n by the equation
developed in Prpb. 4.9.
I C" Condenser
Evnporator
I Expansion
valve I,
. qt·
FIGURE fr21
Refrigeration plnn~ in Prob. 6. 17.
.-
142 DESIGN OF THER..Iv1AL SYSTEMS
, . ~ ...
..~:~_... {':'" ~':' .: ~e .condens~r '.~ust ~reje~~ 'rh~' ,e nfrgy a~ded in b~th t~e evapor~tor ·~d .·~~ '"
, ", ': " ': '~-). , . -, .::'\ ',' .compressor. DeterID}ne the vaIues ~f ..Ie, t c~_ , 'Lj~·, 'i .an~' .P Jor th~ . foIl~wlng ·
~:~_~:~ ~::-...:-- ~ ~<?~biIiations.:9f.i:Q~~t :~~te~,tem~~Jf.t~~~. .j .... \~: '.; ~ "'I' ';{;~ ;~_~:: ,~. ~\ :'~,. ,~_.' .,~: " '~
.; ; : .~ ..
... ~ '.
' .1 '" '_;.',':. : ... . .:. .
" -
'. .- I "'~
. Continu.~ iterations unta all variables change by ari absolute value less than
0.1 percent'duiing an iteration.
Ans.: For ia ~ 10°C ai;ld tb = - 25°C. t~ = 2.84°C, Ie = 34.0SoC • .
q~ ....: 134.39 kW and p. = 28.34 kW.
REFERENCES
1. G. ·M. Dusinberre and J. C. Lester, Gas Turbine Power, International Textbook, Scranton.
Pa.;,1958.
2. Proceilures for SiJ1lularing the Peifonna,l1ce of Componems C/Jld 5.,,·srems for Energy Cal-
.. clilan'oJls~ American Society of 'Heating, Refrigerating, and ' Air-Cond'i rioning Engineeri'.
New York, 1975. .
3. H. A. MosIer, ··PACER-·A Digital Compu~er E~ecutjve Routine for ,Process Simulation
and Design," ?\1.S. thesis, PurdlJe University,- Lafayetre, lnd.~ January 1964.
4. C. M. Crowe. A. E. Hamie1ec, T. W. Hoffman, A. 1. Johnson, D. R. Woods, and
P. T. Shannon; Chcmi,ca! Plant SimulaTion; an 1l1!rodllcTtoll 10 ComplJler-Aid~d Sready· .
Slale Process Allalysis, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1971.
5. \V. F. Stoecker, "A Generalized Program for Sready~Srate System Simulation:' ASHRAE
TrOllS., vo1. 77, pt. 1. pp. 140-148, 1971.
ADPITIONAL READINGS
Chen. C-C .• and L. B. Evans: "More Computer Programs for Chemical Engineers .. ' ChcJ1I.
Eng-.£.-\,oL 86. no. IJ, pp. 167-173. May 21. 1979.
Henley. E. J., and E. M. Rosen: MOlerial alld Ellergy Balance ComplIIa!ions. Wiley, New
York. 1969. .
Naphtali. L. M .• "Process Heat and Material Balances," Chelll. Eng. Prog .• vol. 60. no. 9. '
pp. 70-74, September 1964. ,
Peterson. J. N .. C. Chen, and L. B. Evans: "Computer Programs (or Chemica} Engineers:
1978:' pl. L Ch~m. ~ng .. yoL 85" no. ·13. pp. 145-154. June 5, }978.
.-
· .~~/·
---~- · ·. .
• J . . .. . " .' , ,
., - :'1,' , . • - ' , • •••
.' :~
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Optimization is the' process of finding the conditions that giye rriaximurr; or
minimum, values of a function. Optinl1zation has always been an expected .
role of engineers, although sometimes on s,malI projects the' cost of engi-
neering tjme may not justify' an optinlization effort. 'Often a design is diffi-
cult to optimize because of its complexity. In such cases, it may be possible
to ·optimize· subsystems and ,then choose the optimum combination of them.
There is no assurance, how'ever, [hat this procedure will lead to the true
optimurp.
Chapter 1 pointed out that in desigriing a workable sys,terp ,the process
often COn~lS!S of arbitrarily . ~.§uming certai~!:parame.ters and selecting indi-
vidual f:omponents around these assumptions. In contrast, when optimiza-
Jion. is an integral part of the design. ,the parameters are f~e float until to
the combination of p'a rameters i$ reached. which cipthnizes the design.
Basic to any optimization process is tije decision regarding which
crherion is to be optimized. In an ~ircraft Or space vehicle, minimum weight
'may be [he criterion. In an aUltomobHe t the size of a system'may 'be the
eriterion. Minimum Cost is probahl.y the most common criterion. On the
ot.h~r . hand,
the minimum owning and ,operating cost, even ·including such
factors _as those srudi,ed in Chapt,er 3 on economics, may not n1w~ys be
~ y
143
144 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
6-
1[-
-..... ...~ -
.X. I, vt.. 2., . .... ... _
1 . \.. ii'
,-: '( , "1.
v\ [l! L-!.!.
: ,-,..1- ",",,'" t.
,ale Cad"c u,
• 1 1'J-"''-~
lLe
":'·;-1 ...... T~
lfzaepL1I£kl1l ~ all r_ lD
.o.f. " ":<:1 ... . , .- -~/
e.). . . 0
~-"'~.,
J
...,
l:,\;",;,
\~ : ,.. ~ ·, -7 '!1
OIUjCC U \. e
function" then? is - -, . - _. I I " '
'The physical conditions , dicta~e' the sense of the inequaliti~s in Eqs.' (7.4) to
(7.5). ' , ,
An a~ditive constant appearing i,n the objective, function do~s not af~ect
the value~ Clf the independent variables -a~ which the optinluin occurs. Thus~
~. '
. '
Cooling tow~r (7
Cooling wa.,~er I
I
..
'
• ;' r
. . ,-
~ ~'vaporator EV
Water
20 kg/s, l30e Com pressor CP .
FIGURE '7-1
\Vater-chiHing 'unit b~ing optimized for ?riIDmurri first) cost.
With only the statement of Eq. (7.8), the minimum could be achieved by
shrinking the sizes of all ~omponents . to·zero_ Overlooked is the requirement
that the' combination of sizes be such that the water-chiDing assignment of
·providing . . .
'(20kg/s)(I3 - goC) [4. 19 kJ/(kg .- K)J == .419 kW
c;>f refrigeration is accomplished. Equation (7.9) expresses this constraint
(7.9)
where ¢ is understood to mean the cooling capacity as a function of com-
ponent sizes when 20 kg/s of water' enters at 13°C. Actually, Eg. (7.9)
could be an
inequality constraint, because probably no one would object
t<? a larger capacity than the requir em.e n t of 419 kW if the cost were not
increased.
Some
\ ~
practical considerations impose certain inequality constraints.
, -
The syslt em should be designed so that . the evaporating lte mperature lev is
above O°C or, at the lowest, -2 to -] °C to prevent water from freezing on
.. the
. tube surfaces. This constraint i's ' .,
lr.v(XCP,XEV,XCD,XPtXcr) f:: O°C (7.10)
An extremely high dis~harge temperature t d of the refrigerant leaving the
, compressor may 'impair the lubncation .
(7.11)
There: '!lay be other inequality constraints, such as. limiting th~ condenser
OPTIIvHZATION 3_4 7
- "
SIze Of.I: [ he COGung
- -
," F1' -,
CO(}Hng--water LO~i:! In reJ.atlOII to (tne
l l' .
to-;,Ner to DreYC:tlt It
, from splashing out. , ' ' I I ' ,'-" JJ,-
,The elements qf the ,optimiza~ion problem are all iJlesent h~[e,. the
, objective ftihction" equality constral,nts~ and inequalIty. constr.a~Qts~ _, all in
, ,teTITIS of-the indepenqent ,v~, ?-?~es-, 'yhich ate the sizes of ,c~mp~~ehts~, ,- _,_,' ,
. .' ...
.' ..
In the' ne~t fe\v s' ecti~~s " ~~y~r~i, .'~ptiilli~'~tio.n ·metllodS ~/ill be'listed.
Although this .list hlcludes most, of the, frequently used methods engmeer:- in
ing pra~lice, .it is novvhere- nem:' 'exhaustive. Tn the optimization of systems.,
--.it
,
is almost axiomatic that.'th'e objective function is.. dependent upon ,more
" . ' I
than one ,variable. 'In 'fact, some theffilal systems may have dozens or even
hundreds of variaples w~ich demand sophisticated optirriization techniques.
Whil~ considerable effort may be required 'in the op1timization process, '
, developing mathematical relationships for the function .to be op,timized and
the,' 'constraint~ m~y ~so require consiqerable, effort.
l" ' .
HJT~t2.tlOn. S te mpera.ture an d
'
0,.f "
' pressure " etc ." (2)
\- d.. eSC[LE.
·h·I.E equat1.0n
.,.. ,
rOTfC
the component characteristics and prope.rties qf'working substances, and (3)
'write mass and energy balat1ces., Opera'tions (I) and (3) usuar.y provid,e a set
of equa.tions contaiping more variables ,'il1.Clll 'exist in the objective .functiol1 ~
The set :of con§trairlt' equ?-tions is then reduced in nu~nber by'.efiininating .
':_:. " ..,'~-'y2I[i?-bl~~.' th~t go no:t ,e~?·$;,t: il~,<t~::e , qtJjec-~ve fu.~~tiori, : ,Xt. should.:J?~. 'pQ.~n~~,~·;:'.·:':,: ~,
, ',: ' ~"o:ut; hQwevet p,;t~~t So.rne~0.pJi¢jz~6,n·J~,~h~:~R~~~)?,~qp,~( a~.~i.!J9.P~L~~~~1~;~.:, ,~~.\:
,'in th:~ constraihts ' that· do -pot exist: in -iti.e: obj~cti;V~. fifn~tioii. s.t~p~·~(2)." and"-·, :...- -...:
(3) i~ sel~ing 'up the constraints .are similar to ttIe process used in structu,nng .. ',
asystem-sirimI'ation problem. ,
.-------~--t---------1_.~,
.Wnler
2.3 kgls
Cooling
=, ~I'q)
lower
Compression power P. kW
tI
1\ir
95°C
1.2 kg/s I
Precooler Reidgcration II
, , unit
FlGURE 7-2
150 DESIGN OF mERMAL SYSTEMS
.50q2
Precooler: X
f )= 13 - t~
(7.13)
..
.whei-e the equation is ·applicable ·wh.en . t3 > fl.
, ". 0•
.Coolin
.
a tower:
. . .0
-l'3 = ·2Sqj
,:: ..; ... ,where . th~ q '5 are·rates ~(heat trfl¥sferin kilQwatts~ ~S desi_n ..d in Pi .·7'-2. -,.
. ··: . ,~·,< ··Th(coinpressjon power P k\V requi~ by~the~getation unit in 0.25
.. Solution~.-Th~ goal ·of '~is'exampl~ ·is only tD set up the optimiz~tion p~Obl~m
ip the fonn of Eqs. (7.1) to (7:5) and ~ot to perfonn the actual optimi?ation.
B·ef6ie prqceedir.lg~ h9wever, it would be· instructive to examine q~a1itatively .
the optiniiz~tion features of this systep:t. Since the precooler is a simple heat
exchanger,. under most .operating condition's it is lc:ss costly for a given ·heat-
. transfer rate .than the refrigeration unit. It would appear preferable, the.Il, to
do as much cooling of the ·air as possib]e. with the precooler. However, as the
,t emperature 13 approaches the value of t}, the size of the precooler becomes
very large. 'Some capacity is required ' of the refrigeratjon urut in order to
cool the air below 24 °C~ The cool ing tower m~st reject alJ the heat from the
system, which includes the heat from the air as we.11 as the compression power
to drive the refrigeration unit. Shifting more cooling load to the refrigerat}on
.unit increases · the size and cost 'o f .the cooling tower moderatel)~.
(oJ The first ·assignment is to ' develop the expression for the objective
fUDctjon. Since the total first cost lS to be minimized, the objective func:-
tion· will be the first cosr in terms of the-variables of optimization. A
choice must be made of these variables; the objective function could con-
ceivably be written in terms of the. costs of the individual components
(the x's), the energy flow rates (the q's), or even the ternperatur'es (11,
12~ and TJ ). The most straightforward choice is to use the component costs
. . ' . ..". {,.'.~ lPr¢cooler:·:;·:-· ·.·· '\f.~: . -'" (1:2)(: 1·.nr(-95 ··:~ 1-3J:: ~\" f2':3){4:·'i9),t f~;; .-l.'ct1~.y'".'\; <·/ ;:···' t ·'·"·-· ··"·;." '
'. . !Coolirtg t~~~r: ' ,.. . . .' '.. (2.;)( 4. i9)(~1 - :24) .'= Q3' " . ;
The complete .set of .constraint equations i;S
ql = (~.2)( LO)(!3 ~ 10) (7.18)
q"2 = (1.2)( 1.0)( 95 - .(3) . (~.19)
P = O.25q, (7.20)
XI = 48ql . (7.21)
. ' 50q~
x,= .(7.22)
-' 13 '. -/1
X3 -
- ')-
_:1q) (7.23)
ql +P = (2.3)('4.. 19)(tl - 24) (7.24)
( 1. 2) ( 1. 0) (95 - t:5) = (2.3)'( 4. 19) ~ r2 - I d . (7.25)
(2.3)(4.19)(t2 - 24) = q) (7.26)
There are nine equatio~s in the set, Eqs: (7.18) to J7 .26) and ten
unknowns, q,. q2t Q3. P, · XI. -'"2 • .'(3. t), 12, and·'t3. The next operation
is (0 eliminate in this set of ~q'uations all but tb.e variables of optimization,
Xh Xl. and X3. As the elimination of variables and 'equations proceeds, there
will always be one more. unknown than the number of equations, so when
all but the three x 's are eliminated, there should be two equations remaining.
These two constraint equations are Egs. (7.28) and (7.29), so the' complete
mathematical state~ent of this opti.rrUzation problem ~s ns foUows:
Minimize y = XJ +.t:. + x 3 . (7.27)
subject to O.01466xIX~ - 14.t:1 + 1.042tl =5100 (7.28)
7.69:C3 -:c I = 19.615 (7.29)
. .
. The constraints are an fite gral .part qf the statement of the optirniza~ :
tidp. pr~blem .. ·The obJective function without the constraints ·is meaningless
Oecause .."the x 's co~ld all shrink. to ' zero and ther~' would be. no..cost for
. .the .·system. The cori~trairit in':Eq ~ (7. 28) ~q*e~ a: positive valu~ of Xi
, y .... . . . "' ."
is
'.' . .: .. ' ' which' tbe same asj:·equiring. the I existen.ce 'of "
• • ••• •• •• •. • ..... ,',
a refrigerati6n·-uni~.
.
~rom . .
~'~'i;~: , .:'.•. )l;~~~:-~ansfeJ,:. ::c;~nl~~d~t~tions , the.·preeoo!er can c?ol ·the..air no .lower than:. a'.,
'. . ".', ~temperat:Ure of24-~C<':~\Ib~~ritu~¥~·:%.~,.•};::.::O..?*~.::Pl7u (?., ~8) makes x 2 lnegative,
. . . w~j~4 is p~ysic~I:y, i~PQ~~j91~."Equat.ion.:(I~~2·~f:~?e.S~p~~~~>J.::..Y:?;~!~~·~Z¢tP;:/.
: in wlllch case all cooling is penonned"by .the,. I~fri.gerat.i6tl IDlit:,: :.;. -.'- .:' .: :'.' -,
. - . The constra"int equation (7'.29) imposes a miDi~lJ,m VaIll~ o,f the··c~ol':: . '
'.. ing-tower size aDd cost x3.' As' the size of the refrigeration unit. and Xl
. increases, x 3 al$o increa~~s because .of the compression power associated
with the refrigeration unj.t.. ' j
. 7.13 SUMMARY
While it is', true that eng~eers have always so~ght to optimize their designs,
it has been only since the widespread applicauon of the ciigital computer. that
sophisticated m~thods of optimization have :become practical Jor complex
systems. The application of 'optiID:izarion technique,s to large-scale thermal
systems is still in its infancy, but' experience so far indicates that setting up
the problenl to the poinr - where an optinllzeition method can take over tep-
. resents perhaps 7.0 percent of the total effort. ~e emphasis on opt.i~zation
techniqpes in the next five chapters m-ay sllgge~t mat ~ngineers are home
free ,once they know seve-ral nle~ods. Realistically, however, the execution'
,of the optimization can only begin when the characteristics of the physical·
system have been converted into the equations for the objective function
and constraints " ',. . .. !
PROBLEMS
7.1. A pair of pumps j,s available to fill a tank from a constant-level reservoir,
\.- as shown in Fig. 7-3. The pumps may be operated individually or together,
J,
and the objective is to fill the tank using 'a minimum total amount of energy.
The pump characteristics (head-flow rate) are shown on the graph, and both
pumps have the same efficiency as a function of flow rate, State clearly the
m.ode of operarion of the pumps over the enter filling process that- resul ts in
minimum total energy. . '.-. ,
7.2* Two heat exchangers in A circulating water loop, as shown in Fig, 7-4.·
lransfer heat from a fluid condensing !l't SQoc '·0 8 fluid boiling at 20°C. The
requi~ed rate of heal transfer. is 6S kW. the U value of both heat cxchangeI:s
, is 0.03 kW /(mJ • K), me
fir~t cost of the heat ·exchange-rs is SSO/m,2 of heat-
tr~nsfer area, and lhe present worth of the lifetime pumping cost in dollars
is, 12.00011.1. Develop the objectilve function for the total jJresent cost of the
__~.YSI1malOng wilh any ~onstrainl equation(s). . . .
i
~&~. DP111v:!lZ..A.TION 153
~t .
r'
:. ~;:", . .-:.. - .. . '!;-~' "\ ' . . - _.
.'.' : .. '. ,:' , - I == 8 ~ .' - . " .
, . ·. . : ·~i. . =-: . \t!l.:i .:;,. "Wv" ~"',,:v.~:~~:" (·
::- .,~. , ...~. ...- J -,
'~ Tan~'
o 10 .. . 20 Q.Us
G( s -~ (\-\ - 8 )
.. ... ?S .'
t.
'
.' -' "
60
~ 50
~
: .;:! 40
i>
·0 30
1 ~
!;:
OJ
B
~o
0 10 20 Q.l/s
(Head)(Q)
Power == .
Efficiency/l 00
FIGURE 7-3
Combination of pumps in Prob. 7.1.
1'2 w kg/s
Heat
exchanger 2
,. . ......"l,;'
-~.
""'-""'"'!""..-+-""
.-
154 DESIGN OF TIIERMAL SYSTEMS
.} o
Size=A
,,: .. " :
. . ~
- , ... .\ . . "';
:Q m3/yr";~
Ak and'.cO.,-
,~ ." ". I • • .. ~' .,. , J. -
~ ' .• , ; -.:.p .'.... : .. . :. '.:, ."'I . .. :7 • .:... ... ~, I; ·. ~": '-:-- ,;''' '-:. . ~~.. ,. ,: . . , .
7' -~ ';:'~~""'~:r .,::,-~ - :::-_~1 •.,!."'-': ~~id~~Ij.~'~ ::--:·:-.~C01.-."; ; ; -:\ ,' ~'~'::>_
-! ' .;""' ~': _
..-.:;
Exhaust
.
air "
, aildCQl
F1GURE 7-5
Carbon dioxide extraction in Prob. 7.3.
7.3. A plant produces C02 by ex.tracting it from a mixtUre of CO2 ,and air ~ ,as
'/ :" 'shown in Fig. '7-5. The feed rate o(the' CO2 -air mixtUre is 5 X 10 9 m 3/year.
Jpe system consists of two extractors-Extractor I of low cost and low-
efficiency, and ExtraCTor II of high cost and high efficiency. The CO2 , in
m3/yr removed by Extractor r is (total m 3 Jyr entering)(x)(l - e- AI2OOO ), and
that removed by Extractor n is (total m 3Jyr entering)(x)(] _',e BIJOOO ), wh~re
the x's are the fraction of CO:! in the feed stream. Th,e annual capital costs
of the extr4ctors in dollars/yr afe 30aOA and 500DB, respectively. The value
of the CO 2 product is O.OlQ doUars/yr. Develop the objective function and
constraint(s) in" terms of A lB. and Q. '
7 .. ~., An optimum shell.-and-tube heat exchanger, as showri in Fig. 7-6 has a VA
/ .
I value of ]500 kWIK and has a pressure drop of the tube f1uid of 300 kPa.
Applicabl~ equations are ' " , ' ,
A = 'O.2N-L
V = 5A11/V
]1 U ;:: 0.08 + 111; ;= 0.08 + 1/(0.4 V)
N = (7T D 114)J160 = 0.005 D,2
where N = number of tubes
111 = number tube passes of
A = heat-transfer area in m1
V = velocity in rrlJs
U = overoJJ heat-transfer coefficient in kW/(m 2 • K)
h = convecrion coefficient on the tube side 'in kW/(m 2 • K)
=
)TJ she1l diameter ,m In
L = tube length in m
The pressure drop of the tube, fluid per lInit Jength of tube, kPalm, j's
--.0.' y.,. The optimum h~at exchanger is one of Je~st COS[ thai meets the other
OPTIMiZATION 15S
. .
. .FI~URE 7-6. .
SheU~and~tube heat eX,changer in Prob. 7.4-
requirements, and the cost is a "function ofL ,and D. DevelQP the constrnint(s)
ln tepns of Land D. '
7.50 The flow ~ate of raw material to the processing plant shown in Fig. 7-7 'is
1.0 kgls of m.ixture consisring of 50 percent A and 50 percent B. The separator
can remov~_some of marcl1al A in pure fonn. and tnis product has a sellip,a
price of $@ per kilogram. The other product from the separator sells for~
per kilogram,' and some of this ~tream may' be recycled. The cos.t of operating
the separator in dollars per set;:ond is
Mixture of A and B
x = 0.5, W == 10 kg/s
~----~---u- -$lO/kg
separatO(' ··.. ~ · ·· ·.··or ·, .
WI ';X. . .( 3 '- . 4
~--~------------~$~g
' - -_ _ _ _ _--11 w),..t 3 "'4. X 4
to-
Procc:ss,irii .pTanr j-n Prob. 7.S.
156 DESJGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
.. .
, :' -' '~--'~"' :~" ~ ..' ~' : cap~bl~,~ of:achie1{i~g, pn~y, ' ~Rarti.!:{. ~~!1v:~si.qn, ', ,~~ the unreacted H~f and
" ,; .','0 2 ,ru-e', recycied"followfrig.<.rernoval ;o~,fu~~,:Wa-ter·,~'a,~(rthe~·'cli.lo~,e,;i.~:,:~~·:~,·I'::-<' , :-
, " 'The -fIrst cost of-the ~system.is to, be. -minirn.,ized~" arid' ,the' inajor"- vari',~liI~:
-affecting , th~ cQst is that of the converter :vhose 'co~;t" i~ r.epresented by: ~, '
, -' ' ,- 24 '000
Cost per fll01ls of reactants at A, dollars =:== 800 + ,- -'--
, , 100 iX '
..
SOmalIs of HCI A
1 Cooler , Separator .......--
Conye~r
20 molls of O:! w moJ/s
Remoyes Remoycs
., all w~ler , all chlo6f\t
Wnter
FIGURE 7·8
Ch1cri~.,~ ' jn Prob . 7.6. ..
A 'p ressure 400 kPa is available in) the storage tank at ITle start of the
day. . I
The compressor-storage-tank cOITJ.bination is to be selected for 111.ini-
I "
' . . mum total first cost. The compressor cost in dollars is given bv .
. .' ,~ ';;'- '
. I
(- · 1.5V· J" .
Ans.: (b} S t 1 + 137S + 0.214 V = 5 .
.A· Si'I!lplified version ·of a comb.i ned gas- and steam-turbine plant I for a
liquefied-petroleum-gas ' facility at Bushton~ Kansas is shown 'in Fig. 7- 9;
the plant must meet the following minimum requiremenrs:
Combustor
~,kW
-1--
3800 kW
Low-pressure
steam
Propane Air 6500 kW
t
8800kW
Auxili.:uy, t - -_ _-tr--tll Boiler
burner
High-pressure steam
FIGURE"""""''''''Y- .'
Schematic diagram of gas· and steam-turbine pliant in Prob. 7.8.
158 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
•
In the gas-turbine plant" 20 of the heating value of natural gas js
perc~~t
con verted into mechanical ,power ari4 the lnrmaiqing 80 percent passes to the
exhaust gas.-As the ,exhaust gas flows through the boil~r, 60 percent of its
,heat is converted ipto steam. ,The boiler is also equipped with an auxiliary '
..... . ' . ' " : 'burner'- which pennitS. 80 percent ·of the',heatiI;lg v'a Ine of
the flaWIal. gas:to, .
". ":"' ..',, be con,v ened int~ ~team. ~igh~.pressure· steani. :(lows to piocess,use:and/or' to
,.,. ~ . , the steamturbIne;:, where 15 percint of the 'thenn~ ', ~neigy is .'cQJlv~rt.eg. iptq
Performance data
Compressor po\ver. kV/ = 34(11 + 273).
Absorpt.ion unit del~vers .0.6 kJ of coohng per kilojoule of heat supplied
by the s(eam.
Exhaust 4 480°C
Boiler Regenerator
820°C
Combu,l\lor
2
Src;lm loop
J05°C
Shaft
FI
, -
Compressor Turbine
32°C Absorption
45 kg/s rdriserBtion
Precooler
FIGURE 7-10
Precookr of gas.turbine inlet air in Prob. 7.9.
-. .'
OPT!MlZATION
b
159
The flow rate of gas through the;cycle jis 45 kg/s, and negligible 3dditiOD
.of nnss at the comb~stor is assumed.' . 1- , "
U value
.
of the boiler
.
bas.e d 'on steam-side ;)iea~ 0.15 kV!/(m~ . K).
U value ofr~~nerator", 0.082 k'\IV /(m 2 . K}.
.cp of gas throughout the 'cycl~, 1. .0, kJ/(lcg . K), · . _ "",
, •. "';:~.,. 'i T. __ ;.;:;) . : ~'- '-'.•',' <AssJiirie .no h_~at tninsfer t.o am~i~nt" fr6iii" ~ariy"coriip'6tieijl?": :",,- -~>",-'~-. ' .
"" ',,':- ,_',' Additf-on?-C '~e~peratur-e-s' are Jndic'ated ~9'n FIg'. 7':J U~ '- ,. , ~", ." .: ': -' ", j:"" .." , ," - , - ' , ~.- ;"
) . . . , . ' '. ~
':I" , I'-
, Cost data
'r' Present worth ,of pO'wet genera[,~d during the life of the plrulL 2'25P
dollars
Present worth of fuel cost for the plant life. 45Q dollars
"First cost of absorption: unit, gOA dollars·
, First cost C?f boiler, 1 ~ OOOB doilars .
First cost of regenerator, 90C dollars
(a)' Develop the obj~ctive function for the total present worth of the profit of
the sy~teIT.l in terms of A, B't C, Q', and P .
(b) Develop expressiqns for the temperatures tit /2, t3. and t.), in terms 'of
the variables of part (a). .~ -
(c) Develop [he constraint equations ,in terms. of the variables of part (a).'
Ans.: (b): ') = 32 - O.0222A t'). = 262.5 - O.039A
, '217.5 + O.039A
13 = 262.5 - O.039A + S48.8/C + 1,
-- 217.5 + O.039AJ 0
Q - (45)[(557.5 + '~.039'A - 548.8/C + I =
•
Sea water . Treatment x = % salt Desalination Y . == % salt
faciliry I ,: - I· plant
3% sail, Q kg/s w = flow rate of ., '
FIGuRE 7;'11' . .. .,
pe~aliIJ,atiDn plant in !>rob. 7:10.
. ,$0.08 per"Mg ~f mixture, and the cost :of heat to operate the pI~t is $0.)0 per
Mg of feed. As the s~t co~centra[ibn entering the .desalination plant in.creases!
the effectiveness of the plant decreases, foilowiI1g the equation y = 3.4'..jX, 'so
should the entering conc,e ntration reach 11.56% the plan.t wou'l d produce fresh no
, w·at~r. Develop the objectiye function and constraint to describe the ~inimum-cost
operation .
.Ans.: constraint is
(300) (11.56) (w ,.- 300)
Q= ,
11.56(w - 300) - 3w
REFERENCES
1, B., G. \Vobker and C. E. Knight, ··!Y1echanj~a1 Drive Combi~ed-Cyc1e Gas and Ste.am
, Turbines for Northern Gas Products:' ASME Pap. 67-GT-39, 1967.
2. M. M. Nagib, "AnaJysis of a Combined Gas Turbine and Absorption-Refrigeration Cycle."
ASME Pap. 70-PWR-18, 1970.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Beveridge, G. S. G. and R. S, Schechter: Opli!11ization.~ Theory and PracTice, M,cGraw-
t
- ..
.'
) I
~:-:--,-,.~ ;~ '.:·2r.::J-~,'~:'-' :' " 0,;- -. ' . . '-~ . '. .' . ..: ..... -' ""~ .~~ .
. ...... ...
, >
.
~
'.
:. '
..
····LAGRA.NGb
.' '
MULTIPtIER~S
161
162 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS _
, (8.3)
The nlethod of Lagr~nge multipliers -states that the optinlum, occurs· at ,values
of the x's that. satisfy the equations
V'YI V ¢'1 ~"Xm\l ¢m = O'
¢1(Xl1'. ~ ~,XJ1) =0
cPlI1 (x 1 ! • • • , X n) ~ 0 .. (8.6)
[he remainder of the chapter' explains the meaning' of the symbols and oper~ ' .
ations desjgnated in the equ,ation~, the mechanics of solving the' equations,
. and appljcatlons, examples, and geometric visualization of the Lagrange
multiplier equations.
\vhere i J, i ~, ... , i" are unit vectors, which means that they have direction
.and their magnitudes are unity. . ..
Suppose, for example, that -a so1id rectangular block has a temperature
distribu.tion that can be expressed in terms of the coordinates x J, X2, and
"x 3 as shown in FiK. 8-1. If the temper"uture f is the following function of
I
------ ."
LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS
I£>
. ,f_ 63
I )
. i3 " .
' • • ~ ••' -. -1,- ;,. I~ :t :"'~ ..- ,,':'! -;~~ :~l.~.r- .• _ , .. '· .11 X:z .~ "......:. ..
.. .. .,.J,..~
.;
FIGURE 8 .. 1
. S~lid object in"wbic1;l ~ scalar, the temperature, is express'ed asa function of x., Xl, and .l3.
'1,
(8.8)
. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . .
(8.9)
asterisk on !he oX's is often used to indicate the values of the. variables at the
.- ~ .-
164 D~IGN OF TIIERMAL SYSTEMS
•
optimum. The optimal values of the-x 's can be substit:ated into the objective
function, Eq. (8.1), to detennine the oP,~imal value of y , designated y If!.
, The number of equality constraiD:ts ~ is) always. Ie's5 than the number
, .of -v.ariables n . .In the limiting case where ' m = n the cons,traints (if they 1
.-:~ ..~.:::=-~ ~.~: '~~:.'~'£-' .;. •• -<-,:( ~'.': r-'~:': .'~T ' ..,::: ;.'i:" ·i.~i'j.", . _'.. " : '.",' , ._, .. .. " " '_. . . __ ... . . ,. . .,. . . ! . ~
8.5 . . UNCONSTRA!NED..,OPTIl\tlIZATIQN"
' . . ' .
.
'. ~ ~
~'~" .... . .', <. ..-.., ..:....
...... .
c ·:::~~~
--
Th~ Lagrang'e multiplier equations. can be used to att~ck Gonsttain~d " 'opti
mization problems, but the equatio~s apply equally well to unc0Il:str~ined
optimization. The unconstrained 'optimization is a special (and simpler) case
of constrai~ed optimization. The objective-function,y ' is a function oflVari-
abIes Xl, ' - . . ,- X n
. ' y -:- Y (x 11 - • - , X n) . (8.10)
. .
When the. Lagrange,:multiplier equations appJied to Eq_ are (8.1.0}~ since
there are no ¢' s, the condition for 'optimum is . -'
Vy .= 0 (8.11)
.or
ay av' . av ·
- - '= 0, --- = 0,'... , - -~-. = 0 '(8.12)
ax} aXi. · ax"
The ,state pojnt where the derivatives are zero is called a critical point, and
it may be a maximum or minimum (one of which we are ,seeking), or it may
be a saddle point or a ridge or vaIJey. Further mathematical analysis may
. be necessary to detennine the type of critical point, although in physical
. situations· the nature of the point will often be obvious. We shall assume
jn the ~emainder of tills ch~pter that Eq. (8.12) describe a maximum or
mlnlml,lm. '
A function), of two variables x 1 and X2 can be represented graphically
as in Fig. 8-2. The minimum exists where .
ay = 0 = . ay
ax I aX2
oX. 1 1., X3
)' = - + - - + -x· + -
X2 X JX) 2 2 J6
oy 0)' d)'
Vy == 0 or --=-=-=0
- . .. ax. ax~ ax)
LAGRANG~\1ULTIPUERS 165
• ' "I.
. ' ., ..
~ .". ; ' .'
• • • ~ .: .I. ,
",
Minimu~ where
dY _ dy. = 0
oX
I
- ax}', ,
FIGURE 8-2
Unc'ons[n;tined optimum occurs where panial derivatives equal zero.
'lay = __ 1_ + _1 = 0
ax) :c l.x~ 16
Example 8.2. A total length of 100 m of rubes must be lnSbUed ina sbell-
, and-rube hent exchanger (Fig. g..l) in onkr to provide the necessary heat-
I
, " .,
. '" " .
. ,- ,. - "
1":" '-'-,
',,,:.,;" ~ ,~ ~ .- ~ -
. " ', ', .
~. \-
. . ./
( o·
FIGURE 8-3
Heat exchanger in Example 8.2.
3. The cost of the floor space occupied by the beat exchanger = 320D L,
where L is 'the lengtJ: of the heat exchanger and D is the diameter of the
sheJ], both in meters
The spaciQg of the rubes is such that 200 tubes will fir in a cross-
sec.tiopa( area of 1 m 2 in the~helJ.
Detennine the diameter and length of the heat exchanger for minimum
. first cost.
. .
Solution. The objective function includes the three costs,
Cost = 900 + ] lOOD~·5L + 320DL
The constraint requires the heat exchanger to include 100 m of rubes
or
D *. ='0.7
!.
m
.:- : ..... .......' . :Su~stln;tin~:'b.; opU.i£;i ~vallle' of'D'B~di(tifi{d;illd'tonsrrn;n tgi ve's' ' , ~ .,. ;,- ,: :, ' '
. .;. " "
.; "- "
... " -
L ~ 1.3 m
. .
806::', CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION USING
'L AGRAN(]E MiJLTIrLIER EQUATION$ , \
is
WhiIe,it so.~etimesposs·jble to convert a constrained optimization into 'an
unconstrained one, there are severe limitations to this option'. For example" it
.. may not be possible to solve the constraint equations explicitly for variables
that are to be substituted into the objective function.: The more general qnd
powerful technique is to use· the classic Lagrange multiplier equations (8.4)
to (8.6). .
Example 8.3. ,$oIve Example 8.2 using the Lagrange multiplier equations.
b,
i 1 equation
A'= 2'i50D
1J
j+ 3~O
: " ~OO1TD
:. " ." . ,~ ',' :
.
.' 'S~l?~tituted j~to.'ilie i2 equation, ~this yi~.Id.s
. ' - " . : '"
.. ~- .
.. ' .p'G, :== Os7 -:m .,., . ., .' .
. - -::" -.'-' " : .... ~.,.).
: " .~
..," ..~ ";" "'~': ,: ~ .•.;' Subs·tifutiri'g·. thi~\\laiue ·'of .Qj~t~:~.~ c~(jJ;ls~n! give~ " . . . . . ,
'" ':' '. ." , .' . .'" ... ' .' .'
. .
~ >.~.t)~~;~-~· '~~;'::~~':~'-';~'~";~ ~::~:-_;~:~'. :··::;~n(::':;.-:.~<~A:/·;:,·· -":':..'
Cost Cost
Constrained
900
D D
(0)
,
FIGURE 8-4
(0)Objective.function surface (b) wjth constrarnt added.
---
..............
-.. "..:...:.~-.-
LAGRft..:l'iGE MUI.."IWUERS 169
'L .-;:.
The 'purpose of ·this section and tne next is to provide a visualization of [he ,
, . . ~
Lagrai1ge multiplier equations. The pres~ntation \-vill not .be a proof I but a
g~ometric displ.ay. Tbe first step in provid~ng the. visualization is t<? show
that the 'gradient 'vector is normal to the contour line or .surface at the point
where the gra~ient is ' being evaluated. If y 'is a. function of x i an~ X2, a. . ,"
contour line on the x I VS. X2 graph is a line of const.ant y., as shown in Fig.
8-5" . FroID calculus \ye recall that
'ay dx 1 Bv ' '.
+. '
-J-
dX 2
ax 1 ax]
t Further substantiation of the method is provided in Chapter 15. and a proof can be found in
the book by Wil~e and Bei.~htler given in the Additional Readings at tllc: end of the chapter.
.ll
FlGURE 8-5
Con tour Jines (curves 0 f constant y) whe n y ::a: I (x It :c 1).
170 DES1GN OF THERMAL SYSTEM:S .
; ~' . ' " ' >. ,'. ' ,,- ' . .1,... ,', ayla..X.',2, " . ~ . .' - . '-
:"',- '., 'or . ',': ,
. . " .' = --- dXI dX 2 - - , (8.15)
',~~:-' ~~,<:.'.~, ,: "',::' ;" :-'n'. : ':"";:,' " f ' "~":'~~J: ;~,l, ",' ~ ";'\' " ",t' " " " , : :" '"
Pilly arbitrary 'vector ill Fig ..-8-.:.5 :-is ,-'" ,...... ' . ..
T= (8. 17)
aVJax
- 2
)'2: + 1, aY j' 2 (- ay )' 2 '
( By/aXl ( BX'2, + ax} ,
Equation (8.17) is the unit vector that is tangent to the y - constant line.
RetUrning to the gradjent vector and ,dividing by its magnitude to obtain
the unit gradient v~ctor G, we have
The re] ationship between the vectors represented by Eqs. (8.17) and
-(8.18) 'is'
"that one is perpendicular to the other. If, as in Fig. 8-6, the
con1ponents of vector Z are band c. the perpendicu]ar ve~tbr Zl has
-components c and -b. Thus, the components are interchanged and the sign
of one is reversed. ' '
The important conclusion reached at this point is that since the gradient
. vector is perpendicular to the tangen~ vector. the gradient vector is normal
)0 the line or surface of constan,.)'.
A similar conclusion is' applicable in three and more dimensions. In
three dimensions, for example. where y ="Y(XltX2.X3). the 'curves of
const~t vallie of y become surfaces, as shown in Ag. -8-7. In this case the
,," .'
LAG RA-l" lGE M ULT' PLiERS
'f
171
.; '
. )
"I :
...· 1 -. '. ,'.
FIGURE 8-6
c Components of perpendicular vectors.
y=5
FIGURE 8-7
A gradient vector in three dimensions .
is nonnal to the y == constant surface tJ:l .~t passes through that point.
The magnitude of the gradient "vector indicates the rate of change of
'the dependent vru1able with respect to the independent variables . Thus. if
172 DESIGN OF-rnERMAL SYSTEMS
- .
. .the' surfaces of cons'tant y 'in
Fig. 8-T are spaced ,vide apart, the ,a bsolute :;
, magnitude 'of the gradient is small .. For the Itime being, however, we 'are<
interest~d OJ;lly in ,th~ fact that ~e gradient yector is jn a dire~tion nOTIni;11 " -
, _to the constant" curve or surface. , ' " ' _.. ,r, " ,
:. .-
.; .' ~
) ,'! ,. '" - I , .~ . ' • '. ',' _ ~ • ,
- ' ,
,which when solved yield the solurionx~ = 3, 4 and y* ' 18. Some x; ,-
,Jines of constant y ' and . ~~e constraint equation shown in Fig. 8-8. are
\Vjtl1 , such a graph available it . j~ possible almost instinctively to Jocate _
x,
Consmlin[
x)x5= 4&
,
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 , 8 .1" I
' . I' ) I
fIGURE 8'-8
Optimum-occurs where the constrahlt and the Jines of constant), have s common normal.
LAGRANGE MULTIPUERS 173
G-
the (x ], ~ .\:2) position rh3.t provides the constrarncd optlrn.lirIl~ p o~nt A. ir;.
Fig. ' 8-8 .. The process of visually CLTTiving .at lth:ls s.o llq:ion migh ' be one
of foH6vving along the constraint line unti.I the co~.str~int and the line· .9f
constaL.t y are '.~paralleL " Stated J110re precisely , the tangeat veCIors to the -
. curVes have th~ same direciion. . . , - ' , ' ... - .
. AI-: more cQu,'enient- me,a'ns:-:~f reqn.i-~,yg JJ1.?J the , ~f-!,ng~nt ' ~~~r::tors ' have. .
..:tile' same-direction· is",to. ~~ql)ire~ ihar ,.qle,..nonnal :vec~(~n;s.Jo, tl~eF.cllr-ves;,b~ye~Jh~~,;.~ ;'~:,..~~:
'same' direction.' Since the 'gradient vector is nOTIDfd- to -'a' conto~r lin~,' tIle'· ...... .
inarI)e~.atical state'merit' 9f 'this requirerri~nt is , . ' .. . . . , '
.vy: and V' ¢ may be different q,ud the vectors ·maY ~ven be pointing lin'-
opposite directions. The oniy -requirement is'
that the twogfadi~pt vectors-
be. collinear. The co~straint equation is satisfied because the only points
being' considered are those _ ~ong th.e cO!lsfrain~ e·qu·htiofl:.
iJ>
First examine. moves so s-m al1 that :the (x - 01)2 tern1S and higher-rorder
termS can- be ignored;. if dy ldx > .0,. -~eri 'I ~ (x) > y (a 1) f9f a value of
x > ,0 1 ~nd y (a 1) is still the acknowledged minhnuffi_ -vYhen x m~ves to _
a ' v~ue less than 'aj, however, y(x) < y(al) and, yea}) will not be -a
-' ,- - minimum. In ' a similar. manner, i~ caD be shown . that .when dyJdx < .0, a _
,-;",: -' '_ ,-"-· lower value tlian y (a 1) can -be -
found for -y.(x). -The."only solution to the,.'
:·: ~:~::-~:<-.·.'~':- dilemma i~ for dy /dx' to -equal zerO, which is the claSs'l<?al req,rii~ement :for
.: :.:.. ··:":~~:l)j~ .~ptimu:rp.:..··>·~l<,~~?f:-'':'~:, ..·,J,· .. • · .', ... . . ,,~.:~- . -' ·: . r '. 1~.' .'.;
t .." .~ ~ '
.• •. :... .' . .. " , _ .
..: . . ' Incluqrng -the-''---influeiic~.·,: " ot:~-~,.the~<nexr: . :· ·.t~rin:: ·:·of~:..~ ''1~q,:::.. :(8 ~-73)1> -;;'
(!)(d 2y Idx 2 j(x ~ a})2 :, 'we,'observe that .a "moye 'of'x'~" either-din~ctip~:·~'·. "
from ,a I·results in ~ positive value of (i - a f )2, so that the sign 'of the second. . .' '.
-derivative decides whe~er the optimum is. a tn~iIiiurri'or minimum. '
dy- ' d 2y
Mininium: - ---= 0 and --; >0
\ . . dx ' dx-
dy- d 2y
Maximum: <0
dr -==0 and
dx 2
The foregoing line of, reas,oning will now be extended to a fun~tion
. of two vanables }' (x] ,'X2). Suppose .that the expected l!liDimum occurs ,
at, the -point (a 11 G2) ?-nd that to verify this position the point is shifted
infinitesimally away -from (a 1, il2) in all possible directions: The Taylor
expans-ion for a function of two variables is - -. '
y (x 1 • X 2) = Y ( a 1' a 2) +' Y 1(x I - a 1) + )':2 (X'2 - a 2) + (1.1 Y i 1(x I - a J ):2
(8.24)
where the prinle on the y refers to a partia] differentiation , with respect to
the subscript. .
When x I and Xi move slightly off (0 J ,02), both of the f~rs't derivatives
y j and y ~ must be zero in order to avoid some position where y (x 1, X2)
< y (.a 1 , 02). " ,
The second-or~Jer tenns "decide whether the optimum is a maximum
.
.' .or minimum. If the combination -is al ways positive regardless of the slgns
of x I - a 1 and x ~ - Q2, the o'ptimum is a minimum. If the conlbination is
always negative. the optimum is a maximum.
The test for maximum and minimum is as follows. The second deriva-'
'-tives are structured in matrix form and the vaJue of the detenninant is called
D, where -,
= I I J I j
,
D .
t
I YJII
"
Y 2)
Y12 -
Y22
II
Then if D > 0 and Y Ii > 0, the optimum is a min imu m. If D > 0 and
y i I < 0, [he optin1um is a maximum.
LAGRANGE ;"IULTIPUERS 175
( i'
--
~ " ..
" ', "
. : " - ~-."~ ~ :.. " . . . \: . ... ,.....
.} .. ........ .
d ' ~ ',
an x., = '1I'
The se~ond deriva.t~ves ,e valuated nt x ~; af!d .'r; are'
''2' .
I~ 16/:d >.o
.
and
' . ,D· .0.7 m" ' *"" O.013H . ':;;' ." , ' ' ' ':';'~' '-''i ;~.,;: -t
..'~.:.~' <" . '. -::Cosl"'" <900,,+ ··(1100)r(t:7)~~~(ft·of3H)·~+~·;'t'32(}){O:·7}(O:13H'J::-r·",.'". : .::.:::~.~~
• • • r:,"' \ •• _ • -:'_' • • • ~
+
• - I
. "'.'-'
f·.
. '. . ' ';. . ' .'. .900
. .
8.78H. •.•"
. .••••
. !"
'. ,'/ . 'W e ~e ~terest~d in the varia~~~ ~f c~st~"with E or, mo~e' spe~ifically, '. '
a t~rn:l c~led' the sensitivity C!oefjicient (SC), which is
, .
·C " .. d (cost*)
S - --'-._-
. ali
. In this ~xample, SC' = 8.78; thus at the optimal proportion~ an extra
meter of tp.be for the heat ~xchanger . would cost' $8.78 more than' the
original cost. 'Referring back to. the solutjon of Example 8.3., we' note
the remarkable fact- that the sensitivity -coefficient is precisely equal to ¢.e
Lagrange multiplier A,. This equality .of t:be. SC to A is true :Got only for ' this
. particular example but in general. AIsq, if there is TI10re than one cons.ttain~~
the various sensitjvity coefficients. are equal to the corresponding Lagrange
multipliers, SC 1 == A I , .... " SCm == Am. . .
The .optimization process by Lagrange multipllers therefore offers an
a~ditiona1 piece of useful infonnat~on for possib.1e adjustment of the physical
system, fo1l9wing preliminary optimization. .
equal to or greater than 150 kW. It would be a rare case when a lower-cost
system· would provide 160 kW c.ompared ~ith the one providin~ 150 kW.
'.This. constraint wou] d al most certainly be used as an equality constraint of
. 150 kW. As a fUI}her exampJe, suppose that the temperatUre at some point.
. in the process must be equ~] to or less than 320°C. In the first attempt at the
probJem, ignpre the temperature constraint and after the optimal condjtions
are
"
determined check to, see IfIthe temperature in question is above 320°C.
If i.t is not, the constraint is not effec[ive. If the temperature is .above 320~C ..
rework the problem with the equality constraint of 320°C.
-----
.
LAGRANGE MUT
t;.
....1lPLJERS 117
1-
8. J ~ For the function
G'
- \ ....
,;. '..·..;.~.c:<. : .~:-· 'I(~~; pe~e1fu.i~~· tl}e ·p?siiiv~~.Dp~~;iu:i~nrr \'all1~s :-or~i'i1~and ':r'2~ .:'..: : ~ . : /"~'~':'_":.~:l'~'~"·'~~_~-'~.'_:' '>
. . . '{b) Us'e the of -':Sec. - "809'-' t'?' 't¢st" - the· solution' 'to .detemiine"- ' :,:.
~echniques I
1
0.6 m
========~~==============~ j
FIGURE 8-9
Duct in bar joist in Prob. 8.2.
0.01 m.Ns
FIGURE 8-10
Paralle I, pump-pipe assemblies in
Prob. 8.3.
178 DESiGN Or THERMAL .sYSTEMS
./
of compre's sor type is irifluenced by the fact that centrifugal con1pressors can '
.
handle high~vorume flow rates but develop only] ow pressure ratios p'er stage .
The reciprocaring compressor, on the' other hand, lS suited IO low-volume
FIGURE 8-11
-----
Steel frnmework in Prob. 8.4.
. ...
LAGRANGE MtJLTT.2UERS 179
P-z = i 7, j 08 ~P3.
Iorer-cooier
..,; .
.
-,
, . I.. · .. .. '
~ \ .-" .
_Centrifugal. ""
cOmpressor
p o = 175 kPa
.
Qo =' 15 m 3js FIGURE 8-12
I = SocC' Staged 'compre~s'ion, in ,Prob. 8.S.
, flo'w rates but can devel.o p high presstir~. ratios. To combine th~ advantages
of each, the compression will be carried out by a centrifugal compressor in
series' with a' reciprocating compressor. as shown in Fig. 8-12.
The intercooler returns the tempera.ture: of rbe gas to SO°C. Assume that
the gas obeys perfect-g'ls laws. The equations for the costs .of the compressors
are
(a) Set up the objective function for the total first cost and the constraint
equation in 'terms of the pressure ratios.
(b) Using the method of Lagrange multipliers for constrained optimiza-
tion, solve for the optimaJ P~_~J.?tios_ and minimum total cost. .
Ans.! Minimum cost = $24,100:
~Q6. The packing rings in a distillation tower are in the shape of a torus (doughnur)
as shown in Fig. 8-13. The outside diameter of the ring is to be 20 'mm, and
the val ues of D I and D2 are sought that yield maximum surface 8Jea where
the are.a = 7T 2D t D'}.. S~cture_Jhe problem as a constr~ined optimization nnd
solve by the method of Lagrange multipliers.
Ans ..: D; :;: 10 mID.
/ 8.7. In a cascade refrigeration systert) shown in Fig .. 8-14 that is used- for low-
temperature appJica,tions, the condenser of the low-stage unit is the evaporator
,. of the of
high-stage unj,t. The area, this interstage condenser-:-evaporator is to
be chosen such that minimum lifetime costS result. The costs associated with .
the decision of [he size of the condenser-evaporator and the temperatures are':
- .
LC- v- ~ 't!
~
ISO DEsIGN OF ~ SYSTEMS
V ~
C;cJ • JilJ
l ~lo-5{;'
, 4) .
U - 3~ ~ -\ 'LG ~ V
.. ~ -, .:-: .
"--- ",
Heat rejection
Expansion
High stage Compressor
valve
T,.
160'kW
Tr
Condenser~vapornlDr
Expansion
Low stage Compressor
valve
FIGURE 8·14
-.
Cascade refrigeration system in Prob. 8:7.
~
. ')
Te = evaporating tegnperature, . K
The .Uvalue of the' C'o'ridenser~evapora.tor 'is 0.8 kV{i(~f12.. K)~ :aad the rate
'. : of heat .that must be, ~a.n~~erred is·l~ ~Q_K~'>,,', ..;,. :':". i ·... ' . . , · " ':..,
" , 2< : .', "C.', Ushl]:g the' ~~6.d J~l: Lagr~nge,.,rnu.l,tipliers.~:..deterilline, ..the ;,~Ja1UesJ1Df:A'·'F.~' ,';;;, ~:.:
,. ' . , . ..: ..
' .. :' Ti . and . :z:;~::tbat resuit 'i~':niL~uin tatat 'present ~w.orth: of ,costs',.';·: :. ' . ':. ' :.. .. : " . :
" .
P,,$v A
. AIls.:' A'" k 20m2 •. '. ' :,".... ",
'sol~r ~~ll~~t?~ aod ~torage tariic~ ~hown. in Fl.g. 8-15~~' i.s· ·to be o~ti~iz:d. b~
'< . '. •
/
Y . . to achlc:ve m1ll1mU~ frrst cOSL Dunng '~he day {he temperature. of water In
the storag~ vess~l i~ elev?ted from -oC (the rnin,imum useful temperamre) to
t mnx • as shown in Fig. 8-15b .. The collector receiyes 260 W/m'!.. of solar en~r-.
.-t · c;
;
gy, bur 'there,is heat loss from .t he coHector to ambient air by convectioJ1. !The
convection coefficient is .2 WI(m'2. . K), and the av~rage tern:p~rature diffei.:. .··
..'
,'.
ence during .'the IO-hour day is (25 + t~ax)/2 minus the ambient tempera~re .
.of IOoe: . - . '
. The energy above the minimum useful temperamre of 25°C that is to
be stored in the vessel during the day is 200., 000 kJ. ·The:. {l_~ASity of wat.er is
1000 kg/m 3 'and its specific heat is 4.19 kl/(kg .' K). ' Th~ cost of the ,solar
t
collector in dollars is 20A. where A is the area in square meters, and the cost
of the 'storage vessel in dollars is 10 l.SV, where V is the volume in cubic
meters.
(a) Using A and V' as the variables, set up the- objective function ap.d
.: . \ " '. "
constraint to optimize. the first cosL,
(b) Develop the Lagrange multiplier equations and ve'rify that they are
satisfied by V = 1.2 m 3 an.d A = 29.2 m2 . ., ' .
Ans.= (a).y = ~O~ + IOL~V, subject toA(230-4i.71V) = 5555.'
. ----=-';.~ - '
u
·0 _ I
oL..
:;:J
E
8. 1
Time
, (a) (b)
FlGURE S.lS
(n) Collector and' 'storage tank (b) temperacu~ variation in Prob.
- . . '
B.8.
182 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
,. '. - . ,' .
.,
A
e
.B '
, ,
~. ' .:/: 8.9. Deteumne the diameters of the circular air duct in the duct system shown
, scheI!Jati~aJly .in Fig. 8-16 so that the drop in static 'pressure betWeen poilUS,
A and B win be a minimum. .
Fprther information'
,Quantity of sheet metal avaiIa bJ e for the system, 60 ,Iri2 .
:Pressure'drop 'in a section of straight duc,t, j (LID)( V "212) p .
.Use a constant friction far;:. tor f = 0.02.
Air density p, 1.2 kg/m 3 .
Neglect the influence of changes in velocity pressure.
Neg]ect the pressure drop in the straight-through secti,on past an outlet.
Cost per
square meter
.. '
, "
The tank ,is to be ,con,s tructed wjth din1ensions such that the cost is miniq1um '
for 'whatever capaclty is selected. , "
, (a) One possible approach, to selecting the capacity is to build the tank l!ITge '"
epough for an additional cubic meter of copaciry 'to cost, $8. (Note that' ,
this does not m~an 58 per cubic meter average for the entire ta'n k.). \Vh~t '
'is the optilnal diameter' and optimal height of the tank?
, Ans.: 15 tn', 1 I.25 rrl. , '
(b) Instead of the nppro,ach used in purr {a). the tank is to be 'o f such a size
, that the cost 'will be $9 per cubic ' meter average for the entire storage
capacity of the tank. Set, up the Lagrange mUltiplier equations and verify
[hat they are s,atisfied by an optjmal' diameter of 20 m and. ,an optimal
height of 15 m. ' .
110120 A rectangular, duct mounted bene~th the beams ip a building, as shown in
Fig. 8-18, is to have a cross-secrional area of 0.8 m 2 • The cost of the duct
for'rhe required length is $ I 50 per meter of perimeter. The building must be
heightened by tile amount of ,the 'height of the duct. and that cost is $0.80
per millimeter. After the duct has been sized to provide minimum total' cost,
the possibiJ ity of enlargin'g the duct is explored. What is the additiQna~ cost
per squar,e meter or cross~sectional ~ea of ,a very small increase in the area?
Ans.: ,$642 per square meter.
8.13. An electric-power generating and distributjon system consists of two gener-
ating.plants and chree loads, as shown in Fig. 8-19, The loads are as follows:
--r
h DUCI EXIra b~i1ding height
-L ·
,
FIGURE 8-18
Duct mounted under beams in Prob. 8.12.
184 DESIG~ OF ~MAL SYSTEMS
Load A 2
Qenerat9r2
. .. . '
. .. .
~ 1 4
. _.
"'" -"
' . .,: 0'
'.'i':. : " - .~
,
:
.
.
'~" ~~. .~, '~ ' :'I ..~J.~ '.~
..:; .~. -.":",~,~, . ,'". ~:', ,;:
.. . '. .I:: :,. . ....... .•
, 3,' .; :
. , ,- "
~------------~~. '
LoadB LoadC
FIGURE S-.I9
Qenerating and distrib'ution sy~tern 'in 'Probe 8.13.
load A = 40 Mvi,. load 'B . 60 MW, and 'load' C = 30 MW. The losses'
ill the ' Enes are given , in Table .8. t', where the ,loss in tine' i is a function
'of the power Pi in megawatts carried by the line. To"be precise,. the 'line
Joss should be specified as a function of the' power at a certain point.:in t,pe
line; e.g:, the entrance or exit, ',but' since'the loss will be small relative to the '
power ,carried, use p j at the point in the line !bost convenient for calculation.
As a first approximation in th~ loa'd balanceS'. ~sume that Ps .leaving
load A equals entering load B and rec~culate. if necessary, after the Ps t
TABLE 8.1
Line losses in Prob. ' 8.13
...
Line' Loss, MW ,
O.OOlOp~ . - '., ~. . ..
2 o.OOJ2pi
3.- O.OOO7p~
4 ' O.OOO8p~,
5 o.ooo8pl
6 -- . O.OOllPl y
. LAGRAN~ MULTIPLlERS 185
I 1.0 t~ m 2 O.75-k.m I
220 V G----------<!.r--~------'----L..--___i) 215 V
300 A
200 A
O.5.krn
,' r'
:', ' -
, : • • ,1 " . r'~ . :~ -: ' oJ ' '" ~ ~:. . .' .' .
\ "',
,. .. ..~,
. Fu;tTkE 8~2ij
.,I'ower-disi;ributlon ,network in Prob. 8.'14 •.
. ' . I
.(a) Set up the objective function for the total volume of. conductor arid the
: constraint(s) in lerms orA 1~:2, A 2- 4 • .and AZ-3:. '.
(b) Verify,
., using all the Lag,range 'multipli~i equations. thar A ;~2' = .0.00273
m-.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Bowf!1an, F .• and F. A. Gerard: Higher Calculus, Cambridge University Press ~ London,
1967. .
Brand, L.: Advanced Calculus, Wiley, New York .. 1955 .
. Kaplan, W.: Adl'Qllced Calculus~ Addi$on-W~sley, Reading, Mass .• 1952. .0
Taylor. A. E.: Advanced Calculus; Gino, Boston. Mass .• 1955.
Wilde, D. I .• and C. S. Beightler: Foundations of Optimi:.ation, Prenti.ce-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, N.J .• 1967.
-. ..
,
I
CHAPTER-
- .
-.
"9' .
- ..: ":','" ~ ".,
.' .... . -: - .
_ .....
,-'
,-
, ',;'
..
~-'
. ...
"" ,
- '
• • • '.,
- -: ;
I •
. -. '.' \ . .,
, -. - .. .,," . " .
- ... :' - .,.
·SEARCH·. ·
· . ·METHQP·S :., i ·
186
SEARCH METHODS 187
"'"
, )
10 Single variable
Cl. ' E xhaustive
.. '
h. Efficient '
iL Dichotomous
, , -" " , ,~ iii. , Fib-ona~~i'~'{'.:'·,", " .~,:, :",:~ " '::' I~ .-
.!~•• • .... '.1 ' \ . ~": • • ,.
'L'attice
h. Univariate
c. Steepest ascent
,30 Muhivariable, constrained
o. Penalty f':lDctions
h. Search along a constraint
•
YA
, ;
",',;'.~.~/:-~.: -~.. c•.~. '·~I'.~ . '; '" ~. ';":~;.• :;"~' :bl. 4 .•..... •.••..•..•. 1.;: . ~1..•..~:. " ." . •')~.,;.,,;~L,~. '.,:,','...'
• ~ 0;. ' : _ ' • • • ..... . .. ' ~' . •
--"{t------ X - ~~J~'
. ...• . ------:-----.':X;o _ ' ""-:------.-
B
'.
FIGURE 9:'1
ExPaus~ive search".
, If tWo observ"ations are made, the final interval of uncertainty is 210 13; if
, ~'"ihree observgtions "are made, the final ~nterv.al nf,~ceftainty js 210/4, and
in general "
2/ 0
Fip?1 int~n'al qf uncert~inty =I - (9.1)
12 + 1
-.'V , )'
.~
,I I
~ ,I
I ' 1/
/ ~
I
,x .I" .1"
I
,( a) I (-/J) (c-)
flGURE 9·2
Unimodal (unctions.
----
.
SEARG{ jviETHODS 169
.possib ,ee:ion? 'A !itt e re echori ~.ill ' s~ow ,that placiilg the pqints as near
the cen,ref ,as , ossible whiI~' maintainjng qistinguis~ability 'of the y values
Y'jll-resu~t in,' elimj~ation of almost half ,the 9nginal interval of uncertainty.
Figure' 9:..4 shows th~ two points placed symmetric to the center, with , a '
,spacing of E between. With the values of Y' as shown" the region ' tq the
left' of x A can be eliininp.ted, s'o' the' terri~ining interval of uncertainty is
(/0 +. c)/2; " ,. .
.r
, (0) '( b)
FIGURE 9·3
Two lest points On a unimodal function.
- .
190' DESIGN OF THERMAL SY~TEh1S
,,I
I
. . ~ , .: . :
;p-~~
" " .
_____'_"~
' ,X A
,, ~I~~~l~·'--~~~~
,-'-B
' I, '
. -' .'
FIGURE 9-4' "
1-4------,---~ 10 ------~ 'Dichotomous 'search.
, '
~ 0
: 1
-, ~Ill_
.., +,.€(l
,
-,~),
2nl-,
(9.2).
Fo . ~
FJ = 1 , it,', ' ,
Thus~ after the first two Fibonacci numbers are available, each number
, thereafte~)s fc;>und by sumn1ing the two preceding numb~rs. The Fibonacci
series starring with the ind'ex zero is therefore 1, 1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,
". 55, FlO = 89. etc. . ,
- Th~ steps in execu[ing a Fibonacci sear~h are as follows:
<
1. Decide how n1any observations will be made and call this number IJ •
.2. Place the first observation in;J 0 so that the djstance from one end is
, J o{ F 1/ - J / F IJ ) •
3. Place the next observation in the interval of uncertainty at a position
~
SEARCH jvlETHODS 191 ·
~r
~'." - that :5 symmetric to th.e existing observa6oxL ,According to the reiative _.
~c~_:,.·' ; ''Values ·of. these obs.ervations, 'elirw?ate either the region to the right of
! the right point or to the left of the l~ft point. Continue placing a point ,
;~: and eliminating a region until 'one point' renlains to be placed.: ).~t ~lis '
f.,.
(f
stage. there will be 'one observation 'directly in the center of r11e inte.rval
. ..c . . , . • ' .' I. .. " .. " ','~"-'<'~;:::.', .
;, " .., eliminate half the "intervEl-L -.' , : . , ., ":, ...... ... . '"
.. .
".' ;
)'
8
Last poinc
6 \ tl
a
First observation
0
.;
o
()
- .-.;' ,'
. . . . ,. ~ J .' .. -'
. ' .. r . .. './
'. . ~ .. .-
I ~ •
, '.1 • ••
I
SEARCH ~lETHODS 193
c·
,9&11
DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
LATTICE SEARCH
.,
T]J.e _procedure in the lattice' search i~ :to' sWt at ,o~e point in the regi~n
, 9f., jnterest -'an~ c~ec~ a n~mbe~ ?f.points ,in ~ gri~ surrounding the ' ce~tfaI
', ' " poinL_Th~ surround~g,point haYiIlg the large~t value (i~,a maXimum is _being ,
,~.' ,',.sought) is 'chosen ?-s. ~e ,central point for the next search. ,If nO: : sUrrouri4~~.ig'
",'- '.' POiD:t.: ,p_royjdei','a,:'great~r~~yallle.:'~,of;:thb'~func~on-'th~!:tb!i·, '.c~ntra1",:,p·o~('C" tne{;':';~:
" , r .. , " c~n tr~l: poirit: is tl;le"iiiaxinjUIiL;: A:. 'fieq~eht ,practice is, first , ~o' ,use ,a ' ~0fl!se' "
,':':",',: __ .':grid and atter the 'maximum, has ,been found for that grid Si1bdj~ide the"gri9
',' .'~-, -,: ' 'into, smaller ,elem,ents for. a ~er sear¢h, " ~~,~g from the IDax.lmu±n .,of
'the coars,e , grid., :' ' " _
As '~ , example, of the prOgressIon to the maximmn Df a function' of
'[VIO v~a~les." a grid is ,$uperimpo,sed over the contour lines of a' ~ction "
in Fig~ , 9~ 7. The starting ,point 'can be selected near the center of the region "
unless tp.ere is some' advance kn~wledge ~f where the maximum exists. tall
the first p'o,int '1 '~d evall:late the function at points 1, to ,9. In this case, the
maxiiQum' ,value of ,r hefunction occurs at point 5, so point 5 ,becomes'_the
central point for the next'search.
OUf special objective in' applying the lattice search' is to improve,
, th,e efficiency compared with ; an , exhaustive search. ~inc~ efficie'ncy is a
goal, it is attractive to consider saving infonnation that .has already been
calculated -and can be ' used ag~jn., For ' example, ' in --Fig .. 9-7 after , D)9v,ing
from point,] ,- ~o point 5, the va] u:~s of the functiQ'D,~' a't' points 't 4:, 5, and '
6 are- needed in deciding , which \vay ·to' move, from point 5. Writing, a
_computer program to accompJi,sh iliis task is tric~y, hqwBv~r~ particularly j'f
.r ..
G 61 ~
.,
• • • •
• • • .,
3
•
•
•
• • • • • • • • • •
, .\' I
FIGURE-9-7
A lallice search.
- .
SEARGP'r.I METHODS 1~5
, ,
. .{ I
FlGURE 9-8
Univariate siirCti. , ..
196 DESIGN OF TIIERMAL SYSTEMS
I'"
I
!'/
IT' 1
'na
(
. XI
.1')
,
FIGURE 9-9
Failure of the invariate search at a ridge.
- .
SE.<LJ?CH IviETHODS 197
) I
<fl'
· 0
e ·
FIGuRE 9-XD
Erroneous
- . .
conclusion
,. . the interval of search··is· to~. large~
because
(9.7)
where il and i2 are unit vectors in the Xl and X2 directions~ respectively. -
... The essential steps in execu9ng the ,s teepest asJcent ·method are as .
follows:
., ~ '.
t . ' ....
.- ' ,- -, .. ~ . f: ' I
.' . :: ~
. •" - ', I .
FIGURE 9~11
. : ,Steepest-ascent method.
~ Th~.
frrs.t three steps are .' standqrd, but ther~ .aremany variations of
steps 4' and ? .The individ~al .steps will TI9W be. disc.lissed.
Step 1. The triaJ point should' be chosen as near to ' the optimum as possjble,
but tlsualli such iI1S.i ght is nor. available and the point is selected arbitrarily.
aXj fl ;
(9.8)
where 1:1 is
a ' very small value.' In order to move in the direction of the
gradient," the r.elationship of the changes in the x IS, called flx' s, is
(9.. 9)
Step ~L ~Jnly two of the numerous methods rqr deciding -hcfl.v far to move
in the direction of ste~pest asceil't \'VilI be presented. The first method· is to
select a rbitrarily a. step si~e for oJie ~()nable'~ say 0.X I, and COD1pute .!1.:C·2 -to
.t.l~t II frQffi Eq. (9. ~)., This metD~,d .~s·ually '},.,orks .\Nell unril one or.~nlore of
. ,the ,partial. 'deriyatives ?pproa~~~j..'. ze-r.p! . ..... .:.': . .~-'-: .. ~ . ~=i"'."'~ ~.
.• ~,
, .. ~ .. .' :
Vessel COS£, 1000 + 2.2(p - 100) 1.2 dollars for p > 200 kPa·
Insu [.arion cost for the 60 m 2 of heat-tta~sfer. area, 2Ix P·9 dollars
Recondensarion plant
, ~5°C ambient
\
-.
Ammoriia storage IJFiX :, Ex,omple 9.2.
200 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
I}-
qkW
w = ---=---- (9.11)
1200 kJ/kg'
where, q is .the rate of heat transfer from the environment .to the ammonia,
Assuming that only the insulation provides any significant resistance to heat
transfer, we have ' .'
25 - r · ..
q, k\V = (xmm)/JOOO [0.00004 kW/(m' KJ (60 m-) (9.12)
Combining Eqs . (9.10) to (9.12) results in the expression for the reconden-
sation cost '
RC = 9000( 25 - t)
x
The total co.s.t is the sum ~f the individual cos,ts l
Total co'st C :::r Ie + VC + RC
The search method chosen to perfonn this optimization will be the
~'pest Oescent. The po~ition wiJl be moved along the gradient direction
SE,5},RCH METHODS 201
until :J. m i n im~m is reac-hed ; then a nevv )gr adienr wdi be established. The
part'ial derivati"ves of the
total cost C 'wi th respect to x and tare ..
. ,
ae ~
_ (D.9)(-,-l)~1.
? ' :."70,1 _
'
9000(25 - .r)
,
-.iJ ..:c', ' . , , ,' .:r- . .
'-. ,.. ... . . : . ' :: ' :' . , . ) '. ,-." " '.... '~"" " ,.".: , ...:- . ', .., ' .
:~.'
. ' , ;-~~~ '="(2::m I., ?~,.e,A:,~_-{cJO):1:e'\C;:8~~~;~:, __,.9~,~<*"" ~;, .,:" "~Co' ",.'~;,:~,;,,:,
l '.
. . ~, ' . ~ ..
_', i: , .
,
For me firs~ point,' arbitrarily select ~~ = . 'iOO xI-un and ct' = 5~C. A'£
'this pqsition.C = $7237.08~ · 'aC/.a~r- .= -6.075, and aCI8r '=.. 77.-347. (Th~
derivative with respect (0 x is ' negative and with' '. respect t is p-ositiv,e ; to
therefore to decrease 'C the value 'of x must be , incre.p.sed' and t must be
decreased. ,Furthennore, to. move 'along the ,direction of the gradien·t. ih~
. ,changes in x and! :. design~~~d !1:r and D.r. sho'uld bear the relation
, , ~" . -- . nx , ~t
~o '. =
.~ . '·-6.075 77.3.47',
.y, 1~(
The minimum value ac~ieved by nl0ving in the direction of or'c
" this gradient is" $667,5.18, ~here x = to1.23 rind -lO ~ 66.N~w i .:. . partial
derivatives are computed at 'this point -nnd. the posicion changed according to
the.
new gradient.' !abl~ 9.1 pres~nts a' surrimary 'of the calc.ulations.
- The minimum cost is $5986,04 When .the, insulation thickness is
196.8 mm and the operating temperature is' -23.3°C . Both partial derivatives
are neatly .zero at this point. The steepest-descent calculation required a n
appreciable number of steps ~efore finaJIy 'hon1ing in on the 'optimum,. The.
reason is ,t hat· the route passes ' throug~ . a curved valley ;;md the minimUI)1 I
poi~.t along the gradient moved frorn one side of the vaUey to the other) as
!!ndicated. QY ,t he alternation in sign of a c/ at.
TABLE 9.1
Steepest-descent search in .Example 9.2
lteration x,mm - l,oC C aCliJ:c aCI81
_The name .steepest ascent implies the'· best possible -direction- ih .which
. . ,to' move. The. m~aning 6f .this statement' is that for a -g iven distance
\"." _.' :"_'. I AI"~+:U~ '+' . . . . 't he, objective ',func.ticin will expe~ence a ni~~~~ ch~ge.~:_
.::~ :.'. ;j ,...-" " ._,,-··Xs':· '.F.~g. .;9,;.1?B·· sho.w.s ;~)J.6~v.ever-;·,jd ;may-r be~~de.~ir~ble; .f~~;::' th~fe'. to. Ii#~!'farge-
?~.-f ·'.:' . ,:'. ~~h~ges .ih . . Xi ·~ompaied · .witl:I ·tr.tose Of"X2- · -Wild~ · ··~xt~~ds. '~e ,conclusions
to
'. .... . ':;of Buehler: Shah~ and KamptboPle4 reCommend that 'the 'scales be cho-
. 'sen so that the. contours are as .spberi~:al a$ _ po'~,~ible in .order· to accelerate
. -th~ convergence-. Ln Fig. 9-13b, for ~xample', th~ originai equation. would
be _r~vis~d vyith a n~'V. yar:-iable _X.2 .replacing' X2 ·so. that x 2 = 4x 2 and the
contours· \VQuld thps "cov,er 'the' same range as x I. ' . ,;.,' .. " " '-.
400
J()() 300.
, . ...
:..:
:-
lUU "'7 200 , '
'"
100 100
300 . 400
o------------~~-
JOO 200 300 400
)',
- .
SU'RCH Ivl,E1HODS 203
10t 'ineq uality cons~;raiats) \-viB be cOr1sidereCl~ although the user' of a search
, COJ.ld adapt the ecjJial ity~cons.rrajI?t technique by rl1aking an linequality 'co n-
strai nt . act~~e qr inactt,,'-e depend ing upon 'N he[hei-' th e con~rraiDt-. iJ violated
or not.
. . , . ....
..~
.
- -!: . . .' - , ' ... " J I "
~atisfy the constraint but move, very slowly ·in optimIzing. the. function. If
P is too' small~ the' search may 't erminate without satisfy.ing the constraints
adequately. One suggestion i~ to start with small values of the P's' and'
gradually increase the values as the m,agnitudes of th~ ,¢ 's become small.
The next search technique for constrained opt{riiiz"ati"on ,to ,be explained "is the
"search al.oJ)g the constraint(s)" Of 4~hemstj tching'H method. 5., The techniq~e
consists of s,tarting at a trial point and fust driving directly toward the,
constraint(s). Once on the constraint(s). the process is one of optirrllzing
afong the constrain~(s). For nonlintar constr.aints . .a tangential move starting
.on a constraint moves sl~ghtly off the constraint, so after each tangential
move it is necessary to drive back onto the constraint.' This search meth.od
is one of many that ru:e available but-is effective in most problerns'-and offers
£he further satisfaction of bU'ilding logically on the prin~iples of Lagrange
multipliers. He·mstitching introduces the flavor of the generaHzed-reduced
gradient method that will be explored in ,Section 17.4.
, Tmee. <hfferent cases wil r' be explored in the next several sections:
(1) two-variable problem with one constraint, (2) (Me-variable problem
204 .DESIGN OF TH~AL SYSTEMS
with one'.
constraint, and (3Y . .
three-vari~ble .' I
problem \-vith ,.
two constraints.
.All of the constraints will b.e ~qllalities, These three cases lead us thr:ough
.- the se'v~ra1 fund~menta1. operatiop.s that .appears in larger 'problems ,as' ~eil,
',' "' ." namely, (1) driving iowan:~ consttaipt(s), (2) ·movmg}ri.a favor-a,b!e direction.
" :.::,... . ~ith .:respect to the objectivt- . function u~der cC)J~nplete res~ction of the
'-i .,~~~:. . . 'constraint(s) and (3)" mo'ving iri.a .favorable directio~ Vvlth resp~ct- to the
.~:' .·~/.;,:~~j..~~l)J~~~Y~ .~~ncti6n with · ~o or .more .degrees of .freedom. - . '. .
• ~ ".~
• . __ • ' :~: ~·.7, ~~.>. ;:·~~;:::··7·:·:;,{:~~(:~· :::~.->~:·~d'.::~~' .::/t \<,;:: ·,~j ·(~~·:·' :;7:· ,. )':',;;:,-:.;>; . '. < .' :',- "". . .:
.... :: .: ..~,;~~'\::::.' ''~'> ,.....
_·9.18 ~ DRIVIN.9::TOW.~"TlIE.~CO~~TRAINT(S) ... .., " '..':. . ....'. :.. ','
. . The number' oi m
co.nstrai~ts WIll" ~lways be ..]es·s than the number "arl- of
' . abIes n, so' if .In v'ariables are held constant at the cUiTeDt"location,' the
remaining n - In variable(s) can b'~ ' saIyed to bring the point back 'onto the
c<?nstrain t( s) .
SOliltiOJl . . (a) X2 i
= 81x = 0:5, and (b) x J = (8/x~)O.5 = 2.83'. The' purpose
of the trivial,calculatioQ in Exanlp1e 9.3 lS to draw attention .to tlle proce~s of
returning to the constral,nt following 'a iaJ),gentiaI move, as. illustrated in Fig . .
9-14. The choice of whether '~o h.old X,I or -'"2 ' cons!ant when retumjng to the
constraint is arbitrary, but in ' certain probkIl'?-s the choice may influel!ce the
rate of convergen.'c e to the optimu·m,.
~o the relationship of Ilx 1 and. LlX2 in the tangential move must satisfy
. ,
llx J a¢/ iX2
- - =- (9.14)
t1 x 2 . ' " a¢/ ax J
Thus. to determine whether to incroase 0.( decrease x 2 t return to the objective
function y (x J t x 2) ,. .where ', .>0.
n..,·
::-=-!lx J +
uy
-~x ')
.CE:; (9 15)
i
ax} ax]."
SEARCH
C;
METHODS 205
(a) (b)
FIGURE 9,-14
Hemstitching search in a two-variable probl~m \vitll (a) rerum to the constraint with fixed x I
, In' a mi~imization, for example, when G, > 0" LlX2 shou~d be negative, and
thus x 2 should be decreased. '
E~ample 9.4. The objective functiQn associated with the constraint of Exam-
ple 9.3" XTX2 - 8 = 0; is
'y -- 3-.\... 21 + •x 22
Minimize this function start,i-nK with ,a trial val ue of ..T2 = 1.6 choosing a
st~p size lt1x_~1 ~ Q.DS, nnd returning to the constraint by holding X2 constant.
Sol4tiOn. With the ~aJ value Of.t2 = 1.6, the ,constraint requires xi = 2 .236,
so the' first point (2.236,1.6) giy,es y == 17.56 n~d 4) = o. Table 9.2 sho\1JS
,the progression of moves, s~.l1s; }~~n.8¢n,t ~9 ,tJ:le ,c~nstraint followed by Ii
. move back to rhe constraint, at a constant value of X2. The initia,1 ~e of G
is -6.175, but s'teadHy decreases until i,t passes through z.e,ro and attai,ns a
positive val'ue of 0.0631 on 'the J7th cyc-le. The zero-value of G is critical.
because this -position satisfies the L.agrange multiplier- equations that establish
the opti'mum. This fact can be shown by arbitrarily defming a term A as
: X = oy/.o)',1
- ... .. a</Jlox I
206 _ DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTa~-1S
TABLE 9'. 2 :
Heillstjtch~g seat~h in. ~xample 9 _,4 '
Before '. - ,
":5
v
~:""" . ' , ~::- ~"-? " . . , .... ' tano-ent , 2.202· . . 1.65 ' -17.26'8 ': , ' '0,' , , .' ~5.5-15
: c 'Cc c c- "~-~-, :", :" c'. 1: " c., c ': ? Hgf :~: '~'~'_ t~~~.;.:, <:"t~~S'-- ; :-'Y'O;:~~t.~'.',,~::-4;~:' ,.~. c
• ~
...
• "," -
.
. . . . .. .
.
It
.
~ • " .. ' . . . . . . . . . . e ' ........ -
. " "
. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ ...... '- ...... ~
::
..............
- ...
0 .. -
:
i6: tangent .. ·-1.886~, .. 2.25 ,. '. .·15-..129 ','
-0..241
.return. 1.907 2.30 16.195 ' 0.361
J7 . tangent 1 .:865 .,2.30 15~725 0 I 0.0631
"
.. 1.845 ' 2.25 15'.272 ~O.343
~eturll
18 tangent .l.~86 2.25 ' 15.729 0 -0.241
.return· . 1.907 2.30 16.195 0.361
"
(9.20)
(9.2 I)
For a chosen ·step size of one of [he variables, x 3, for example, D.x I and
~x 2 must satisfy ,t he matrix equation,
I iJ¢l
I --
ax )
..
(9.22)
,
The direction of the tangential move along. the vector to achieve a favorabJe '
- .
SE~\RCH d ~ ! HODS 207.
I J
4y =
oy .
~-WXl
av~'~{\ x'} -+
+- OV
---.!l .:r ;
, aXl " ' aX'2 - aX3 -
,-
. dl ~,~erIB!lj~$, ~yp~4~~r 'A:~YJ s~pu.l.d~e, pO$irive or negat~ve. "
"; .' ';"'."lI':':;'~;'; ;:. .. : ~. ", : '. ,'F0)lo:\iV.~ii$,~,~,1~ ::ni~ :,I:e,~.ta 11 g~,.~~~,:; ~o"::;, th:e:~ "I~~Yv9. ;;~:~r!,s;u~ir '.~s.:.~: t~;~,.~. p)=!:s, i~,~p'~} : 'I: ~'~ ,.::' ' . .,- '
.' ' brought . back" onto.":the 'constraints 'by 'siniurta:n'eoi.fs-solut~on ·'-of Eqs·. .(9::.f8.). . ," ,
'.' an(~f (9 ~19) holding one o'f the vari~bIes con~ta'~t.
ily (9.23)
, choices of direction of
I
,I'
,-I
I
I
I
I
J
I
I
I
I
I
./
J---------,,'-..",c...------~--"""""""'-~ .t:!
FIGURE 9·15
Vector gwJrlg lJJaximum r;:lle of chan~ of y. but also tangent to 0 -constraint,
_ 208 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
. _ . . J
(9·. 26)
. (9'.27)
ay ' . .. . ,B4>
- .- - .- AJ(2) llx 3 - A2- = O· (9~28)
.aX 3 " '. . aX3
Multjply Eq. (9.26) by a¢/8x}, Eq. (9.27)·by a¢laX2, and Eq: (9.28} by
a¢/ BX3, th~n total the fust tenns, ·the ~econd terms, and the thhd tenns of
the three equatibn~,
(9 ..29)
From .E g. (9.25), 'the second group in the. sununation is zero. For conve-
nience, ]et . . ..
,
and ' ~.
/
-----
. ..
SEARCH METHODS
ti.'
209
I I
A
,\, = ~
- .B
(9.30)
I Substitute Eq. (9.30). into .ea<;h of the equations Eq. (9.26) to Eq.· (9.28).
This gives the {QJIQ.\.~~~ng .~xpres~ion tQ[ tbe' 'relati ve vait~.es of Llx I, . !lx: 2, and
.- .'...'.' ~~.v ~ ..... ·r.' " " : L'1 • • • ••1. - ~ .',. • ~ . ... ~. • _ . '.
J.,;l. ....\. J) .~ _ .. _ :~.~~ :._. ~ ,- -. ... . " •. j .J '. ' ; .'. '. • ~. \ ' • • • ... • ., • " . •
. ,
. ,.; _1_' I _ :" Ll x I = '. :: . A~r~' .:'.': ~ ':" ;. J.~:
: '2;\, , a_vlJxi ~ (AfB)d .cP1dX·, :Jyrax."2 ~CAf!3)a¢/aX"2
·. 4~t"3 .
''-When me step size of one of Jhe variables in the move- has' been selected~
the' .magnitudes of the remaining ·Llx 's 'can be computed from Eq. (9.3i)..
9 .. 21 SUMMARY
This ·chapte.rexplored single-variable searches as w~n as both unconstrained
and constrained mu1tivariabl~ searc,qes. The types of problems for which
search methods are most lik¢IY to be called into service are the difficult
ones, which are probably the multiyariable constr~ined problems. Of the
:rpany methods ,a vailable' for m.ultivariable ·.co:nstrai,ned optimizati.ons, the '
search along the (~onstrain!(s) was chosen because of its· wide applicabqity
(alrpough it is not necessarily the most efficient) and because it follows
logically from calculus ~ethods.
The actual·: :eNecution, of the calculations in' complicated problems
would probably .be carried out on a ,computer, and' the availabilitY of the .
interactive mode· .is partkul~ly convenient. The possibility the searcher has
qf cnanging such quantities as. the step size or· starting- with a' DeW trial point
facilitates ~onvergence to the optim.um in"a rapid manner.
The techniques presented in this chapter are tools tha~ can solve .some
realistic engineering problems. The chapter also leads into extensions, such ,
as those that appear in Chapter 17, where' penalty methods are explored
in greater depth, and the reduced-gradient technique 'is shown to be a
generalization of some of the specific s.i tuations examined in this chapter.
-
PROBLEMS'"
9.1. The iunction
y. ~ (J n .t') sin (x:!125)
)
, i - .
x
where x 2 /25 is in radians, is unimodal in [he range 1.5 S x :s 10.
- .
210 DESIGN OFTIIERMAL SYSlEMS
(a) If ~ FiboDii~ci search is empl?yed to )deterrnine the maximum, how rua'u y :c:
points will be 'n eeded for the fmal inijerval of uncertainty' of.x to be '0 .3 :: ',
. or less? _ ' ",
of
(b) ,Using the number points determin'e d irfpart (a), co]}du~t' th~ Fi150naccl '
search and determiDe the interval in Which the ,maximum oocurs; ," ,_
_:.~ ~- ~,2::', '" ':,'-' :' : Ans.:.:, ,~p).,:?,~?~:.' to" , ~'.OO;:~'' : : 'l, ':' :,;,:;:,:~:~::,: :,: ':' :~<~" ~.:,~':~,;-::~~,~ ~ :./" ',:,~?<~~~: : :" :'~' :~ '~: ,:~,'~:';\ ",',:::~;':' : "~;::: ' ',:-: .
:,<, ,::", '::: ~':!J:2.~-One~~of 'the" strtii~gj~s',:_i:Il'-some"search metho~s is 'to fust, use,a·' ~arSe · ~9bdi.;. ,
, , vision to' determin~ the ,approximate regkm the optimum and then 'a rme ': or
. sllqdlvislon for a second search. For a single-:-yariable se~ch '16 points ' tqtal , "
. 2£~'j~.be applied. -C~mp~ ' the :ratio 'o f the initial ,to final inte,ryal of 'unceT- "
, , .. tainty if (a) aU 16 poirits are
nsedin one -F ibonacci s~arch and (b) ~ poi.nts in ,::
,: :'a FibonacCi search, are
used to dete~ne an interVal of unceru.inty of redu~ed. . '
: size on which another 8-p~int Fibonacci ,search is applied. '
9 ~3. An .economic an-alysis of a proposed facility is being conducted to select ·an , .
, operating life -such that ,the ,maximum uriiioriri- annual income, is achi~ved. :
A short life results in high annual amortization costs" but the main~e~ance
costs become excessive far a long life. The annual income after ded:uc~ng all .
operating expenses, except maiIitenance costs, is - $180~OOO.The fitst cost of
the faciltity is $500,000 borro~ed' a~ 1'0 perc~nt interes~ compounded annuaIIy. '"
The mainten~ce costs are zero at the ,e nd of the first year; $10,000 at
the end of the second" $20,000 at the end of the third, etc. To express these
rpajnt~nance charges on an annual basis the gradient present-worth factor of
Sec. 3.8 can be multiplied by the capital-recovery factor, which for the 10'
percent interest is presented in Table 9 . 3 . ' .
, Use a Fibonacci search for integer years benveen 0 and 2) to find the
:lifc of the facility which results in the maxjrnum ,annua.1 profit. Omit th~ last
cal~ulation of the Fibonacci process since \v'e are interested only in integer-
year results. ,
Ans~: 12 years~ $62,760 annual j'nc'Ome. ,
9.4. The exhaust-gas ,t emperature leaving a continuously operating furnace is
260°C, and a proposaJ is, beIng considered to install a heat exchanger in the-
exhaust-gas stream to generate low-pressure steam all -105°e. J1le que~ti,on to
be inves.tigated is whether it is economical to instan such a heat exchanger,
and, if so, to pod its optimum size. The following data apply:
TABLE 9.3 _
Factors ,for conversion of gradient series to an an~uaI cost
Year Fact-or
I
Year Factor Y~r
. Factor
J. 0.000 8 ~ .-
3.008 is 5.275 /
2 0.476 I 9 3.376 I 16 5.552
J 0.937 110 3.730 I
17 5.801
4 1.379 I
JJ 4.060 I
.J 8 6.058
, 5 1.8]0 12 • 4.384' J9 6.295
6 2.224 ..... ,13 4.696 20 6.500
7 2.622 I
14 5.002 21 6.703
- . ..
SEP.RCH lv'iETHODS 2 11
B-
,r Value 'of the heat 'in the of steam, $1.50 ,per gigajDule. '
I . '.
fOnTI
(a) Develop the equation frn; the s~vjngs ~s, a functi~n ' of the area, -expre~sed
,as a uniform annual amount. .. ' . ' , ' , ' , ' " ,t :"~, ,:' r ~
(b) What is the maxjroum permitted area if the exit-gas,' t~mpeciture is to be ,
. above ' 120°C in order :,to prevent condensation of water vapor fro'm the '
exhaust gas? ' , ,
(c) Use a seven-point Fibonacci search and set up, a tabI~ to simplify calcu~
lation of the opti.m um heat-transfer area. '
2
An.?: Optimum area' between 686 and 724 m •
,P erform a univarjate search to find ~he minimtlm value of the function
16 ,x"·,
y =X'l + - - +-=
XtX2 2
. -
... - lation y is 'p. miriimum~ bu.t the totalannti~l op~rating cost o.f ~e installation
" .is li~ted to $40,000 .."This annual . pperati~g :cost has two ·components~ the
..water pu~ping cost .aI?-d the cost of ~e h~at loss: '. ".
.." . 1500 :
.Heat cost = - ' - dollars
x ..
Air
') 0 C
Refrigeration M' kgls p_rn
pJant H~t exchanger
Pump·
- .
S~CH METI-IODS 1::.3
, (a) Set" up the" ~uation forthe cost as the' ob}ective filliction~ the pres~U!e ,
drop as 'constraint 1, and the heat~transfer 'requireme'n ts as constrain.t 2."
(b) The poi t ,W = 26 kg/s, D = -O.lSim, and t'l = 6.5°(: essentially satisfies
both ,nstraints. -What is the neW point after making a move of l-V ' = 1
kg/s tangent to both c,o nstraints 'in a direction that reduces the cost? :',, -
A!ls.: (a) (2.938 X I0 6 )DS'- -w 2 ,= 0 and w(24':- 2td - 286.4 = O.
(b) D = 0.184, w = 25, ':1 = 6.3.
9,. iO. The optimization of the dimensions of t:J.1e steel fra~e in Prob. 8.4 is to be
conducte9. by a search method 'as a thJ;"ee-yariable problem with one COD,sttaint.
If the- current pos.ition is x 1= 16, X2 = 12.5; and X3 ,= 4_5 ill, what are the
new values of the.x 's' following 'a step of fix I := 0.2 ffi. if the move is tang~nt "
too_the constraint and in '~e dire.ction of the most -favorable rate of reduction
of cost?
Ans.: cO'st 'reduced $66 in ' the step.
, ,
REFERENCES
1. J. Kiefer, USequential Minimax Search for a Maximum," Proe. Am. MaIh. Soc., vol. 4. --',
p. 50.2, 1953.' - - "
2. D. I. Wilde. OpTimum Seeking Methods, Prentice-HaU, Englewood Oiffs" N.J .• 1964.
3. N. McCloskey, "Storage Facili[ies Associated wjth an Ammonia Pipeline," ASME Pap.
, 69·Pet-21,1969.
4. R. J. Buehler, E. V. -S hah, and C. Kempthorne: Some Propenies of Steepest Ascenl and
Related Procedures for Finding Opti"!um Conc/i#on.s •. Iowa State Univessity. ~~ica:l
·... Labora~ry, pp'. 8-10, April 1961. ' ,
5. G. S. G. Beveridge and R. 'S. Schechiet: Optimization: Theory afuJ Practice, ,McGraw-
/' ,
HiH, New York. 1970. - .
6. S. M. Roberts lUId H. I. I..yv,e-rs, ·The Gradient Method ,in Proces!,, CentrO,}, /nd. Eng. U
- ...
) .
. .~ .-:: :
)
.. -:. '. ':
•. \ 1 '." :~:
" .'~:"~' .
". " ',: ," ; .,.;:. ....: . ..
• j .... 'J
.. .....
;.- .:
. ' , ' :' '.
i · '. '"
•• ••• J.- •
,. . . r- .... :. .'"
10.1 ,UNIQUENESS OF
DYNAMIC-PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS
Dynamic progr~m.ing is a m,e thod of optimization tpat lS applicable either
to staged. processes or to continuous functjons that can be approximated by
staged processes.. The word Udynannc" has rio connection with the frequent
use of the word in engineeqng technology, \vhere dynamic 'lmplies changes
with respect to time. . .
As a method of optimization, dynamic programming is not usuallj'
interchangeable with s~ch other fonns of optimization ~s Lagrfinge mul-
tipliers and linear and nonlinear programming. Instead, it is related to
the calculus of variations, whose result is .~n optimal junction. rather than
an optimal state point. An optimization problem that can be subjecte<l to
dynamilc programming or the. calculus of variations, is usually qifferent from
~hose suitable for treatment by Lagrange m u]ripliers and linear and non-
1
214
DYNAMIC P:ROGR.AJ\-lM1NG 215
cas~s fit dynamic prograrnrning exactly~ , and 111 e re the calculus of variations
~Nould only ap/?foximate ,the ,result.
Srage Stage
Stage 1
_ _ _n~---"Il sn' n-I SI
n-I S'2
rn _ 1 •
\
~-------------~---V"
,t,
------------------'J
,
FIGURE 10-1
Pictorial representatio'fl of problem ,that ~an be solved by dynamic prognunming; S t:I state
of [he inpu!...~ ..3 stage " S' state of t~.e' outpUl from a stage, d
E%J dedsion variable. and :;lJ
.'.. '. " ' -.-~- Example' 10'.1. cA riruIiiti.lh~cqst pijJe1me IS to·be.constrUct~ be~~n·Pofuts · . .' .-
. . A and 'E ~ passmg ~u~cessively through one node of-each,,' B, 'C, and D, as : ',: "
shown. in Fig .. 1-0-2 .. The cos.ts frow. A to B' and from D to E ax:e sho~ in ... .. .:.
fig. '10-2, ~d. the costs between B and ' C and .between C' and 'D are ' giyen :' .
in'Table 10.-1. .' . I
. -
Solu?-~~. The s~~tegy in dynaml'~ p:ogr~~g is to begin with (j~e' o! the .
/ stages (either A-B or D-E m ~s ~rOblem) and. then progreSSIVelY .
4 4 .4
FlGURE 10-2
Dynamic programming used to minimize the ct?st between points A and E:
TABLE l~, l
Cos~ from B to C and C ,to D in Fig. 10-2
. To
,
-3
-
From 1 2 4
.J . 12 15 21 28
2 1'5 16 J7 24
'3 21 17 16 15
4 28 24 15 . 12
-- .
b:
DYNAI"llC PROGRA.l
'..!MING 2 7
.~ 1
.....
existing data_will n1.ake starting at one end or the other raore ,conveuienL
, In this problem we shall start at the' fight end and won~ lto\yafd th~ left.
Thus the first table yviH,:be, f.Qr:, siag~ D-E the ,next [able for ili~ c~mlliative' ,
?'
, s~ge:l C-D and jj~E.," ~n~, ~',o -~~' i1ntil, tae..1ast.tabte ?T:tRAi~:~i, tQ_.th~J~:i1tiJre~·£~~?ten~....~. ~,:, ~, :~~
::: A-~ ' :: , _',' -",' " ,.. " '" .' .'> ,: ' ~ ' -: '1, ,:" ,
.~ , ' ... : ..... . , ' I." ...:. . t •
1),6- e 10.2 is ' trivia! because there is only one way to pass from ,D'l
to t~e terininus, and thar route must be optimum,. Future tabl,es will ,rule 'out '
nonoptimal paths, but no such selection can be made in Table lO~ 2 because it
.is invalid to say, for, example, that the route from D2 is less costly than from
D I, which ,would pemit' ruling out D i. The , ~onsequences of 'the choice ot'
,the rouU;s fr6'm 'D2 ov~r'tIiat from D 1 may impose overriding penalties later,
;so alLmust be kept in consi,deration.
',I t is in Table 10.3 from, C to E [hat dynamic' programming begins 'to
show its, benefit. From position C 1, for example, there are four paths by
which toO'reach E. thtough D 1. D2. D3, and D4 .. The total costs are shown
-in the appropriate column in T~bl~ 10.3, and, the least cosily, rollte is the one
passing through D 2, ,resultin,g in a c;ost of 30. "Yithin that block there IS ,a
common basis of comparison: ali the paths start from C 1.: Table ,10.3.a1so
denotes the optimal chokes when starting , at the other C positions. In the
path from C3 there is a tie (cost of 32), so either choice can
be made. Now "
-that the preferred route .from C I to E has been decided, aU the nonoprim-al .
routes are henceforth ignored.
Advancing (backward) to inClude stage B-C in the assemblY9 Table 10:4
showsilie .a ccumulation from B to, E . TIle costs are, shown for ,t he possible
paths starting at all of '[he B points. From B 1 it is possible to pass th~ough
C 1. and therr to {he end, th rough C2 and then to 'theen~, etc. The total costS
from B I through Cl to th~ end, for example. are computed by summing the
cost of 12 from B 1 to CI (frO,Jil Table 10.1) with the cost from CI to e,nd. me
The cost of C 1 It o the end i's,30. which is available from Table 10.3 as the
minimum cost of the four- poss.ibilities in the 'c 1 block. Of the various paths
from B I to the end, one is optimum , with the cost of 42. Table 10.4 shows
TABLE lO .. l
Example 10.1, D to P
, '
DI , 20 x
D2 15 ,x
D3 16 x
D4 20 x
218 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYsrEMS
TABLE 10.3 . I
Example ,10 . 1, C to E )
Cost
.X
I .
C2 D4 24. 20 ' 44
. -
D3 17 16 33
D2 16 IS. ._ 31
DI 15 20 35
. CI D4 28 20 48
D3 21 1.6 . 37
D2 15 15 30 x
'DI 12. 20 32 .
TABLE lOA
Example 10.1, B to It
Cost
B4 C4 12 31 43 x
~ .
C3 15 32 47
C2 24 31 - 55
CI 28 30 58
B3 C4 15 31 46 x
~
C3 ]6 32 48 .
• 0'
C2 17 31 48
Cl 2J 30 51
B2.... C4 24 31 55
C3 17 3~' 49
C2. . 16 3·1 47
Cl lS 30 45 x
,
Bl C4 28 31 - 59
C3 21 32 5,3
. C2
--C J
15
12".
31
30
46
42 x
DYNAMIC ifROGRAMM ING 219
) I
Cosi: _.-
'Total
.. ,-.;).:c,' ·' :~ --'7~ :;;, -.' .'~' .:~-:' <; ,.!; 0" '<..'~ :~:' ., ~O-. '. , '~' " . ; :: :: •• '.'
: 82 16, 45, " ' 61 ' ;t.; ", :-' ." ' ,.', ~, ,"'" i< • ~
• ': _.- , . 1 " • .: :" ~"
BI 20 ' 42 , ,62 -_
... . " ,
'. - I . ' , " - _ "
fquI- state vatiab ~es, B I?' B 2~ ,B 3, and.jJ 4.,. and the optimuIn cost fr'Om each
of these states to the ~',nd. ' I
, The finnl step in',the ,~ollltibn is provided by'picking UP. 'th~ firs~' stat~ ,
(A t9 B) ,in t,he accumulation? and ,'the resul'( is Table'IO.S. Ther~--is, only one '
state variable, the position A2. From A2 me .options are' to pass thrOllgp B 1',
, B2, B 3, or B4. The cost frqrn A2 t'o, B is' found in 'Pig. IO~2 and the coOst
-from B to ,'E 2.is the opt,lmal oue- fr<?JTI the appropriate B position from Table '
10.4. ' "
The ~jnirnum cost from A2 to
E 2~ thus the mlninlu:m .total cost, i~ 61.
To identify which route results in this minimum cost it is only necessary to' l
'
trace back through the tabIes and note which -choices were optimum: A2, B 2.
CI, Di, £2. ' "
)arly from ,C to- D. From, D to E 2 there is just one possibility. The num-
ber of. possible routes jf all are coo?idered is. therefore (4)(4)(4)(J) , == 64.
. The saving of effort would be more' impressive if the problem had
included another stage consisting of four positions. The number of calcula-
tions by dyna~ic. programming, would have been the current number of 40
plus an additional 16, for a total of 56. Examining all possible routes would
require (tf4)(4J -;; 256 calculations. .
220 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
Feed
0.6%
, 'i . ,
," , , . '~~ample . 10.~ ... ' ~hey is 'a by-prqdu~. of chees'e manufacture a.hd contains, '
,among o~er cons~ituents ; protein ?TId l~~~se. The t~o subst2TIces . are .val~ab]e .
when separa1ted, protein-rich whey for yogurt and la~tose for ethyl alcohol.
One me~od ·of 's eparation is' ultrafiltration, w~ere. the separation o,ccurs ~n
the basis of mol~cu1ar size and' shape'. A series of ultrafilters is employed ,
,-'(four iIi the"charn shown i~ Fig. 10-3) to separate the protein and lactose
progressively. Klinkowski 1 show'S' the ope,rating cost qf ~ stage to be a function
o( the'
inlet and outje't protein concen~tions, as shown {n Table 10.6. Use
dynamic programming to solve for the concentrations leaving each st,a ge that
results in the· minimum tota). cost.. :
TABLE 10.6
Operating cost of one stage in 'a protein.;·Iactose separator
in :e:xample 10.2, dollars .
Entering
protein Leaving protein ~oncentration, ,%
concen·
tration. % ,0.9 1" 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.6 4 .,. 4.8 5.4 6.0
0.6 . ?53 )0.77 20.24 28.38 35.20 40.70 44.88 ' 47.74 49.28 49.50
0.9 ' 3.73 10.77 1 7.23 23.10 28.3.8 .33.07 37.18' ,40.70 43.63
1 ,1 5.54 10.78 15.67 20.24 24.47 28.38 3J.95 35.20
1.8 3.74 7 ..33 ,]0.79 14.00 ]7.23 20.24 23.10
2..4 2.82 5.55 8.2 J 10.80 13.27 15.67
3.0 2.26 4.47 6.63 8.73 10.8 )
3.6 1.89 3.75 5.56 7.33
4.:! 1.62 3.2J. 4.78
4;8 1.42 2.82
5.4 . ,1.26
6.0
,-
-
~ :.;--~ .... ' ~~: .- :.
DYNAMIC PRO
-t'7
GRJti\1MING 22~"
.,'-
' .:"""". "
. 2.82
1..26
TABLE 10.8 .
. Example 10..2, stages 'nI 3I;a.d IV
Concentration
~ntering III Through Cost
I
~.2 I 4. 8 1.62 + 2.82 = 4.44·
SA 3.21 + . 1.26 J:I 4.47
-1-.8
-. 5.4 ,.1.42 + 1.26 1:1 2.681\)
222 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
TABLE 10.9
'Exa.m,ple.lO.2, stages ll, ill, and IV I
·1
,~ . ~oncentr.ation '
:~ X>', ': ' ~, : :.- entering n, 1,"hrough Cost
TABLE 10.10
Example 10.2, s~ges I to IV
Concentra'don
,entering I Cost
- 0.6 0..9 5.53 +,2'8.89 s: S~34A2"
1.2 ]0.77 ,+ 23.66 a= ')1.43
L8 20.24 + J6.,58 t!1 36.82
, 2,.4 28.38 ~, 12.07 '=z 4().45
3.0 .35.20 + 8.83 44.03
, 3.6 . • 40.70 +6.33
D
a 47.03
4·.2 44.88 + 4.30 .. 49.18
-----'
.
DYNA\1IC PROGRAlV1MII..;'G 2.23
10
_ nJ- TH'E
XL .r- prll
A
t
r"' TJ~ F
~ R-"1
, ,- ,~'lF
~)} __ TIXP
,l', ..Lll..l'~
al l c.l? 5
0
I
I e 4
-'> 3
c:v
J,j u 3
C
0
u
.f: 2
2 v
~
tl-
r - 0
A B C D E I 2 3 4 5
Stage Stage
(0) (b) ,
FIGURE'10-4
Graphic display of dYfl <lmic-programming (a) Example 10.1 (b) Example 10.2.
- -
224 DEsIGN OF ~ SYSTEMS
TABLE 10.11 .
}.-~lr§'t· taoRe of Example 1{t2 proceerung iOf1Vard,
stage I . . '.1 I
:' '{<,':' ~:~ ;~ ' ,; .. . g:! ,,': " , I , , ' '. '1~:~~ , "r ,, '
, .
used to' conlpute"a more detaileq table. The coarser grid was chosen simply
to lessen the n~mber of calculations. After having established the approxi-
mate optimal p'a-th a recalculation 'could have been made using a finer grid
' but considering paths only in the neighborhood of the preliminary optimum.
It has already be~n pointed out that the form of the ava,Hable data may
in some prbblems make starting at the front preferable,' and in other cases'
starting a~ the end and working backward. In Examples 10.1 and ~O.2 it was
'immaterial which direction was chosen. It should be realized, however, that
the form of the tables will dilfer 'depending 'upon whether the progression
is forward or backward, because the Sta,te 'variable will be different. If the
progressi,on- in Example ID.2 were forward, the fIrst tab]e would hav~ th~
form shown in Table 10.11 and the second table would be as shown in
T2;Qle 10.12.
, The state variable in TablfC 10.,12 is the protein percentage leaving
. stage II, and
. once
. it has been detennined that the optimal way to achieve a . -
protein concentration of 2.4. for e?Cample, through the first two stages (0.6
to 1.2 in the first stage and 1.2 to 2.4 in the 's,econd stage. as indicated by
Table 10.12)., the nonoptim,al routes are ne~lecteQ. _'
- ..
DYNAMIC PROGRAM!vlJNG 225
I I
. . Ji.::-D i nlportan~class of .problems i n ' dynanlic program.ming .is that of COD-
. strained GPti . nizati on ~ v.;here. a fu~ction y (J~:) i s' ·so ught . that J.; t. iniwizes a
. 'sumrnation ::£g(y ~ x) ,but in 'addition SODle other summation is,. 'specifie'4 '
.: ""'Ih(y 7X ) . 11,' ~!here.~the. furtctj~ons gl;,.l7;-, ·and the ' uurrieri.callenn Ii are '.
:~" '~:~'~"'Iu'1oV'/n ~-This' ct~.ss tif',~:onstralli~d"problen1s·;:Vi.il,rb{:'ifeate'tti"IJi'>(~~pi6F·'i8·:(·':·:··~· .;:·
"".' ;'. .A.noth~Jf ~t~ss' of problems-;at':fjrst gla~ce·:·:uray~'seeni.'}c{ be '.corrs'tr~in..~!;L' 'bUt . ':
they can be c'C?flve"ited il1to. a fOnTI l.denti,cal to that u'secLin Examp,le? 10.1.- :
. arid 10.2. This class may 'be called (ippilJ~elltly ·coJisirained. and illustrated" is
by Examp~es 10.3' and lO.4~ ' . .
Exa~ple 10.. 3. ,An ~vapora.tor whIch boils liquid inside tubes consists of faur
banks of tubes. pach. bank; cOf),sists C?f a llu~ber of 'tube? in p~lle.L and the
r
. ' banks are connected in series. as,shown in Fig. 10-5~ A mixture of liquid and
yapor 'erHf~,rs' the frrst bank 'with' a fraction of. vapor x =. O.2~· and the 'fluId .'
··Ieaves the evaporator as saturated vapor.,.x ::::: 1.'0. The' flow rate is' 0.5 kg/s,
and :each tube is capable of vaporizing 0.0 I kg/s' and thus of i~creaSing x by
0.02., . . '"
Forty ,tubes are to be -arranged in the banks so that the minimum total
pressure drop preva.ils in · the' evaporator. The pressure drop: in a bank is
approximately proportional to.' the square of the ve10ci ty . and 'a satisfactory
J
.. (10.1)
5 -
Bank pi
OUller
.r = 1.0
4
Bank HI
3
.. Bank 11
II
- -- ,..
Inlet 2
x = 0.2 If
Bank I
T
Aow, rolte :2 0:..5 kg/s
FIGURE .10.5
Evaporator in Example IP).
--
226 DESIGN OF TIiERMAL SYSTEMS
,I·
. ., . .·. So~OJll. Selection' 'of Ltl6·:nrimben of tubes'-ip: ' ~. stage: (bank)' as the state :
.:-:~ . .:;~-., .... .: .:;;,,,:!~'~:~J' vaxi~bl~, .is_.unpp;jda.Gtil!~+',l?e~use.·.,tb~_t~onjpa1 points iri graphs comparable "to '
.; \.~,.; ..' ~ :-'..::' '~ig~ '1'0-4 ar~ not ijXed~~ Ftiith¢rmori_~':'i~~~ ~b~ice~. o~ P~~?;f4;?£~tupes /~~,:tb~~:_ ':~" .
. .' s'tate vatiabl e ·d~es .l?'ot a.ccoWl t' 'for the. Cpp~trahlt · th~t-· pr~~lselY-·: 40" t~QeS.:~~e;:·~:.'· ."":"
·availab.l e. . . ,'. ' . . .,
The difficulties .-are .overcome by choosmg ~as tb~-state variable CUIDU.-
... ' Jative· tubes c0111IIlltt~d, which resuJ;ts iri coordinates as shown -in ·Fig.· 10-6... ....-
After stage 0 (before stage I) no tupes hav~ been -c9mmiried, and following
'stag~ TV' 40 tubes have beeo' corrimitted.
· Table lO.I3 .shows pres~ure drops 'for the first bank or stage for several -
..differe.nt choic~s of tubes. Table 10.14 uses as the state vanable· -.the total
number of tubes committed in the :frrst two stages and permits an optimal
". selection. For e~ample, if ~3 tubes an~ used . ~ the. first two stages, the op~m.al
distribution is. to allot
.
5 tubes in bank I and 8 tubes in bank n
' to achieve
. a total
4O~
. [I
-'_3D
:.r.
~
20
'!..J
>
- 10
,-
'--'
. FIGURE 10'·6
State variable of cumulatiye
1 11 III IV number of lubes commirted in
Aft,er stage Ex.ample 10.3.
TAI:LE 10.13
Exanlple ~Oe;3, stage 1
Total tubes. 'lUbes in
c,o mmitted stage J Total IIp; kPa -
.(
~ 2 7.20
·3 3 3.20
4. ,4 1.80
S 5 1. 15
6~ .6 0.80
-.
DYNAMIC ~~ROGRA IYfM ING ' 217
"
2xanlple 1 {L3~, ,
trtages
,
I and ]] '
~-------------- ----~~------~----~--
,
. " 12 {'} , O~'80 -+ 2.05 . ~. 2J3~ ~
'7 1.15 + :L32 = 2.47*
8 , 1.89 ,+ 0'.88 = .'2.68
9 3.20 + 0.60 = 3.68
, ~.
TABLE 10.15
)
~xample 10.3, s:~ges I an~ TIl, , ,; " )
TABLE lO.}6 ,
Example 10~3, stages I to IV
Total Tubes
, tu,bes in IV Total Ap t kPa
L.
SLfperhemer
~'
c
o " 'I
"llitilLE 1@.1"l
, E~acti6n-steani data J
)
. ,
·'· 'i'·,'J:'::"!~:-:'-" " "';~') I}:;' .-,,~:. \~ '. ", ,.":. .... :':.
' .. ,.
.
,/
215' 47 '. . .
TABLE iO.18
Example 10.4, stage I
Tota) area Area for Saving
coriuni. tted~ m:! stage I per secon,d
I
Total Area . S-avings
~L ea '. . on II P'ci- secon.d
o .. ". :".·-'.:'.:·J2:~.6p,·..><:.:.;:.:::.::~;$;~~Db?~.·\t::·. '~-:' .,'. ..:.-:. '~.... ::": ,~ .. : ., '~ .... .. .' ,.
. :;: .;'>:1 :'~"- '~'.~_: .\.' .. ., ' .~ ...-...' . '.. .
. '.' ....
~
.~ :. • ..a
.... ;.
. l(Hl·.:, - ~. -:0 .... ,. , 60~-2-h.; - -,', .. : .' '-A38 7" : 'i'. " "0
,"
O· 0 32 ..00 $ ~OOO
TABLE 10.21 . •
Ex'~ple 1~ ~4; stages I t~ IV
. - • I - ,: I
,Savings I,
-- J " ~r -seco~d
"' ,.': :,: ,:, " .;:,: ~'§fog "< ' ;:E~ - !::~
",,,,~,,, ,,,.,,,,,",, , '" .- "' :' '~ ',> "": ' ,800 ' '214.5-3 " . ,1.492
, ' " '~"," '"' ,,, 900 214.66. ,, - - ,', 1.336 ' .. '"
" , '.
- ... . .
,Finally, Table 10.21 where the full , area of 1000 m 2 'is coInm.itt~d,
inclicates that ~e optimum distribution of area is 100, 300, 300,- 300 -for a
.- total ~~ving <;>f $1. 804 per s~cond. ' :' .", ' ,' ,' , ,
10.7 SIJI\1IVIA,RY ,
"'hen optimizing a system that ,consists of ~ chain of·events or components
\\·h.ere the output condition from one unit forms the input to the next~
dynamic programming should be -explored. In large problems th~ amount of
calculation may be extepsive , even though it repz:esents o.nly a fraction of the
effort of conducting an ,exhaustive e'x ploration. The systematic nature of
dynamic programming lends its~lf to d~velopment of a computer program
to perform the calculations. The major challenge usuaUy appears setting in
up the tables" and especially' ill identifY,ing 'the, s~te variable., I ,
Chapter 18 'w ill revisit dynamic. programming and focus on its rela--
,tionship to calculus, of variations. The ins,ight provided by calculus of vari-
ations sugge,sts proce~ures by whicJ1 ,dy.namic programming is able to solve
constrained optimization problems. '
.'.~ .. "'!:- ,: ~. '. \.'
PROBLEMS
-19,~} .. The total pressure drop from point 1 Ito point 5 in the multi-branch duct
system shown in Fig. '10-8 ~ to- be 500 ~. Table lO.22 p~esents the costs ·
for various duct' sizes i~ ,each of the sections asa function of the pressure
drop in the section. Use dynamic programming Ito detennine the -pre~sure
drop in each section that results in the. minimum total cost of the systeIlL
, Ans.: $599.
10.2. A truck ,climbs a hHI that consists of Wee sections. The fuel consumption '
-- ..
~" ~jn ,each section is a fune'don of the time required for the di~~ce in the
'
'
~.
DYNAlvllC P~9GRAMMl.N G 233
1.-<<,- - -- - - - SOOPj - - -
! I -- -
, -. '--~l
J
. .. . .
. - ·-· ·~;;J;.~~..:r =.. "".~~.;= ~....._; ,:~":::.L~ :_,:y~~_=_...,;.._::::_.:...:.:.~.. ·~~"l':..';::::::;J.:::::=:::.. .....::.=o;.~ =_= !".:.:.~-:- - _ . ~- -- ';'~ ~~ ~
. fi}' , c 3
'"' 2
FIGURE 10-8
" Duct ,systeminProb.lO.L
-;fABLE ).tL22
.Pressure drop and costs of sections 'of
,duct in Prob.' to.-1 .
.Section Pressure drop, 'Fa Cost, $ "
100 J80
,_-.J
', 150 166 ..
200 157
100 93
4-5 150 ' 86
: 200 81
7 61- ' ,
10 38'
7 49
(:-D 8 ' 41
9 35
10' 30
]0,000 r------.=--~-__,~~""'---'O~__,.==~--__,
8~OOO p ----r------t--~~__i>-----......,j
, ..
6.000 a-------+-_---I------:---+----.--~.
4.000 ~
I _ _ _ ~!!__--'--~_+_---'------ll~,~--------t
,2.000 I~--~~"'""'------!f__~~~=t_---_II'
Start Destination
A B c D E F G
TABLE 10.24
Fuel consumption per 200 km of ground travel, kg
To altitude, m
Fror:n
a!t~tude, m "0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000
-- . ,.
DYN AAJlC F1~OGRAI'''1 'M 1NG 235
. & )!
5
1 . " , . .... J •
.~ ..
~ of , ' ,' , • • ,' __ ' - _ _ • "" :'••
". " , ' ..... '
,:' . .... . : ' .. . \
~ ~ ... . . J
• •- ....·01
'- .. . .
-.•.~~ .. _. ,:0. . . ,: :.. ... , ,, ', , ' , ," ,' ,' .'
3 ~
G
20 ' @
I }D . . e G ~ @
. .B C D E F
FlGURE 10..10
P~pe' line route in, Prob. 10.4.
fABLE 10.25
Maintenance expenditures made at beginning of
year, thousands of dollars
~ncome level
.:anied over
'roni previ.oU3
:ear $30 $32 $34
,
Income level during year
..
' ". >
37SC
. "
,-
. "'- . -.. . . .
.: -: ,•..--:. !'.I'<:': .. ' . • ~.::;. .-
FIG1)RE 10~11
Chain of ·heat exchanger~ 'in Prob~ ' ~0.6 ..
TABLE lO.i6
Present worth of heat exchanger and lifetime cos~ of steam,
thousands of dollars ' '
Inlet ~ullet temperature, °c
Heat temp.,
exchanger °c 50 100 150 200 250 300
50 0 520.8 558,. 0 X , X X
50 o 23.1 62.6 . £132.3 X X
100 0 36.1 .93.,6 X X
150 0 62.8 X X
3 5,0 o 2·LS 79.9 129.9 $),77.0 $308.3
100 0 41.1 94.3 141. 7 266.7
J50 0 51.2 103.0 223.6
200 0 57.6 176.4
4 , SO 372.4
tOO· 309.3
150 243.7
200· 173.7
150 94.4
300 0
----. ---
If:..
DYNAl'vlIC PROGRAi\Ill-All'\lG 237
TABLE 10.27
Pumping epergy
remperature difference Drop in r", in 3-h period, ,oC
It start of 3 .. h period,
" - twbt 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
.5 0 ')
,L. 16 54 'X·- X
~,O 1 12 45 X X
:.5 0 8 36 96 X
:.0 _ . ·4 27 80 166
:.5 0 18 64 139
·.0 9 48 111
-.5 0 32 83
'.0
:.5 , .. 16
0
55
27
·.0 0
, TABLE 10. 28 ,
, Increase in velocity in 3i)-~ intervaJ,. r;nJs
)
.~;,.;.~.:,., !~~.~ .' . .:;"§:..: .~:~~.,.~!J~:~ <;":"' ~!~·r::.".·);·7;;;::. .,. :'' i~:~'r. . +"~ ',.:."'~~'. ·~. ,;.... :,.,::.•'..'.•
5.000 - 152 312 486- 679 ';:' · · ' 895 . -
:,.J 6~OOO 143 288 445 61-7- - ~ '808 . , 1024 "
. :7.000 136 269 412 ' 567 737 - 926 ' 1140 .
,8.000 1~1 253 385 ' 525 679 -- 847 , 1034
9~OOO 127: 241 362. 491 630 781 '/ 947
10~900 -124 231 ,;343 - 462 589 726 875
of
The rea,ctof is to,consist four stages; as 's hown in Fig. 10-12. A particular
reactor is limited to a tota(of 14 kg .6f cataiyst"which is available'in I-kg
packages. Each stage can accommodate 0 td 5 kg of catalyst. The fraction
of hydr~zine undecomposed in
~' stage is given by
)'0
-=--= '0 . 5
" + '0 .e
5 -m,"
' ·'
)'; ,
,, ,
Stage I 11 III JV
I I I I
I J
- I I I f NH 3 • N 2 , H]
Pure J
hydrazine I
~J
I'
I
I caw,ys,li
I
C]rD 0
' J
,J
I
I
I
I
I
: and undecomposed
I hydraz.ine
I ~
I
I J
, 0 2 3 4
f1GURE 10·12
Four-stage hydrazine reactor.
- .
DYNAM1C f~OGRAMivIJNG 239
an initial contamination of 2'000 ppm. e:nlqring the first stage. A total of 140
kg of activ(1req carbon i~ available ·to be bi~tribut~d. in the four stages in
qup ntities of 10.20,30, <-/·0. or·SO .kg_iri each stage,· The ·perromlance of
. each stage is. expresse~ by
Use ~ynamic programming to e·stab'Iish ·[he distribution. thar results in· Ithe ··· .
minimum contamination of· the waste water leaving· stage 4. ·To shorten ·
the calCulation effort~ construct the tLlbles only in [he neighborhood of the
·answer given belpw.
Ans~: 10, 30, 50, 50.
REFERENCES
I, P. R. KJlinkowski. "Ultrafiltration: An Emerging Unit Operation." Chem. Eng., vol. 85~
no. ll.pp. 164-173, IvJay6.1978.
2. 1 .. L. Rizzo and A. R. Shepherd. "Treatil;lg Industria.! \Vaste\~·nt6r with AG£i\'~ted Carbon:'
Chem. E.Jlg. • vol. 84, n~, 1. .pp .. 95-1b.~. Jan. 3. 1977 .
•~DITI0NAL READINGS
Bellman. R·, E.: Dynamic ProgT'Qlnming, Princeton University Press. Princeton. N.J., 1957.
Be]}man, R. 'E .• and So ·Dreyfus: Applied Dynamic Programming, Prince£On University Press,
Princeton. N.J., 1962. .
Denn, M: M.: Optimi:alion by Variariolla/ lYlethods. McGraw-Hili, New York; 1969.
GJuss. B.: An Elementary IJlITOductioll10 Dynamic Programming;" a SWle EqlWTioll Approach.
A.flyn and Bacon. Boston. 1972, . . ..
. Hasrings, N. A. 1.: Dynamic Programming with Jrlallogemellt Applications.- Crane, New
York. 1973. . '
~emhauser. G. L ..: lmrodllction 10 Dyiulmic ·Prqgrammillg. Wiley. New York. 1960..
Roberts. S.: Dynamic Pro,gralllming in Chemical Engineering ~)Jd Process Control, Aca-
demic, New York. 1964.
I .. . ' I
- . .. -
'J !"' .. . ' ( • • ':I: \ , 4 t', . ~~;..: :.1 ,: .'.~';
,,-
I '
.-
11.1 INTRODUCIJON
Geometric prograrnming is one of the· newest methods of optimization.
Clare'n ee Zener fust recognized the significance of the geometric and arith- ,
metic mean in eases of unconstrained optimization. Since then others ~ave
extended the methods to accommodate more general optimization problems..
,The form of problem statement that is particularly. ~daptable to treatmen t
by ,geometric programming is a sum of polynom~a1s for both the objective
function and th~ constraint equation~~ These polynomials can be ,made up of
combinations , of variables of either positive or negati.ve noninteger or inte-
, ger exponents. After seeing the usefulness of polynqrnial representations in
Chapter 4, we recognize that the ability to optimize such functions is clearly
of engineering impprtance.
A ' feature of geometric programming is that the first stage of the
solution : <) to find the optimum value of the function rather than first to
I
determine the values of the independent varjables that give the optimum.
This knowledge of the optimum value may be all that is of interest, and the
. c~lculation of the values of the variables can be orpitted .
This chapter first presents tl\e form of a geometri~ program,ming prob·
lern and then defines degree of difficulty, because problems with zero degree
,o f difficulty are jdea]~y suited to geC?metric programming. Furthermore opti- I
. mzation problems with degree of difficulty greater than zero qre prob~bJy
. b~st sol ved by some other method lof optimization. Next the mechani cs of
the ~ethod will be lll~strated with several examples. Gradually this chapter
240 -.
GEOl','lETRlC PRGtJRAMMING 241
into th~ solution. For example, the solution by geometric prog~mming ~lso
shows h.ow 'the rota~ cost is divided among the various contributors.
Geometric .programming asserts that the optimal value y * can also be rep-
, r~sented in product fonn by an expression' that we shall call g *,
. y
~ -g
_ * _ 1-
-
,DI )WI("C2XaJ )~ "'2
( Cl X- . (11.6)
. . WI W2 .
y* = g* =
. CJ
-.....
JWI( --
C., ). "':?
( WI
(l1.9)
. ' }1J2
WJ =
"
" u*J
=-
uT (11.10)
uj + ui y*
,
The objectiv.e function,' the cost .J'. in terms of the va.riable D is then
I •
32 X lOI::!
Y = 160D' + --
D5
- (11.12)
-,
Solution 1.. To .p rovide a check' on the geometric-pr6gramnling method, opri-
. rnize by calculus.,. .
Solution. 2
32 X 10 12
y* = 160D* + (D*)5 = g*
. '160Djk·Ji32 X IOl2jW2
y* = g* = ( - -
wl D5 w2
and
t
_Solving gives and w =-
, . 2 6
Substituting these values for WJ and w~ intO the expression for g. results in
the cancellation of the D's. leaving
y $ , = g~ =,.,$19.200
244 . DESIGN OF TIiERMAL SYSTEl.,,1S
' r:;,,'" . ' . ' '.. I .. . ....." ., . .. " . '. , " ....:. " o·
(rJ is the rotative speed .in radians per second. Detennine the 'maximum
'w~ere
power of which this engine is capable and the rotaiivt? speed at which the
. maximum occurs.
Solution. The power P in watts is the product of the torque and. the rota.tive
. speed,
. provide.d that ·
and W2 = -5.667
Sub,stituting these values of HlJ and W2 into Eq. (11.13) gives
..:" _<The t::xi:>ttjJ3ce. ·of.the.., ~.~g:?~iy~" cge:fPc~~nt"i'1.: ~:e; ·.qbj~.¢.tiye: flli1c.tio~...~~'f:l~e:d.li1o<J..": ,.": ·.1.;.
.,~ : ••.' •••• ;,••~.. ' : , : ' , -. " ': ' '," -.<' :
y - -4x + x 1.6
~~ .Solution
_4)\I'!( - 1 )W2 .:
y* =g* =. -
. '
( WI \."'2,
.
The values .. of the w's are WI = 2.6~7 and W2 ' = -1.667, and so
y* = g*
. (-4 )2.~7( 1 )-1.667
~.- (11.14)
2.667 . -1.667 .
y * = (-lf~·667 - -
4 )2.667(-1) -1.667(1 )-1.667
2.667 ( -- .
. 1.667
4 ) 2.6fJ7( 1 ) -
l
1.667
= (-1) - - -- = -6.90
2.667 1.667
x· = 4.6
, The optimal value of y in this example is negative, which makes the com-
ponents complex numbers in Eq. (l1.14). Ie is possibl·e, however, to extract
the negative terms and group [hem as .negative unity , taken to the power. of
uni~~
-._____.
~
246 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
eo '
where (11.17}
A "certain 'combination of val~es of WI ,and ' }\'2 will provide ,a maximum
value of g. To
determine these values of ,\-Vl and W;2, apply the method of
Lagrange multipHers to Eg. (11.16) subject to' the <;onstraint of,Eq. (11.17).
, The maximum values of g and In,g both ace'u r at 'the same val,ue,of th~ 'YV ~s;
-since it is more convenjent to optimize in g:
11aximize lng = WJ(lnuI -In'wl) + w2(1 nu2 -.1n)'v2) (11.18)
'subject t~ 1Vl + l1.'2 - 1 = ¢ .= 0 (11.19)
Use the me00d of Lagrange multipHers
.V (.In g) - A V ¢ =, 0 '
¢ = 0
which provides the three equations:
1n III - 1 - In W J - ).. == 0
\-1'",: ]n 1:1 2 - 1 -:- Jn H)2 - A =0
Wj' + H':! - 1= 0
The unknowns are }-i)l, W2 f and ~ and the solutions for
I WI and 11'2 are
II)
, WJ - -----------~ (II .20)
"
ul + U2
and (11.21)
t}
GEO&1ETRIC PROGRAMMING 247
' . I
Thus g = Ll u + H2 \
Let ~J S pause at this point to. assess our statu.s . By theSfloice of l-t'J and
w;2 according te Eqs. (11.20) arr~·(11.:21) the .v alue of g is 'tnade equal to .
. that of It 'I ':- U2 ' ~nd · th~~e~~~,~._. ~Iso, .~o 'Y!,~"t.7n~\,.9.0.~f.:~~.Q.mpitn1:ti.on/of. wr-'arld··::,."... .
" .•• .• .-"'-v )t~2_~~~.4lt~. :~~ p_.:y?-lue ~of. ·g~ ~tl~~t ) sJes:s,~.than_.u.l <:.,±'~ l!-2':~ . >;..y' _.,' ...:.-.,;;;;::,::: ';;;., .'-(... ~'r.:'/ ~:j;: ..:.: :.:.~..';~ ..:w·!:_T:
--, Sl.n~C'e:o·ut, onginal.objec:tive .is·:£o ·.rni~iInifle '.y, the ~exr·step·· is·,to "u-se .'
, the value "of x' in Eq. (11'.15) that results the minimum, value ·of HI + u2- in
, The va~ue 9f g at this c-o.ndition g:i: will therefore be the one vvhere the 1t-' 's
are chosen., such. that g always equals Y ,bur also with [he value of x' chosen '.
so .that y is a minimum. This va'-lue 'of x~ can be found by eq'ilating the
deriyative of Eq. (11.15) to zero .i
GICtXCa.J-1) + Q2C2X(02-1) = 0
Mt1lt~'plying by x gives
- ) al Cl .;rDI , + ..a2C2X02 . 0
.-and so alIlt + Q2 u j =0 (11.22)
.·\vhere uT' and ui are- the values of u'J :,and Il2 at the n1iilimum 'value of y.
From Eq. (1 1.22)
uj °l
and w"- - -
-..
~(a2/al)1l2 ' * + 1I2* Gl - Q2
When these values of WI and H"2 are substituted into Eq. (11.16) for the
exponents, the expression for g'* results
.. ' (CIX,OJ) -a 2/(01-01)( C2XD1):01 / (0,-0:0
g*= ' - - . - -- -
WJ . W2
~.. Geomeu-ic proir~mming not qnly yields optimal values of the variables arid
.. .- . objective function but can provide some insight into.lhe solution. CO!lsider, .
. _. :,: for. .ins.tiUlc~, . E:ra:np1e 11.1,' .~her~ ~~ life-~y~le :'c~si of
.the .p~p-pipe":"'~'i'~'
..
,}.~~._:: '. >~ ~~~~7.~~: ~~ .op~ed:· " . . '. ' -< 0,' . -. : . '. ~
_. " ". ~ '-~'
- :-'r .: - :~ .'. :' . ~ .
. - -• • •• , . ".', • • ••
. '. : ..... . : .:.,....:-.. y ' :..-. pipe c.os.t.·ct·~pres.~nt ,w~rtl! ofJifetiroe eJ;1ergy _~ost .. ....
. . '...... '... : :....:. ' ;i'·.
~:";::'-~~.i.'·:·;:·~~)·-.-,· ... ·i~.!''';·::.·· :, ':.','; ",:;:;::': .::.<: ,.:~" ,, ;, <:/ . ,>J;~~ :",:'::-.::-~ .
. ' 32 x ·10 _ .,., .. .. '. . ' .. . . . -
.- 160D + 1) 5 " . .
. . . . ~ .
.- ... - .. ' . .
For this objective function the optimal.value of diameter D* =. lOO~ mm and
y * = $19,200. The values of the w,eighting factors, WI and W2 of '5/6 ,and
1/6, respectively, are alsd of interest, becaus.e at the optim'um five-sixths of
the to
total cost is 'devoted . the pipe and o~e-sixth ~o the energy.
Let us suppose .that die cost. or .t he energy ·in~eases. What would· be
t:Qe effect on .the optimum? 'wp,at bappens tq ,the solution, for. example, if
the lifetime energy cost becomes .(50 X 10[2)ID 5 ? Of particular importance
is .the fact that the distribution of the total cost remains unchanged (five~
sixths and one-s'ixth) because the. exponents of.D that control 'WI and W2
remain ' unchanged. Both y * and D * increase; the optimum total cost I;l.OW.
becomes $20,680, and D = I07.7 ffiffi. The increaSe.in optimal diameter
pr.obaqly confonns. to our expectation that upon an increase in the ~nergy .
cost the diameter responds -by ·incFeasing.· But regardless of what. happens
-to the -unir cost of energy or pipe', the qi~tribution between the.fust cost of
the pipe and the energy remains constant. .
Suppose, howeVer, that an exponent of D changes, e.g., the cost of
the pipe increases at a more rapid rate than linearly. If th~ cost of the pipe
is proportional to D 1.2, for example, the distribution of costs betwee~ the
pipe and energy changes because the new value of Wl = 0.806, compared
\\I·i th the origin a] value of O.833~ The ·optimal condi~on :responds to the
more rapid increase in pipe cost by decreasing the fraction of the total cost
devoted to the pipe.
Example 11.4. The pump and piping of Example) J.1 are actuaHy pan of
a_w-a.~eetreatmen( complex~. as shown in Fjg. 1) ~ 1. The sys,tem accomplishes
€:.>
GEOMETRIC' PROGRAlviM1NG 2r~9
Wasi'e :' I I
~ Effluent
. '
,- ; ..•~.
. .": .... , .......': : ' ." ,,",
't he treatm.ent by a' con1bination "of dilution and' che~ical actiOJ!] so iliat tqe effluent
'meers' code req~irements. The ,size -of .the reactor can decrease, as the dilution
increases. The cost of the reactor is 1501Q, where Q is the flow rate in cubic
meters per second. The equation for the ' pumping cost ~ith 'Q b~o:k'en out of. the
cOffiQined co~stant is (220 x 10 15 Q2)/ D5. Use ,g eometric programming to optimize
the tqtal system.
Solution. The total cost is ,th~ sum of the costs of the pipe~ the pumping power,
,and the treatment ,plant '
220 X 1015Q1 150
v
.,
= 160D
'
+. D
'5 + -Q
provided that
to cancel
D:
Q:
Solving gives
5 -2
wJ -
-
-
8' and W3 =-
8
I
Uj
Q = J50
Q.
= ~(30
B'
224)·
"
so
.
•
e quations (from V y := 0) V/ould bave been solved. In general~ the solu tion
·,by geometric programming of a zero:degt~-of-djfficu1ty problem requires
the soiution of one ,m9r~ equat~on in a set of simultarteo~s equations than
required by Lagrap.g~, ,m ul,t ipliers, _but the equations 'aT~ - linear. -For this,
sPeCial ,c lass, of pr<?blems,,_th~n, so~u~Qn by' geometric programming is likely
,~ ,to b~ much , ~lmpler than by: calcUlus. ' , ' , ' , ,' , "'" , , "
·~"r{ _,:'· .,., :_ ,,:' ; lbe,,~a~e.roa~ic~ .~.ubsumti~~9n. for the proc~dure ' of solving'the nilil-
:' ',' . tI~an~bi~ "'prcbI-em;'<''Ex~pi~{', -.i j.'~4~:',;h~:>not: .y~t~~~t.t.· PKQXided,.,:}t:J;~'~ Q.~ '.
, dev~loped by following the patte;m,:.for ~~ proof 'of :the:slilgle7:~:an'aBll{opti~~};.
~tion 'presented j.n S~c. 11.5. The steps are as 'f~llo~s; .':", " "
. - , .
1. Propose a g function -in the fonn of Eg. (11.16).
2. Set the sum of the .W 's equal to unity [Eq. (11.17)].
3. Maximize Ing subject to
N
~ ,Wi =,1.
;=1 '
to find that the ,optmlal w' s equal the fractions that the respective u' s are
of the total [Eq. (11.21)]. With those 'o ptimal values of w the function
g equals the original function to be optirriized.
',' 4. Optimize tDe function. The differentiation with respect to the x ~ s is. now a
parlia' differentiation, and ,the derivatives are equated to zero, following
- which the equations are multiplie¢l through b~ the appropriate Xi.
5. The result will be a summation fO'f each variable
T
L a1nlv/' = 0 (11.25)
i= J
The N equations designated by Eq. (11.25) are the conditions that result in
[he cancellation of all the x's in the g-function fonnulation.
-. (11.26)
GEOMETRIC PROGRAMMiNG 251
l!.:j + Us = 1
.~VJhe[e the 11 ~s are polynomials in tern1S of four independent variables, x I ,
,.·X2-,. x) ~ ~Jid x 4: The, right sid~ q,f thy constraint- e~llatiO? m~t be ~IJ)ty:, ..
.;.._,·YV,hic.h ·pDSes. DO proQ!em. a~. loJ1g .SS OD.e p~u:e. ~n1ltC1ep.cat~ernl._apI?~~~)n.xh~.~~~-·~;·:,·.
.:, .'. 'ecJ..Lt~tipn~-:~lf ~I}-~:( !Jurr~~.~-:i? not ~nifj1.-' tEe '~ni1i'~ equatiQn . c~~·b.e. ~dh'jde((by~,,:·.·.·:· .."
the' number to convert it into unity., .
The ~bjective fupction can be rewritten'
(11.28)
provided that
lL-t. +.U5 = 1
. (!!.!)' W-I( ,Us J" "'5
(11.31)
W.:J. 1Vs
provided 'that
J.V~. + Ws == 1 (J 1.32)
and Us
and Ws = - = Us (1 L33)
1
Equation (11.31) can be raised to the Mth power, where M is an. arbitrary
constant, and j t$ value rema~.ns .unity t
( 11.34)
.
Y = g ()IVI( !!.2 )Wl( !2)Wl(' u4 )MW..I( Us )MW.3
=!!J. (11.35)
",. w1 W2
. ,
'V3 W4 Ws .
.. .III ............ " . . . . . . . ., ..... 111 . . . . 41 " '" .. III • '" '" . . . . . . \l1li AI . . . . . . . '" . . . . . . . . . . . . . fII ..... & • .II ....... '" _ ........ 41 • II . '
<II _ ......... <6 .. 0lil ... .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. ..... ~ .. " .. fII ....... '" .... <III .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. " .. ~ .. .. .. ... .............................. ~ ..
11 A water across 4l
nation plant at the seacoast to a city. The pipeline. as 1)'
In J J J6 water. costs of the pipeline are
+ O.OOO32t\pl.:! dollars
- ..
---:-------'2l
r -- 30 Ian - . -
B.GURE 11-2
\Varer pipeline ·in E~ample' 11.5.
30.000.m
n =
L
where L is the length of each pipe sec[ion in meters. The pressure drop in
each' pipe sectio~ is. .
L V2 - L . 0.16 )2} 3
!1p = f D2 p = (0.02)D (7rD~14 Z( 1000 .kg/m )
. '. -
provided that
L: MW4 = 0
trp: + MY!4 = 0
D: 1.5w3 +5Mw4 = 0
SMW 4 == M
sowI = 0.0385, W2 = 0.1923. WJ C 0.7692. M = - 0.2308, and MW4 =
-0.2308_ .
- .
DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
.. -0.2308
y*=
-
'-V * = $410 150
,
L* = 4750 m
so D~ = 0.246 m
. L*
*..= .2.410D"s - 188,000 Fa =2 k.Pa
sections is
six pumps ~ould be used; which L to 5000 fit
can be (11.42) and (l ],43) a reo-pnnrnZ2l!l0J
and D.
11.9 SENSITIVITY
In . ] 0 rhe multiplier A as the sensitivjty ~ . . n~ .... ,.
11 . 10 HIGHER DIFFICULTY
AND EXTENSIONS OF GEOMETRlC
only problems to
appl i~ in this chapter were
lems-geometric programnli is
GEOMITRIC,:PROGRA~L\'!lNG
G eomeL'_ic pro gramrni ng a lso -p rovides SOlTIC phvs iell!, .Tn s~ ght Rnto the sol u-
'- '-' • )..... <-J •
Pl\{OBLEMS
So1ve the following problems by geometric programming .
. ' 11-1. The thickne'ss of the ·insulation of a hot-water tank is to be' s~lected so thar
the total cost of the insulation and standby heating for the IO-year life of the
facil-iry will b~ minimlim. '
Data
A verage water temperature, 60°C
Average ambient temperature ,24°C
Conductivity of insulation. 0.036 W/(m . K)
Cost of hear ene'rgy. $4 per gigajoule
Cost of insulation, where,X = insulation thickness: mm, 0.5:,(0.8 dollars
per square meter
The operation is continuous. Assume that the only resistance to heat transfer
is [he insulation.
(a) What is the minimum' total' cost of insulation plus standby heat loss
per square meter of heal-transfer area for 10 years, neglecting interest
charges?
(b) What is the optimu"m insulation thickness?
.Aris.: (b) 99.3 mm.
11.2. A hydraulic power system must provide 300 W of power. where the power
is the product of. [he volume flow rate Q m~/s and the pressure buildup
6p Pa. The cost of the hydratilic pump is a function of both the Dow rate
find pressure buildup: '
$/m 2 = 0.5 + C1
:x.
Efficiency I
= 100 _ 0.023
. (mil + '0.0025)2
,
I
,
It---- of ..
FIGURE 11 ..,3
Free~stream jet in hob. ) 1.3.
GEO.\1ETRlt::-· PROGRA~L\'l!NG 257
Ho( \.\:Llt~r
\ \ ,
AiL 2JOC
.-1.'.-------t So.ck gas
1111/ kg/s Combu.<;rion .·f lSOOC
:,,",'," .' ,., :.:.~- i,";::~e~7q2~~,:c,~(:,,~:;.~;:?H!_~~S_, ' ':. ·e:~c~~~<r/,:' ";;;::P',' ,,~: h~' ,.", .:
0.0025 !':g/~
\V.:tl~r
·FIGURE 11 1-'
Ho[-w<Her bo.i1er in Prob. J 1.5.
Th~ specific heat of the gas mixrure is 1.05 kJl(kg ..K,). Dettrmirie the.val~e of
lila thaI results in. ~he m~xjmurp mre
of h~at "transfer to the water. Suggestion:
Use JJ7 0 + 0.0025' as the variable
be optimized.
[0
k
- ' Rtl
k - 1
[
1-
, . (k -
(P:!.)
·.PI
I )1 J:
j1
where subscript 1 refers to the en tering conditions and subscript 2 to the
leaving conditions.
(0) With the intennediate pressures chosen so that the total work of compres- .
. sion is a minimum. what is the minimum work required to compress I
kg of air, assuming that the.compressions are reversible and adiaba.tic?
(b) What"are the intennediate pressufes that resull in this minimum work of
compression? '
Ans.: 429 kJ: 400 and 1600 kPa.
11. 7. The hear-rejection system for a condenser of a steam power plant (Fig.
11-5) is to be designed for minimum first plus pumping cost. The heat-
rejection rate from the condenser is 14 MW. The following costs in dollars
must be included:
,
First cost or
cooling tower. 800Ao. 6 • where A ~ area, m 2
Lifetime pumping cost, O.OOO.5w l where w = flow rate of water, kgls
j
denser. 0(.": ,
~rnte·--()f heat transfer from rhe cooling tower can be represented
ndequareJy by the expression'"' q. W = 3.7(w 1.2)rA.
258 . DI;.SJGN Of TIiE.R}AAL SYSTEMS
.
Cooling
tower
,:;';:'~-:-·a~: a::~TaJ:. a
, ..
. - ,~. . . • &, . ~
a-a .:~.:.1. ;:aa~~':'~,~ ".'f':::~~~a:;._; . -:~;: . :. ~::: '::'~':': :-'1 ..,~~: ._ ._ ,.a<:.~--~'~,. :., _:j
- -__--:--.i '.' . . : ......-.
wkg/s
re,
FlGURE 11-5
Heat-rejection system in Prob.·1 1-.7.
a a _
detenTllne the minin1um cost and the optimal di.mensions of [he building.
Ans.: Height.= 71.4 m.
11.9. Newly harvested grain often has a high moisture content and must be dried
to prevent spoilage. This drying can be achieved by warning ,ambient air and
blowing it tJu-ough a bed of. the grain. The seasonal operating cost in doJIars
per square meter of grain ~ed for such a dryer consists 'of the cost of heating
the air
where Q = air quantity delivered through the bed during season, m 3/m 2
~ area .
Af = rise in tempera\ure through heater. °c
J'11e values of Q and 6.1 also jnf1uen~ the time required for adequate drying
of the grain 2ccording to the equation . a
gO X ]0 6
Drying time = Q'2llr days
------
..
GEU :·.! FTRtc PROGR;~ 1, m':G ~59
," ~ .; .~ .' 1J~' ~ .REr<CE~~'. '~: ~ ':~~...(~~ :.':. ~:' - .' '-' '''!',: .. ... ' , ... .. - I '.~' - ...... I •
.'. : -: :. . .,..
1. ~: i ' D~ttn, E. :L~' Petersbu',
and · c~,)y[;Z.e.rjef~, GeOlJletric prog'i-am~li~!i>\1iil~)~. " ''X,e\\~ ' .~,
York~ 1967. . , ' . '
. 2. W. F. Stoecker, Design of Thermal Systl!ms. ls~ ed .• McGraw-Hill. Ne""· York. 1971.
3. H. Schlichting, }:jOl;udary loj'er Theory, 5th ed., McGra\Y,.'-HiIL NeVI Yolk. 1958.
i.
B!BLIOGRAPHY
C. Zener", Engineering Design by G~omerric-Progr(1';l1nillg.'. ~i~~y'-fnter:sc'~p.~. Nc\\~ \ork.
1971.. . ' . . .. .. . '. . .. ' . '. " '.
C , Beightler and p. T. Phillips, Applied Geomerric Programming. \Viley, New York. J 9-:0.
--
1
I·
.,' ' ". ". ,J. • • ', '-''\.." • t... ....:. ~'. - " • •
.
~ \"~
~...
.-., _....-. . ~ _ . . . : .t:-.~ ... ~ ...:-
'_./~ .~.~ ":.~~r~~
··PROGRAMIVIINO··
\"
260
- .
LlNEAl;: PROGRAMMING 2 6=~
i.:-
~
inventory costs money. Or it can pay overtime rates in order to step up its
production during the period of peak sales, which also entails an additional
expense. Finally the company can simply plan oh losing some sales because
I
it does not meet the sales demand at the times that it exists. thus losing a
potential profit. Linear progranuhlng c~ incorporate the various cost and
loss factors' and arrive at the most profitable ,production plan.
, The fourth application. the transportation problem. occurs when an
organization has severa] production plants distributed throughout a geo-
a
graphical area and number of differently distributed warehouses. Each
plant has a certain production capabili ty and each warehouse has a cer-
I
o'ne. or more plants. The object is to determine how much of each plant's
: production should be ~hipped -to w~ehouse in order to' minimize the each
total' manufact1.Uing .and ·transportation. co.st.·. . (, .
Sj.mple Iinear-programm~g problems can be done i~.a hit-or..miss fash-
ion, .but those with thr~e or..~ore v~a~l~s .require systematic procedures .
.' . Even when us~g,.·rrietho~i.~~ t¢c;bp~qu~~! . . ~e .magnitude.of·a problem·¢at
.': '. .~ . :.~~~.~'~e:. sqIye'~~:'?Y':~~d ~J.~) ~~it~lI:)~~~~~ .:pt?b1~ms~{W~,~.e~~ ~:f~O~t~~,~
. .~.vanables) requlIe cO'mputer programs, WblCh .are_. currentlY""avaIlabnt~:as-~:l
- . li.bniry routines. . .
negative, or zero. The inequalities in ,the constraints can be in either direct jon
anq can even be strict ~qualities.
At first glance, this problem lJ1ight seem readily soluble by Lagrange
multipliers, but we recall' that the method of Lagrange multipliers is appli-
cable ,where equality constraints exist.. Furthermore, Lagrange mul tipJiers
apply where n > JJl, but in linear programming n can be greater than,
e9ua1 to,' or less. than In. The significance of J2 < ]]1 wiJI be discussed In
Sec. 1-2.14.
3.2 k:~js
, ,"
- -
. ,:"::" •• ::... I . , ' .; -
, .
/.
FIGURE 12-1
Power plant in ExampJ~ 12.1 .
. .~
The gene~ation rL1[e of electric power'depends upon the flow rate of steam
passing through each of the sections A, .B. and C; these flow rates are WA, WB.
and We. respectively., The relations.hips are
PA , kW '- 48wA
PB , k\V = 56ws
Pe , kW = 80wc
where the w's are in kilograms per second. The plant can sell as much
electricity as it generates. but there are other restrictions . .
To prevent overheating the low':pressure section of the turbine. no less
than 0.6 kgJs·musc .always flow through section C. Furthermore, to prevent
unequal loading on [he shaft. the pennissible combination of exmcrion rales
is such tha r if ;r I = O. then ~t.2 ::S L B kg/s and for each kilogrum of x I
I
SO~fion. The revenue per bour is the summAte revenues from selling the
steam"and the electricity. ...
264 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
t;> ,
1.65 1.10 r
:. Revenue = 1000 (3600x 1) + 1000 (3600x2) + O.OJ( 48wA + 56wB .+. 8p wc )
. .. ! .
. I . .
Since WA = 3.2 kg/s an4 .from mass balances WB = 3.2 - x 1 an~ .w~ = 3.2-
." :. ' ,.:'.... '..... ~~.~~:~~~:.;.._1?.>~. :" ~.~.6x ~. + 1.5.~~2 . · .: . ,.( 12.3)
. :' . ..... _j. .".::.:. .' ..:. . . 'B~cause 'the coPS.tant: .has ~no effecr.~ori. the
state 'point at.' vihlch ' the,
~'~:-!:.:~,~.":~~: :~7"', ·.:;_~~optiIDuni::.O·9~~.,::,~~_ ~1?j~~.~ive ~.nction to'· be ~aX~zed is ' . . . ". .
• . .' . . 'h ".:,. ~';L;;", ~t::86;;<~.i:L56£i/', :. :. '::~_,:' :-!.,: .~ :::~ :(. UA'r"
.' The ·three constraints ..are .. ".
. .' " .' X I +.' x 2 .< 2.6 ( 12.5)
.XI + 4X2::; 7.2 I (12.6)"
4Xl + 3X2 -< 9.6 (12.7)' -
12 . 5
GEOI\1ETRIC VISUALIZATION OF.
THE LINEAR.. PROG~G PROBLEM
Since it mvol yes only the two variables x 1 and x 2'J Example 1~.1 can be
'illustrated geometrically as ' in Fig. 12-2. The constraint of Eq':. (12.5), for
example, states thar only the' region on and to the ieft of the line Xl +
..r-- .x1+.r2~2.6
x) =0
o 2 3
FIGURE 12·2
Constraints and lines of constant profir in Exlmple 12.1.
-.
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
,~
2~55
x~ = /.,6 is pennitted. Placing the other two cOl1slrain"tS in Fig. 12-2 further
restricts the perrQ.itted,regJ,on to ABDFG., !! '
I\Text the lines of cons,~ant revenpe yare plotted 011 Fi.g~,12-2~ ,!.nspection
shows tnat the great~st profit can be achieved,'bY,lTIovrng to point D~ ~:vhere
, _ Xl = 1. 8 'and X1 ' O.B. ~"1,jmp?~t g~Iie,(,i.dization "is that t'be optimu.rn ,', '
': solu1.iqn li~s, at ~. COj~;'1:e~~ 'j:. sp'e~i,al ~ase ofJh.is, g~ne!aJ),2;:atjonjs J\~hereJ:.he.. ...;,,-.
, ',', ,"J~~s' pf .cons~~t' profit is' ~panil1.el to,'a co'rj~tfaint lirie,,' in \.vhi,ch case ~y._,'~",.
I,
on
-, 'point consrramt
tl1e 'ljn~ betv/¢en the cQmers
is 'equallY' f~vora,ble~'··' : .
If the objective' function depends ~pon three variables, a three-
,dimensional graph is requjred, aDd i:h~n the constraint ,equations are rep-
resente.d by planes. The-corner ~here tJ?e optimUlTI occurs is' formed ~y the '
intersection of. three planes. '
TABLE '12.1 .
Constraint equations'in'"
, .
tableau
, '
form I
1 ,. 1 "1
;>:.: ''"-:':·;'~':'"'i:..':;,~~:. ~'~~_~:'. ' ."J.!'~';': '. _', ". .3.""". 1" .... : ,9.6
. ' :.~>' ,~~:., . ":~, <·t~,:~o:'~:?'.~' ~ ;.:·t:;,;'; ~;:~\ ;.~~' ~":iT.:-.;~X. <, -
The bo"ttom line' of Table '12.1 was left plank anticipating the inclusion"'of~
the o~jective function, Eq. (12.4). T.he forin of the equation is ~evise.~·,
. however, before' inserting the numbers' so that all the x tenns are move.d to
,the left' side .of theequatio:Q' .
(12.11)
Insel1ion of these terms into the tableau yields the results" shown in Table
12.2. The coefficients of the x terms in the bottom line for the objective'
function are called diffe.rellc~ coefficient;. 6 ' , " •
TADLE 12.2
Constraint equations and objective function
in tabJ~au form
Xl XJ :tJ x,. x$
1 1 q 2.6
1 4 J 7.2
4 3 , 1 9.6
-
-1.86 .-1.56 0
-1.86 . - t.56 . o
note them in the column heading;, thi~ converts the tableau .into lhe forin of.
Table 12.3, wbi.ch.is n.ow the ~Q~plete tableau 1. .
.: A property of all tableau?'. throughout the.linear-programming proce- ' .
dur"e is that the current values of all the x's and the objective function' can'
be'!read immediately from the tableau. In Table 12.3 t for eXaJ?1p~e7 x 1 and
X2 are zero; since the first line corresponds ~o Eq . .(12_8)~ the value of X3
is 2.6 .. Similarly, x 4 '= 7.2 and X5 = 9.6. The bottom line is the objective
function. iIi the fonn· of ·Eq. '(12.11), so y = O. The number in the lower
right comer of each tableau·.is the current value of the objective function.
. .. -
.,
1 .. Decide which of the variables that currently are zero should be pro-
granuned next. In a' maximization p~oblem the variable with the largest
negative difference coef{ic.ient is chosen; in minimization the variable
with the large'st positive difference coefficient is chosen. . ._ ..'
. .
2 .. Determine which is the controlling constraint by selecting the constraint
with the most restrictive (the s~allest) quotient of the numerical term on
the right side of the equality divided by the coefficient of the variable
being programmed: .
3. Transfer the controlling constraint to the new tableau by dividing all
- tenns by the coefficient of the variable being programmed.
4 .. For all other boxes in the ne~ tableau (including noncontrolling con-
straints and difference coefficients) use the following procedure:
. a. Select a box in the new tableau. Call the value in the same box of
, me old tableau 'V.
b. Move .sid~ways in .the pld . tableau to the coefficient of the variable
bemg programmed. Call thls value w.
268 DES1GN OF TI-lERMAL SYSTEMS
8-
C" An the new tableau ,move from the box being calculate~ up or down
to the row . which
.
contains the:previ;O~s
. J
controlli~g equation. Call the
. .
value in .that box z. '. '" . '.... ,
d. The vallie of the box in ~the new taqleau 1S v -""w z .
. .
'. . ,. :1 ... ·'r.
12.11 SOLUTIOI'fOF- EXAMPLE 12~~'"
- ':. .-:~.-. ~i:~. ~:-: >rr! .II",' ;..~ ""';:. • • • • , _ _ ~ • • ~
T" ·The·.simp.1e:~ ·a1.gorithm,.p.~,~~nP.e? ~~. . S;~C;.., }~.~.~Q ~in .n<?w be us~4 'to .sol~e . ·
Ex ample .12_1 ..': ~~e"fust ·tahI e.a"uJs"::oompJi.~e~- ~~':::sh~w~ ~n·~·:.Tahle·?~2:~~::arrd;r:~~·-·
reproduced in .Table 12:4' .fqr-transf0ri?ation.. io th~: §ecop~ Jtabre~u.: ". _~.: .
Step "I. The' firs~' s't~p 'is to "decide' VwJhich of "the 'variables ~urrently' noted.
in the col urnn heading 4S iero (x] .or x 2) should be programmed first ..The
l~gest negative 'difference is -1.86 in the x { column, which indica.tes·Jhat.
. x 1 'sho~ld be programmed (increased from' its zero value). Th~ vertical ~rrow ~
indicates tha~ x 1 is .being progranuned. "
- .
LrNEAR ~.~OGRAMM1NG ? 59
{It
. .
becomes ze[o~ as indicated both by. the geometry in F~g. 12-2 an~- by the
third constraint in t~bleau 1. If that'constraint is thought ·of as an eql.latiop"
. the only. v~ables taking part in the action of the move ate x I and x ~. All
~he other varia~les .are .either zero or have zero ~oefficienis. The variable x I
"increases until x 5 has dropped to zero.
S~~p 3~ The first numbers inse!1eq.in the boxes of ~ableall 2 come from -the
controlling equation of tableau· 1. Dividing all the coefficients of the thjrd
constraint by 4, which i~ the coefficient of the variable being programme(t
the numbers in the boxes of table~u 2 for the third _constr~int become-'1,
0.75, 0,0, 0.25, and 2.4 ..
Step 4. For all the o~er boxes in tableau 2 the v - w z routine is fpllowed~
The individual calculations are shown in the boxes of tableau 2.
Tableau 2 is now complete. It contains the v~lues of all the x's and
the value· of the objective function. Two of the x's, namely x 2 and x.5. are
zero. as shown by the column ·heading. for each of the other x's a constraint
equarion will provide its value. In the fU'St constraint all··the variables are
eiEher zero or have a zero coefficient, eX~~Fr. for x 3. ~o the equat~on has
reduced to· X3 = 0.20. From the other two constraints, X4 = 4.8 and Xl =
2.4. The box in the bottom rign~ corner indicates the CJ,1rren[ vaiue of the
objective function· [0 be 4.464. .. .
The e'D.tire simplex '~goriuJn is repeated to transform tableau 2 into
tableau 3. ~e largest negative difference coefficient,'~ fact the only nega-·
tive one. is -0.165, under Xi, so X2 is .
programmed next. This lime the first
.
constraint is most restrictive; it therefore becomes ·the controlling equation.
and as X2 increases to its pmitt XJ drops to zero) 8S shoWn by·the column
heading in tableau 3 (Table 12.6). The coefficients in the ~t constrainr
of tabloio.2 'rue divided by O~25 and the tenns transferred to tableau 3,
270 DES1GN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
~ TABLE 12.6
'1;ableau 3 of Exampie 12.1.
I
x,] =0 ' Xs =0
<:0 \-;j~.'.:.<~(. )~.:.t::'~ :;. ':.~:~:::~'~" . "~".:~~:.' ':.'..'~3;:"-" :~7i-~~,.:?:f }~:v:;,;.4;:~.·:..c~!: :j{f.'~'h~;(>
• • - ' ",&.
. ," ...
J )
.' 3
... r'l\'.
'~
-, '
PeJ,lllined region
o ~~--~----~~------~------~------~--~
o 2
FIGURE 12-3 .
. Tableau ~ expressed on .r SX J coordinates.
The three constraints, Egs. (12.12) to (12.14), are shown on the XSX1
coordinates of Fig. 12-3, as we]] as a fe\v lines of constant objective
ftinction from Eg.· (12.15). An examination of Fig. 12.3 indicates that to
improve (increase) the objective funccion .r~ should be increased until a
constraint limits the advance. The restriction is imposed by constraint 1.
which occurs when .x 3 == O. so [he coordinate X2 wi]! now be replaced by
XJ. That replacement wjll be p~rfonned by solving for X2 in Eq. (12.13)
anti substituting into Eqs; (12~t2)r (12.14). and (12 ..15). The resulting set
of equations is .
Cons~int J: X2 + 4X3 - X.s = 0.8 (12.16)
CQnsrrain[ 2: - 13x 3" X~ + 3x.s = 2.2 (12.17)
Constraint 3: xI -, 3X3 + X5 = 1.8 (12.18)
Objectiv~n: y + 0.66-\.3 + O.3xs = 4.596 (12.19)
DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
I
J
1.0
onglTI j
is because an or
f\1rther· improvement . the optimum
about th.e transformations where
replaced in Figs. and 1 the equations on which
ba~ed. (12.12) to (12.15) are placed in a tableau
column 7 is A
Table 12.7 tableau 2 12.5) shows the two ~ L<.... ..., ... ....
TABLE 12.7
(12~
Xl Xl - Xl X-t x,"
0 J I
-0.25 0.2
0 3.25 0 1 -0.25 4.8
0 1 0.465 4.464
- ...
LINEAR PROG RA!'viM ING 27:)
TABLE 1 2~8
C ~ ..11P:'] .~ L,.. rn of . abJe 1. 2 44
{Y ) )
.I . I 2.6
I
~.6/4=2_4. ~.~ .'(5' ..... :,-,.,\ .,;4 ", .. , .D.3·· '.' . 9.6
- 1. 86 :.:.. 1.56 . I .0
. TABLE 12.;9
Compact
. form
. of Table 12.6
XJ 'XS
."(2 4 -1 0;8
I;
m>n m<n
(0) (~) .
BGURE 12-5
~elatioD
of number of physicaJ and slack ~~abl~.
to zero at the optimum, or' for that J?attei ~t any corneL When ~ > ~, as
:fig. 12.,.5a shows,. at least m - n constraints play no role in the solu~ion_
In Fig. 12-5b ,where m < J1! at least n - m physical variables are zero.
12 . 15 MINIMIZATION WITH
~ GREATER-THAN CONSTRAINTS
Solution of the maximization problem with less-than' constraints consisted
of moving from one comer in ¢e feasjble region to whichever adjacent
comer showed the most improvement in the objective function. Since lin-
ear programming always starts at the physical origin, the origin is in the
. feasible region wi.th Jess-than constraints. In the minimization problem with
greater-than constraints locating the first feasible point may be difficult.
I
2.
FlGURE 12a.6 -
-
Slack acd art.i.fici31 vuiables.
-
276 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
~~~:.~ .>.::-;.... ~,' " subj ect. tb·~'the~ coristrain ts '\ 'S; t: .;:.""; ,~, ,';I~, ...J,:" ".',',., ~' . '.;.j:'.,..: ;. ~ '~....,...;
, c , <'/";" , " . . .' '.' .'.' ". 5~1~:;:'~~I~-:"';' _'
';..0- - ,
Solution. ,Because iQjs problem inyolves ',pnly tyJo- physical variables, the
constraints and lines of constant y can be graphed,; 'a s in Fig. 12-7. "
For the sqlution by , li~ear .prograrnn;:iing, first write the constraint
inequal ities as equations by introducing the slack vari abIes x J, X 4, and x 5"
5Xl + X2 ,- X3 = 10
9x I + 13x2 = 74
XJ +, 3X2 -x.s =,9
10
\
,
\
."=27
X ,
\
\
\
\
'\
~
\
\
/,,33
,
\ \
\ \
6 \ .\
\ \
\ \
\ \
\ \
\
\
\
\
o ~----~------~------~------~~----~--~
o 2 4 8 10
F1GURE 12·7
'-1inimi2.ariol1 in Example 12.2.
, -----
.
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
~
277
l'-Jext ;:ile lli-rlficiai varia bIes. x 6 , X 7, a,nd x 8 ~) are inserted In each 'eq uation
5x ~ + . x~ ~ X3 + -'.:6 = ~C
( 12.26)
~'(' g = 9- Xl - 3x 2
Subs~ituting these values of the artificial variables into Eq. (l-?26),and group-
ing gives
y = (6 - 15P)x, + (3 - 17P)x2 + PX3 + PX4 + Px~ + 93P .
TABLE 12.10
Tableau 1 Qf ExampJe 12.2
.ij.
- . .' ~-
Xt
, .ra
...... ",--,
XJ %4
I
x!
10 . X6 5 I -1 0 0 1()
, 74113 x, 9 1,1 Q -1 0 74
~,3 x, 1 3 0 0 -1 9
TABLE u.li
Tableau 2 of Example 12.2 l'
{It I
, . X,3 , Xs
I .
TAELE 11.1i
T~bleau 3 of Example 12.~
, II
X3 X.t Xs X6 ..1'8
I
~7 X7 I -1 '4- . -] -4 28
J.
-7 . .r ~ 1I14 0 -5/1~ - 1114 5!J4 512
TABLE 12.13
Tableau 4 of Example 12.2
x.\ x~ .1', x, Xs
-.
~~ ,
'-
no fuI1he~ ~eduction in the objective function is possible. The solu[i~n is
"= 1
Xl and ,x; = 5
at which point y'" = 21.
Now that the I!linimization process in Example 12.2 has been completed .. a
reexamination of the successive tableaux in the problem will present a IDC?re
complete picture of the operation. The introduction of the artificial variables
in~ the objective function 'and, the constraint .equations pennirs a tempor'hry
violation .of the constraints but only at the expense of an enormously l~ge
value oftbe objective function. The solution will cert~inJy'not be satisfactgIY
,until all ~~."f terms are r~moved from the expression for the objective
functioD_, '
In contrast to the maxiI1!ization problem, e.g., Example 12.1, vv'here
the constraints were like solid walls tpat could not be surmounted, in the'
minimization probJem the constraints are like stiff rubber bands that can
be violated temporarily, but "with a severe penalty in ,the magnitude of the .-
objective function.
Looking first at tableau I, we see that the position represented in Fig_ '
12-8 is the origin, because XI = X2 = O. The slack variables X3, X4, and
x 5 are also zero, but the artificial variables have nonzero values: x 6 = 10,
X7 = 74, a'nd x 8 == 9. The value of the objective function is 93P, which is
prohibitive]y large.
In tableau 2 the nonzero values of variables are X2 = 3. x 6 = 7 t and
X7 = 35. In moving from point 1 'to poine 2 in Fig. 12-8 t the magnirude of
the objective function drops from' 93P to 42P + 9. In other words. the pure
l1umerical value increases by 9, but the staggering P term decreases from
93P to 42P.
The next shife is to point 3, 'represented by tableau 3. where the non-
zero values are Xl == Jh X2 = '12, X7 :::: 28. The magnitude of the objective
t
. " ..
.. . : '>'.' .' j
.~:, .
- '. ~ "'" i·
• .' 'l. - ~-,
'\.1, ;.:
,:. ':-:~"::' ~. ~~ ~ ~ :.' :&.~.. : . ':.. ~'.. '~~. • .~;~~.' },t" , ... ~. "'~,:~;- . ..\ ~ .
. .
,X4 = I, = 0
X.s=Xg=O
12..8
Points repre.~=:n[f~a by successive tableaux in .hx2l.tnple 12.2.
point
.........,......,..,. . . . .,. to move around
Lll"'\'EAR PROGRA.t\-fM1NG
.""ing 4?E: .decision to program .:C 5, th~ ]iriijt~tio'n for increasing .7F 5: ~l1:~. 'bY.J9.e . .
': ;·,:·...~·~tlrst. equation, \'!a.s 2Irby··the· ~se'Co'nd -eciua~9n' 7;ahd 'by t~e 'it1iifd :" ~qy,~/16jr""
· --: 7 .:~ Strict sonsistency' vlould have' req'uired us to' cl1Qo?e' 'the 'rbiter a's ~ the.·· '.'
, controliing equation_ Geometrically, in Fig_ 12-8~ the t~st to find the ' COTI-
,trolling ,equation consists of moving along me -X:3 + x 6' = 0 line. Beyon~.
point fl" \vhere X5 = 21, the value of Xl \vQuld' go negative'. Beyond 4,
where Xs :=;: 7, X7 would go neg~tive. The linlitation C?f Xs = ~7 is repre-
sented by point fJ'~ which would resu~t in a step backward, so the'limitatiops
with negative values are ignored. .
subject to- .
3X l + + (
= 9 (12.28)
.: . + 2+ ,(
y = + ( 1)
a IS
the function and [he maximum should not be reached
until X.s has shrunk to zero.
a an
variable. The slack variable -X6 converts the inequaJity into ~ equality.
to .start al: origin. Equation
(1
)' = 3x 1 + - P.t oS - P X7 (I
the step before x .5 02.30)
an~,.t7 from Eq. (12.32) into the objective function. Eq.
y = +( 1 + (
ur'fEAR ~OGRAMMING
-:{ 1 2.~ 4
I
. J.
Tableau 1 of Exanlple
{t-
.. ' I
Xl I .x J
'. 4013
.1 ;". , .0:'_ ,: •.•
. .. ,~: ~ .. .
'x s· ·····: ·1 ·· v -' . . : ..:.:. :'Y-;:' '.
7 4 4 -1 . 42
TABLE 12.15
Tableau 2 of Exampl~ 12.3
Xl XJ It; .r7
. '
7 Xj 3n 317. In .. -In 3
..
4214 XI - 4J7 411' -117 In 6
TABLE 12.16
Tableau 3 of Example 12 .. 3 .
{}
Xl r .. Xtj X7
......
284 DESIGN OF THERMAL Sy~S
TABLE 12.17
Tableau 4 of Example 12.3 .
x,
: ' -18 .r ' --1613" ~1J3 ,.,113 6
":"':6 " ,XI" " }), ::"~~13'~'·;..' ,~ .J'.[ ~~~~:if~';X.': ':~"::' ;';'~ iI~:>':.}:'. " .. ;::2.-t:~~;~Vl ~.~ ':' ~;;"~~ ;" "-!:-"~', ';. ~: ;.;~' ..
.' : .. I' •• - •• ~ " '. ~.. • ••
3f' - 30
3 ' .
, -] P + 1 32
l'ABLE 12.18 .
Tableau 5' of Example 12.3·'
' ,
Xl X~ .XS X7
-
.\,3 112 1/2 -3/2 0 1312
J/2 ]/2
II
2P + 3
2
p 33.5
tableau 4 is now in the feasibje region. The optimal soJution, then, is = ..t';
2.5,x 2•= O.x)• = 6.5, an d y .. = 33.5. , "
Example 12.4. In rhe pro~essing plant shown in Fig. 12.. 9, the operatjon is
essentiaJJy one of concentmting material A. The concentrator receives a raw
matedal consisting of 40 percent A by mass nnd elln supply two products
of 60 nnd 80 percent A. ·respectively. The flow rate of the raw material is
designated x I metric tons per' day and rhe 60 percent and 80 ptrcent products
are designated .r~ nnd :t';\. respectively. The ptjce$ are:
-. ~.
LO-lEAR PPrIJOR.<\MMING 285
.1.";::.60% , 1
Processing .'(3;80 %
40%A plan[
• <.. , nGuirnri~9 ..
'. ~ Discbarge ~'~'" .. ··.cpnc~ritt&or in ""Ex..aInp!e " l1'.4~ .;. :
Amoun[
Solution. The objective function is the difference between the income of the
productS and the cos t·of [he raw materiaJs
y = 80X2 + 120-'3 - 40-, 1
In addition to the constraint of .the loading facility , the mass balance of
marerial A imposes another constra in t that can be expressed by either Eq.
(12.34) or (12.35)
----~----------~--------_r~------~~~--~_ff-----. .
20 ,.1" ~ . 12 ·3 " "~60
. .
Let us now return to tableau .2 and e,xplor::e what, would have .occurred
if the second equation had been chosen as the controlljng ·one. That tableau
-\vould have been' as shown in Table 12.22. The· values indicated by r)1e
TABLE 12.20
Tableau 2 of Examp~e 12.4
.v-
XJ x~ Xs
[I
TAnLE 11.21
Tableau 3 of Example 12.4
,
Xl X.a x!-
o 60 • .:~ 'to
'... , ,~ ... ,.. ~..:';"" x t' _" -. ~ ;'"'~ ~.5 ..;...;~::.~;:-:- ?-:"':': .'.;.•.. >~.~..:., :,,~Q ~": ,. ;, .... -..:..-.......,:"~':.':~:r~~.~:;,''''''''::' --, "-':"~ ,::: '. ,. .: .: . . ~.: :>:. ,"' ':":~'"
4. .'
and
Solution. The' initial and final (third) tableaux are shown in Table 12.23
yie,lding [he oprimal resuhs of-x; = 3. = 2. and y ~ = 18_ x;
Example 12.6. Minimize y = 8wJ + 12\1,/2
subject to 2w .. · +<2W2'~ -4 -.-.-
and Wj + 3Wl 2: 3
Solution. The ftrst tableau is shown in Table 12.24. and the fmal tableau in
.-.- Table 12.25. The optimal vaJue~ DIe = 3/2, wi = Jl2, and Y· = 18. w;
The Jinks between the two "probJem' statements are the following:
(I) the..:coefflclent matrices of- [he constraints are transposes, and (2) the
288 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
TABLE'U.23 , ' ,
Initial and final tablea11X in ~xairiple .12.S ~
,Xj' ' X4
2·.. 1 8
,-,
x, 3/4
I
-114 3
. . . \-I:l""· ,:, •• ) .. t -
TABLE "U.24
.Initial tableau in' Exa~ple 12.;6
WI WJ, WJ W... ~
1\16' 1 3 ..
":""1 3
3P - 8 5P - 12 -p -p 7P
TABLE 12.25
Initia1 tableau in Example 12.6
WJ W'" W5 W.s
-3 -2 -p + 3 -p + 2 J8
subj~ct to.
.: l .
'. I
.. .. ;... .. :, ,' .... . ~'-
..,"... ir r' .*:' .x ~.__~ .s.~... ".....~::, . : ;;:".i"":":' :'.', ": ' .- ' . ' .J • •• :
2'-( 1 + 3x~ < 12 '. ::"" . ..... ".; '.: .....:..:... ~ ., .' '."
The new· constraint turns out [0 be inactive which permits tracing the te11l?s
that,appeared in Tabl.e 12.23. .
SollLtion~ ' Th~ firs[ and third tableaux appear in Ta.ble 12.26. 'f
Solution. The ini,tial and final tableaux are' showri in Tabies 1·i~17";~a·12.28.
respectively .
. TABLE 12.26. .
Initial and final tableaux in Example U.7
XJ Xl X-' I .t5
I
xJ 1 4 12 XJ 514 1-7/4 1
Xj 2 3 12 X2 - tl2 112 2
-4 -) 0 312 l~ 18
TABLE U.27
Initia1 tableau in Example 12 .. 8
w. Wl . w)
, "4 WJ
\116 1 2 2 -1 4
)1.'7 4 J 3 , -I 3
5P - 12 3P - 8 5P - 12 -p -p 7P
TABLE 12.28
F~IiaJ' tableau in EXaIpple 12.8 ).
WI W4 Ws w,
'.
" ....Wl ' : -5/4 -3/4 112 "
,, • o-~' "'7": ,. - 1_: .,. ' "~"': ~' ~~ r:!.:'~' '. ~.p +: ,3~.
. ;- .:7l'! +.,1, ." I~:,..":'-'oi L :"",,:',::J' -'.'
Let us propose ' using the results of .the pIjInal in' Example -12.'7- to ','
predjct' the optimal SOlp.Don in , EXaplpJe 1-2.8. For the tlrree vv·,' s -there are ."
'only .two. values', 3/2 and 1/2, avaiiable :in Example 12.7_ Oile of the w's will '
be zero. because there are three v,ariables and two constraints in Ex~pl~ '
12.8, but which ope? The natural order is 'follo'wed: x] =rf 0, so Wl = O.
The difference coefficient 'of X4 '= 3/2 = W2, and the difference coefficjent
of Xs = 1/2 =, W3.
y = Ax J + BX2
UllEAR PROGRAiVfMING
.....
/.
.......
-"
)..~ ~ / \ 1 ~' ~/ ./
"..../
" .7
,( )
, /.~y./.) (' \~)~ L..v ~\" J )
./ /" ,/ C · .----, . - /'
. and at the optimum,
y
~,
= '-Y ~
= CW 1
*
+ D"'v2~
*
- '1=', -' . --- . .-->. " '" '. • . ~" -
so ay / ae' -=. ~1' i'l ~E, By J J:.? (.;' ..~r ~, .,-~he~~~ v~~~~s , ~!;~ 3/2 and 1/2, ,resp~c .. ,:
-:tiY..f'ly.; -'-;., :- " , '
. ~. ::~,~';:.:\:.&-:-.-' .~.' -:.,..~;' .,.' ~\ ... - ':~.~" ',.:
. " ' -. ,-1
,1-
....,. '_:": 0.:'. ,',
'12 ~25 'EXTEN~I,Ql\JS :OF LINEAR
'PROGR.A1\1J\ID\T G' "
The cq.apter illustrateg hand calculations to solve linear-programming prob,..
'- lems, and there.is SOIJle benefit- to,understanding the techniques~ Hereafter '
~ 1ibrary 'routines will certainly- be used, ,particUlarly JOJ larg~-sca]e problems.
';' Two classes of sensjtivity-.coefficients ~vere explored; one remaining
'. is that ~ith respect to ', a coefficient in ,a con~traint equation_' The sol utian
to a body of problem,s opens when an opt,imization no~ completely linec;tr,.i$ ,
line~e~ and subjected to linear programming.
PRO~LEMS
12.1. A farmer wishes to choose the proportions of com "and soybeans to plant,
to achieve maximum net return~ He has 240 hectares, available for planting
although he may ele-ct to operate less than 240 hectares. The ~apital ~9-d
labor requirements and the net return on each of the two crops ,a re
G (4.0 = B.
hours per week spent outside
engineering
.;= number
. .. :. . J . .)0. . . . . - ,..
ofhbiirS.~ avaitable:-fo~,tnitsid~ <:'h~lrh1'-··...... ",.,.-t'17·&i"'''V- ,.'~""'f.,,..r
,
courses.
is planning construction of a plant that co~d man-
ufacture a combina,tion pot TV dinners,
""'.-T·.....-.""'r.. cos~ c<?nsist qf plant costs . costs I
and the· credit rating of the firm will. pennit loans of $4.8 n;Glijon or less for'
or
each of the proposed products are
Food cost
. ICoarse-ground·
.
. -J
..
1Estone ,- .- • =,~=-kJ·' storage .. ~, 1=. ~~:~ - = -==.- Cemeu[
-----i<.~l .Gnnaer .. lYilxer ~ Kiln
. '. .,' . >I ·F~<?-grOu?d J ~. _: .,'. ~
'[~l'.~. . : '•. ' >·<1"
.. ~. -:. - '
.. ~ ~ . ~
Gay
. F:GURE 12,-1('
Cement plant jp P~b. 12~4_
The grinder capacity shown in the taqle of 10 Gglday for type I means. for
example, that the grinder could grind the limestone for lOG g of type I if it
operated. aJJ day solely on limestqne for type I. The grinder and kiln operate
24 h/day and can switch from one cement tjpe to mother instantaneously.
The limestone storage space and mixer capacity are more than adequate for
any rates that the grinder and kiln will penniL .
Use the simplex algorithm of linear .programming to determine what
daily production of the various types of cement will result ip maximum
profit. ,
Ans.: Maxhnum da~y profit = $51 ~OOO.
12.5. Three materials A, ill and C of varying thicknesses are available for com-
bining into a builcling .\:V~) as shown in Fig. 12-11. The charac~ristics and
costs of the materials are .
A 30 7 $8
B 20 2 4
C 10 6 3
," 0• • ,.J
A B
,
,x em '
!>liIil cm
X3C 1>1
, FiGURE U-l1 ' ', '.
". ,.. COinpo~·jte wall in Prob. 12.5. '.:.. , " .
'.1
• I · ~ :
. -.
~ .~: ~
. - ,
'
"
. ~ ... .;, ~ I : ••••
;'. '''.-~'' ~~'.." .... "(a}·::S·~tPP)9.~~Qbj,~~ve:fun~tion·~d c·onsn:ainis .: .' '... .' ':" .- .-
." ..'(b) .Use the'· -simpI~~~,~,!£g~rithyJ ;~h·~~?-~9f;.~J?!.P.~.~R¥.'-~:~~: ,-~,9.~~~~e. ~~:~:,._ ~
optimal thiclqle.s_~es of eacir ~ate~~L. :" .... '... ' .. - .. .- - . " ".. ':: . ' ':.'.
. Ansa: $30 minimum cost: .. " . .
U .. 6. ' The optimization of the ~ombiDed gas- and steam-turbine plant in Prpb. 7.4 -
resulted in a linear objective ~nction and three linear constraints. Use the
simplex algorithm to determine the optimum value of ql and q'2~ To simplify
mathematIcal manipulation, use the following equations instead of those in
Prob. 7.4:
Objective function: q'=.qJ + Q2'-
Subjec~ to ql + 1.2q2 :> 28MW
,
Using the simplex. algorithm of Jinear programming, determine the c.ombina-
lion of fuel rates that results in minirrIum costs· and yet meets all constraints.
Ans.: Minimum cost =
$0.00231 per second.
12.8. A manufacturer of cattle food mixes a combjnalion of wheat and soylxans
to (orm a product which has minimum 'requirements of 24 percen't prol~in
_ ond J.2 percent minerals by mass ..,The composition and prices o(the whent
- -and soybenns are given in the table.
LINEAR PRO®RAMM1NG 295
loss of time.
If (he operating cost of. the plant is constant, use the sUnplex algorithm
of linear programming to determine the purchase and production' plan that
results in the maximum profit. .
Ans.= Profit = $3650 per ho~r..
12.10a A dairy operating on the flow diagram shown in Fig. 12-13 can buy raw
milk from ei[her or both of two sources and can produce skim milk, homog-'
enized milk. and half-and-half cream. The costs and bUlterfm contents of
the sources and products are
0.
X3 wax o ,
wax XI
~.
F~GURJE 12--_~,2
,no ~
>"'"
Wax concen~ting
.1'4 60% wax pJaI}t 80% Wax:(2 .. I Wax concentratjon plant ,in Prob.
- I 12.9~
' _. ' .
..:., . -
'. ,
" .... .. .
~pa'ralOr' : ~ ;- ,
"
.; _ ~ J :.
Adequate Adeq'uate
storage storage
, , , ,
Pasteurizer
(one'fluid at a time)
] .4 LIs of skim milk
0.1 Us of cream
Adequate Adequate
,cr~am skim milk
srqrage storage
J:iomogenizcr
·1.1 LIs
.. .
, ,
r
Packager
3000 packages per hour
(either l/l-L Or 2-L)
JXl ~ x, I~.x,
Skim Hom08enJud FIGURE 12 ..13
milk milk Dairy in Prob. 12. 10.
- ..
llN'"""c.A.R PROGRAMMlNG 2.)7
b) Use fine;}[ progra!J.1mi.ng to sclvr for the pl an that res ul ts 1'1 maximUln
profit.
s.: (a).
",:.--. .-
Separator.-- .. : ~ r .. & • "" •
. x (-+'\X"1·~·-1.g."584~':·· ",
J •• ':
\
CO 2
XI Urea and
ammonium
N2 carbonale
Xl
x)
H2
Cl,
X"
.r, Xli
NH3 Hel ,
FlGURE 12-14
F10w diagram...of chemical plaot in Prob. 12.11.
- .
298 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
ADS.: (b) •
' xl-<2x 7 =0
I .
2r2 _ ·xs - 3X7 -xS ~ 0
x . + x, S 1.5
=e
...••.
..-' -..... ' .,
.~~
12.12 .. 'When large fabric filter inst.allaticins. called baghouse fluers, fil ler high-
temperature gases, e.g., -from a smeJter; temperature of 'g ases the the
must be teducted to .265°C or Jess, even whon using glass-fiber filte".
Three methods l of reducing the temperature may be used' singly or ' in '
combinati on , as shown in Fig. 12-] 5: (1 ) reject he!n to 3D11;lient air lhrough
the use of a heat exchanger, (2) dilute the bOl gas with ambien t rur thal is
at a temperature of 25°C. and (3) inject water for evaporative cooling , Ii
either d iluti on air or water.injection "is used. the baghouse must be enlarged
to accommodate the additional mass fl ow. Designate
x I = area of heat e..xchanger·, ru 2
X2 = mass . flo~ rate
.
of dilUljon air. kg/s
x) kgls
--r------------1--~.--~
Heal exchanger Water .~ Baghouse
XI m' Spr::ly """'?} I S 265°C tilter
.
a: Are.e
,
fIGURE J2· JS
Ct'oling ~ ~ns before il e nlerl 8 baghou~ 'fdler .
-.
LINEAR PR:f)G.RAJv:i.YUNG 299
The er)tering tlow rate o.f gas' -:- 16 kgls ai: 500°=" .
Each Sql:~-e meter of hep-l exchanger lreduces the terD_p eratllie of gas' .
~~C. . .
The evap.oration 9f spray water cools. the. gas,.-ajr· n1ixture equi~~alent :' .
. to. 'a sensi ble..;h,eat .removaL from Hte' gas. entering the water. spray of 200{)
." to:"'<:> .-idfkg Df -spray '.Y$..ter. . ' . '. . ' . ' . . . ~. ...-'.. -.~ ., . ~. . .. -':":' .
..-,:~... . ~'-: .-- The sp.ecific... heat.:o£',the. gaSr'dilut:i6n"aii;"ana;:'ga:s'~cir"n1i~illi~' is''I.:O-· ". :.~
1·.:.IcJ/(kg: .. ·K):·· < ' , . . . . .... . " . :
"'. . , "J. III 'i' -:: ~ ". ,J~ ~~.: • ""l.. ':. •• • ••••• • .". •
12.13. Some perrochemical plants take a large t10w rate [.com a natural-gas tr~s
mission line, remove ethane and propane from it, and return the methane
to-'"the pipeline, as shown in Fig_ 12-16.
Cost data
Feed $0.06
Price of x I returned to pipelinet 0.0595
X2 0.08
x] 0.'10
Operating cost:
Extractor. per cubic meter of total flow 0.001
Separator. per cubic meter of pure propane 0.003
t Since the methanl: has a lower hearing vaJu~ th..an the original feed, it is 1.es.s valuabl~.
Restrictions
~
The composition of the feed if 900/0 methane l 8% ethane, and 20/0
propane.
The maximum capacity of the exu-actor is 200 m 3/s of feed.
The maximum capacity "f the separator is 3 rn 3Js of pure propane£
Set up the objective· function and constraints to maxhnize the profit
of this plant. ..
- ..
300 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
Pipeline
Feed
90%
8%C 2 H 6
2%'C 3 Ji: 8
,.: ;,'
. .. ~.' : ..
:".'.,: "···r--
. I _ ........._ _ ..w........""'Io#- • • • • t.'"\o~ ••
I.:'," '. . .
11---+----'-------11- ~2
: :'.' .. :; '....: " .. ".c.'. I, .
.r =2x}+ 3
subject to 3x 1 + 5x 2 + 6..'( 3 ~ 2J
4x J + 2.r 2 + Sr 3 :;::: 16
2tl +
the , and
(b) by solution of the dual determine the optima] values of the x's in the
primal.
. = \' = ]0.667
]5. (0) Y = 2'( 1 + 4x:!
to .'(J'+ ;s; 21
+
2..t J
, .2 .$ At A =
Xl + X2 ::S
) .
. .
'-" ~.:. l\1apth-a;:, _ _. ()i'~.,~· '':.._, -:- .. ·B.ottnms" ..:.. ,'. "_¥'It':iee,i'::': .' ...... :.J' , ••••,,; •• •:.~.r:::, : ';.~.~".'(::' ':"'~ ::: '~••'!~:'
., p ef'Ce,i'l t-· ',percen~' percent. $/bariet .~', .... " . .
0........ . ..
Crude 1 10 75 15 20.00
Crude 2 15 65 . 20 24.00
Fuel oil 80 20 25.00
Gasoline 30 70 36.00
In terms of x II Xl. X3, a1).d x 4, where th~ ~r'~ have mrit.s of thousands of
barrels per day,
(4) write rhe objective function of the diffe'rence in income from the prad-
ucts' and costs of the crude. .
o
Naprhas
Gasoline
'rude 1
_ .. Cr.1Ck.ing L . . -_
Napthas Gasoline
Blender' .%')
I Unit I Oils
Distillation Oils
\
Unir
Oils
BottoI'M ~rxkin8 B.ononu Fuel Oil
~rud~ 2 Oil
...
~
-Unit 2- Blender ..f4
I 2
FlGURE 12-17
011 refinery'ln frob. 12.16.
302 DESIGN OF l1IER.MAL SYSTEMS
generating power in turbines. Power also may be purchased from the local
.
electric utility. The, plant regui!es 30 M\iV of shaft power wNch may , be
, obtained ~y combinatfon of the three sources shown in Fig. 12-18. There
are'thr:ee prQcess ' heating requ~e~ents and ,the · flow rates at' the steam
required for these need.s are shown in Fig." 12-19. ", ':
The flow rates of the 4000 and 1100 kPa steam may be combined . '
ljnearly to meet 'tJle requii~ments,lf~r example, 15 kg/s of 4000 'Jd?l ~team' ,'~ \
: ,'",--' . -~'.,"-, plus,.20 .kg/~ ,of 1'100. k?a steam coul9 se~re th~ ,175°C 'need. Because at:'-
", :' ' ~" ',':. - " . '- a 'IirnHatiort ,.:,Qn',! .th~;,}?,oiler~ .'~P-~8,o/~;. ~-;,I?,?f..~~,~ , C!f. /9 :kg{s ,of.,4000 kPa' " ,
. '.. , stearn cap qe . '.
"gerierated::"'Thefily~~~ept~1??~a",o.t.th~F:ie,
. ~ . .
a riexchangersjs~1~:',
.
,>::,~~,~ ,
In (eons of (he ;c' s which are rates per second. (a) wrir·e the expres-
sion for total operating and investment cost per second of operation,
(b) write the constraints, and (c) use linear programming (0 de!ennine the
operating conditions that result in minimum cost- , ' ,
Ans.: (c) minimum cost is $0.694 per second.
4000 k,Pa
200 k.1/kg kPa 125 U/kg
Work. \Vork
"
From
ulililY
Motor
75% efficient
1..-------1.... .1'."
FIGURE 12·18
--------
Means of providing shaf, power in Prob. J 2. J 7.
. ~.
LINEAR PRoQRA.:,,2M1NG 303
4.000 kPa
~ ~. - .) .. .' . -: .' ~ .
.X3.---.:....-)::1
r-----""'-~
l.100 kPa
..1"5 - - - : ; -
TIGURE 12~19
Combinations of steam flow rates to meet the three process he~tjng requirements in Prob.
12.17.
REFERENCE
J. P. Vandenboeck, "Cooling HOl Gases before Baghouse Filtrarion;" Chern. Eng .. vol. 79.
pp. 67-?~,. May t. 1972.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Chames. A .• W. W. Cooper. and A. HendeI3on~ An Introduction to linear Programming,
Wiley, New York 1953. ,. . -
Dano, S.: Unear Programming in Indu.rtry. 3d ed., Springer. New York. 1%5.
Dantzig. G. B.: Linear Programming and Extension, Princeton Unjveniry Press. Princ~toD,
N. l .• 1963.
GMYin, W. W.: Introdllc/ion 10 Untar Progrpmmlng, McGraw-Hili, New York. 1960.
Greenwald. D. U.: Linear Programming, Ron~d Pre", New York. 1957.
Hadley. G.: U~Q' ProgrammIng, Addison"We,Jey. Rearnng. Mass .• 1962.·
LleweHyn, R. W.: Lintar Programming. Holr. New York. 1964.
:--. .......
•
CHAPTER· )
)
.~ .
.....
'.'
,.,'
'.,
'~
,-~,
J .
304 ---.--
.
tvL"'.THE~'IA.TICA.L ~IOOEL1NG- THERMODYNA.;\UC PROPERTIES 305
abound, bu'- the acc ur~Le ones art; usually cornplex. Our 0- je.c~i ye vliE be
to develop equations that are simpler, although slightly l~ss accurate. In.
many C4Ses it\.vill be poss ible to use some classical therrn~ dynamic ptoperty .
relationships to suggest a il . ajdiio~al term or t1l~O that c~ be ,add::d ~o a
simpI~ or ideal ,relation. ' J '
---:,'.1"'_1- ',-p~' • • • --~, .'_.~ l.'.-.·.. ;.-~:~ _. " _L~·_':.~ ,"
.:. ".).-"':-
I, ." "':l ...... • •
Section 4.12 ,described the ","'art, of equation', fitting," and suggested that
having sorp.e in~ight into the reliltion~hip nKly fe,sult in a ,choice of equation
torm, that gives a' 'good representation with a sjnlple equ.B.!:ion.' Problem:.
.13.1 illustrates two forms of 'e:quation that both require the determination
. ' ' I
The SDS criteria, used in the method of least squares and first pre-
sented in Sec. 4.10, is the sum of the squares of the deviations,
n
where Yi :::::: value of the dependent variable computed from the equation
Y,. = value of the dependent variable from the ori~inal data
n = total number of data ~oints
Squaring the deviations prohibits the negalive qeviations from canceling
out the positive ones and giving a Jow value of the summation for what
wou1d be a poor representation. AI characteristic of the', SDS is that since
the deviations are squared, the data points that are far off of the u lrimate
equation_contribute more than a proportional influence to the summation.
The mimrrlizatlon, therefore ~arks toward reducing [he large deviations.
306 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
.3
_ _----.~..,£-.....c:r":_::::-::--:-:-:-::-.- - - - - of horizontal
- - - - - - - - - - - - - ~y rne.a..n of
, ) ,
Regression analysis as ,the term win ,be ~sed 11en~, applies ~o the 'process'
7
•
!
Provjde trial values of )
- ~,!!...... ' •
Yes
at
Yes
~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~
.I . Other parameters
l----------r----~--~-
Terminate
13·2
Flow diagram of a search ............ "", .... a nonlinear regresslon ..
While the
of
one
MATHE!\4ATlCAL MODEUNG-THERMODYNAllllIC PROPERTIES 3 {~9 '
'ff.LBLE 13 .1. .
S ' arch fer Parameters "n . ~ xample J3.1 . J I
o· 3.00000 . O.~40PD~t ,: :" ' ...~_:?~..~~Q~ ~_ ".~'.' '",1, _:." O~.~_Q_9qo . ,_'.:. . · )J:-P2:QQ90~,.
I '. ,'., 3.10000 :. '0.42000' , 49.500.6 0_10000.. . ~. 11020000.',.
,~;'!:', 2-' 3:2000~O·->~.;<'~O.44000~'::-"~· - "!:~'44A l17 -,~ .....s""";"" "~'O"~'lOOQ{r'- :' :'·~':O~020000~.'3''''~' '. J.,
'. 3 I . 3--30000 0.46000-' . - 38.4851- " .. : "·O~ lobon ' .. ((020006··· .. ··· ,', .
j" J'
, -'
l1li ....... _8,. ............ _.& ..... III J.,. _ .. ", lIa_B_ .. a.a •• a _.II a __ .... .II ••• __ ....... _ ... ., __ •• _ . . ..
I .
1,. Incre.ase Lhe parameter by rue, initia11y~assigned step. size_ If the fidelity
c.qterion is Improved, go on to the. next parameter~
2 .. If the crite.qpn w'as not improved in (1)', decre.ase the parameter by the ."
. st~p size. If th~ criterion is improved, go on to the ,next parameter.
3 .. If neither (1) nor (2) improve the criterion, decrease the step 'size and
return to (1).
Example 13.1 .. The following pairs of (x, y) points are to be fit to the
equation, y = ae bx : (1, 4.7), (2, 8.6), (3, 15.7), (4, 28.7), (5, 52.2), (6 7
95.2), (7, 173.4), (8,316), (9, 576), and 00, 1049). Use a search technique
to determine the Q' aqd b pararneter:s thiit result in the minimum average-
percent deviatiol?-'
Solution. Trial values of a = 3 and b = 0.4 are chosen, and the iilltial step
sizes selected are 0.1 and 0.02 for a and b, respectively. The early and final
values are shown in Table 13.1. For purposes of comparison, the.same search
was conducted except that the regular increa.ses in step size were omitted.
,That se.8rch.required more ~an 1600 itef1l:tions to a~ve at the tina] values
shown In Table 13.1. . .
13 . 6 THEIDriODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
The need for equations to represent thermodynamic properties arises contin-
ually Ln...,!,Qrk with thermal sts~ms. Those properties of particular interest
are the temperatlJre pressure. enthalpy. density or specific volume, entropy.
I
310 ,DES1GN OF THERMAL ~YSTEMS
•
J '
)
Q..)
'-
. ::1
U1
.~
0..
..
. '. '.' . .
.. ~--~--~--~
J ! . ~ ••
.:;-~: '~'.-.'~~~ u;j~" ~_~~~.' ,:' '. ~ \. i'~.~~'>' .'fi:'~ '~-'.:: :,~.' .':~ ': "," '~~ ,. "::' ":' ,:.:~"", ' J.I'
and 'occasionaily the internal energy. The app'roach, that vvi11 be ' fol1.o~ed '
.in the rem'a inder of this chapter is a compromise between e:xbaus~ve ,_e~rt,
to achieve precise represe,ntations . on the one hand, and ro'u~ . idealizat,ions
on the other. We will be satisfied if the accuracy of the equation can be
,improved, from 5%, for example, ,~o 'an accuracy of, say, 1 ,or 2% .
. ~epre~en~ation of the,thennpd.ynarruc properties requiFes both property
rel~tions 'fr9ffi classical. thermodynamics ~d experimental data. 'T here ate a
number of possible starting points and paths 'i n arTIving at desired ,property
'e quatjons, but a frequently used teclmique U is to seek fro'm experimental
'data the following four equations:
""
~ , .I
, ; ' u -.-:
.' 'j'
uitemhl-. enerO'y
io
'.'
0' -.r.. •
" , • • • "... .I: •• "\",." .. '--... .. .. •
lG71co· ' · : ~.j·:.,.·,:;,·~"" ", ,·. 'r' ' ,::
b'.::l·
•• ,
:.: . , .'
~- .~
.
VII ' = ext~ma/ v';ork .per unit 'mass ~,'in ' ves'sel; kJll<:g . ,;.:.;; ........ .':... : '. :' .~ ..... ;' .
where T = temp~aturel K
. s . ."enrropy, kJ/kg - K
T ds = du .+ P dv (13.9)
Even though Eq. (13.9) was arrived at ~ough the use of a nonflow process
with the assumption of reversibility, thequodYD:amic logic permits us to state
that Eq. (13.9) is perfectly general and is applicable to all processes whether
flow or no~ow, reversible or irrev~rsible. The reason is that Eg. (13.9)
is. exclusivelY'a relationship of properties. and the procedure by which \Ve
arrived at the equation is jrnmaterial.
Classical thennodynamic is replete with partial derivatives of proper-
ties, and some of these relationships will prove to be valuable in building
a full set of thermodynamic propertie~ . .I~:CLuarion (13.9) offers the basis for
the first two of these relationships. If v is held constant, dv = 0, and the
du ¢:=t=== dq
h=u
'+ V
.1
v (13.1
h
1
II
..
':;-- --
MATHENtATICAL MODEUNG- THERMODYNAJ\!{i'C PROPERTIES 313
region wher. p is const~.T)t the temperature i,& also constant, so in this region
l
the line.is straigliJ. ""hen the line moves f;;m:he_" into the superheated vaJ!oi"
region T progressively increases., so the line curves upward.
;, .' J
. 'A'.~eful s:xpiessi.6i:L~: (o{.:.~biafjrig '~some -therriiodyp:~c :.: li-q ilid ~ :'~d '.:.Y~P9r _:. ..~.:
properties 'at saturateo. conditions is the Clapeyron .e quation. This equ:atioG.·"·
can' be developed from pure,l y .thennodynamic principles and is applicabl'e
[0 all pure substa:lces .. The developm.ent begjns 'vilith rhe expression of the
. Gibbs function F :
F, kl/kg = h - T s {13.16) .
Because it is qased on propertie's', F ~s also a property. In differentiru form~
d F = dh :.- T d s ,- ' s dT . (13.17)
and ~ubstituting Eq. '(13.12),
dF = du + P dv + v dp - T ds .- s, dT (13.18)
Next apply' Eq. (13.18) to a change between saturated liquid and saturated
vapor at the sam~ : pressure. In the mixture region the temperature reEains
constant in a constaht-'pressure process, so b~th dT and dp jn Eq. (13.18)
are zero,
dF := dll + P dv - T ds
Since fro'm Eq. (13.9) T ds = du + pd~',
dF ='0
so the Gibbs functions of satUrated liquid and saturated vapor are egual at
the same temperature and pressure, Fj = Fg •
The n.ext operation will be to change slightly the pressure and temper-
ature of a 'sample of liquid/vapor at saturation as shown in Fig. 13-6. Since
'Fu = ·Fg.r,.aJ?d Fl."!. = Fg .2t .
dFg = dFr
dh, - T dS g - s,.dT = dh( - T ds( - StdT
. (
or \1, dp - 58 dT = y( dp.- s(dT
so
dp = sir -' s( = T(s, - Sf) _ __ h. . . ;. (~8_ (13.20)
dT va - v( T(v'l - v() T(v, - v,)
. .
Equatron·{t3.20) is [he Cla~ron equation and relates the derivati.ve of the
314 DESI~N OF THERM.~ SYSTEJlAS
Fg • 1 ..dFg Fg.",:".,
[ ;0- : I
..J.. J.. ~
2593.9 kJ/kg. Use .the Clapeyron equation to predic~ the ch~ge in saturation '
pressure between ' 50 ~d' 51°C. .
0.62.5 kPa =
. ~
The s[eam tables give the following cbange in the .saturation pressure,
13.9 PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE
RELATIONSHIPS AT SATURATED'
CONDITIONS
By making two bold approximatlons the Clapeyron equation can be used
to suggest the fonn of an equation to relate the saturation pressure to jts
corresponding saturation temperature. Assume (l) that v( ~ v~, and (2) that
the ideal gas equation applles, even for saturated vapOr, pVg. = RT, Equation
(13.20) then beconles
dp _ __J~2(8"'---_
dT T(RT/p),
and
Integrating,
In.p = -hr/(RT) + constant of integration
~.-
or 1n p =A +"'B IT (13.21)
MATI-!E1VfATICAL MODELJNG- THERMODYNAMj,.C PROPERTIES 315
where A and B are· pos i ti~e and negative cor~stants, respec tively. rI'he form
suggested by i::q. (13 .2l) is . . videly used an d indicates that on a In p I.:S
1.IT graph a .straight J.in~ represents the cha'ractelistics of a given substance .
. Figure 13-7 shoVJS such a graph for several fluids.
A g()~J,. of ~is "94apter is' to· identify. mefu~S of making slight refme111ents
... ,"'to ~~" rOM. of an·.~q.q_atX~.n.~.6~):l.ch!~Ye. a.noti~eable.iriJ.p~i~1y~(oenLilJ._the..fideJilY.. ",,;'"·:
of ~ep(~~~ntal1oIL~Arr ~x.aipp'l~ of this P!"Q~.~$·:··'is·thf"·A~.tqine equation'-C 18.88) ...' "~
.. which introd,uces one additional pai'amet.er,.;~··~ "' . ,:: .' "" ... ,....... '.' :., '. , .. .
50.000
------1-------.. _..._-._.... - . , - - -.. - .. ----"---'-~I--'----'-.---., .. - .
- .... _- .. -,--- .__ ._ .... -_ .. - ...... ·-·---I--"'-----,~----l----I--.--- -
-:\~-'
. ~
~:-' - - - ' --.:....--- .'
. (')
..... 7.
nGUR~
Display of ttrms in Eq. (13.21) for ;evera!' substances.
-'"
0\
TAIlI.1( 1.1.2 .
T1lcrmodymlJllic Properties of Wuter
-
:( Temperature
Pressure
LiCJuid
lJenslty
Sp. Vol.
or V:lpor
Entha
in p = A + B.I (T t- -::')
)
(I3.12)
A pre) Ds al ::or the estimate) of C ~s
. C, K = -18 + O. :.9T
. " ... Fo_·."the,: saturation pr;~ss~es ,0', \y~(et' sho~vl1 in 'Table L3.2,. the . av~rage
.r.; .0: . p~rcent .d e.Vi.a rion :.(frOID J2.rp.b·..) ,3. :.4)...u.sing..,¢e .An.toine..tor.ixds,j.. 39% ;::.W hi ch,::r... ,',
.nlay' .he~comp.ate.d".,to 6.53 %Ior. tfie. ~Qi-.rp..of E(f~tJ3.. il f used.j~LPr0b .···{-3-£2 .., .... . .
• , . ' • _" • • 1.
,. ..". • t,." .
A set of equations that 'a ssists in achieving the goals developing c6nvc:- of
ruent, yet" reasonably"ac(:urate} property rehriG.ns are the Maxwell re1arions.
The Maxwel1 relations are·
aT):' _ - OP)
- - {13.23)
av s as v
(13.2.4 )
The Maxvv'ell relations provide .n link between entropy.and the properties ill
the p-\t-T equation of stare and are derived from four differential equations:
T ds = du + pdv (l3~9)
T ds = dh - v dp (13.13)
dF .= dh - T ds - s dT (13.17)
and from the deflnition of the Helnlho1tz functiQn
. A = u - Ts
the differential form is
dA = du - T ds - s dT (13.27)
. ,
and -
-.. 4
du ;;;1S. au)
as ~
ds + OU)
dV I
dv (13.28)
DES] GN OF TH.E.RJvtAL
ds - p dv dv
. ,"
relations are -
a ., - aT) = _ aP)
av . a1'. is l'
the MaxweU
'SPECIFIC HEATS
to.o15 listed
is the specific
.I.J.u.J..J..I...I. ...... properti~s
those at constant vo]uD1e and at co.nstant ......."'... C'111r'O
Cp with respect to
deveJoped by solving
...
~~ , ",iATHEMATICAL MODEUNG-"":RERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 319
~r
~,
lj~'.
i
J ..... ,:." \. '- , >. !. c1J ... ......
, I
~. ~ ah)' = ' .J S) I
,. . ., arr ::I T
~~
;t,-.
1 . ,', P .0 _ P
K,
'-0.0849 + 0.69380°.5
=0 =
.asB
-----
.
j\-IATH£MATJC\L :-'-{ODEU~G -'fliER~10DYNAM ~ PROPERflES 32 1
VS9S = O.07'74274~~3033
V 6011 = 0.0780840914874-
V6~~'"= 9.07874059~1?40'
, ~ '. ',,' :..J. -~' -.. :. " '-
, ,.: _' - :..;...',
The'~s~~'Olid ,de rjv_~qye ~w.nrf'respect)o' tetnper,~t~re ~(e '= ;209 'l.,j-:-~ i~, . . .. ~.
" At 600 K J
oe
~} =Oatp"=O,
OP'T
ac "
"and .::..::.t!..j = 2.844 X 10- 6 at p =2000 kPa
Jp 'T' ,",
At 600 K~
'where 'a I = 0
il"2 = (2_844 x IO-6)/2p
= 1.4~2 x 10- 9 .
= 0.9865 + 0.0057
= 0.992 kJ/(kg . K)
'".
refinement
factor,
PV.=
RT Ct
+ 3
OP) - - 0
-- '= O· (13.35)
0\1 Tr
where critical temperature,
When (13. van
RT a
p ( v b v2 (13.
b= (13.3
£vlATHEMATIC!-1- MODEUNG- THERlvl0DYNAMIC PROPERTiES 3.73
. . ' .' I
:D.e development of.5q. ( 13.37) is addressed in Problem 13.7. The values of
the a and b constants in Example 13.4 were cOQ1puted frorn·£q. (13.37). The
vail dei Waals equ.a tion uses t\VO constants ~n additio'!") to R., and its accura<;::y
extends over a wider range:' than .Jthe
. ' ..
perfect
. .• .
gas equa~on.
.
A .still more
".
" p.CQ~Jiat~ two-constan.t equ·ai~on .i:5~6ne·· proposecl·.iYIf Redl-ch~ lliJ.d· I( N'OD2::'!
~.,, ' . ,' ... " • • ',' • • ,._ ~ - '. • •• .' .J ... , _ • " ' - ... , ..
'." .
R·T ··....,,: .. ,.- ··:·' ·a.~ .: ':..: ..:.:.. .. . .
p = - , . ' ., . ..: . .' ':"" . .' ·(13.38)
v'- b TU-v(v + b) . "
Soav~ made even further impro~ements in the accuracy by expres.sing the a
constant as a function of temperature .. The simplicity of the RedI1c.h-K~'ong .
equation of state in Eq'. (13-.38) is, ·boweY~r, .consistent with the npproach
of this.·chapter. Applying Eq. ' (13.35) to 'the Redlic.h-·Kwong equarion yjelds
R2r5/1
c .
a = O.42748~·- - (13.39)
Pc
. RTc
b = O.08664- (.13.40)
Pc '
Solution.
(a) R of w~ter vapor = 8314/18 = 0.461889kJ/(kg . K)
(OA61889}(3'sO + 273.15)
v = 5000 k.Pa
= 0.057565 m 31kg
(b) Using the values of critical pressUI1: and temperature from Table 13.1.
the van der Waals constants can be computed,
- (0.461889)(623.15) 1.7048
5000 = ---~--~
, y - O.OO16~95
.
v = 0.05303 mJ/kg
(c) For warer) the RedJich·Kwong constants from Eqs_ (13.39) and (l3.40)
are
- . a = 4~.95J and b = 0.001171
DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
v=
" ... - '"" .
. ;L-.
of saturat.ed liquid.
superheated. saturated vapor have
are enthalpy entropy.
..... .J-!...I ..... JU. ...
h .::md s of h.and s of
:\.alura~cO liquid salu rated
C1apeyron . J vapor al all
f
I
I
--~""----, I
I Ii and s of •, I
j
I saturated I __ J
: polynomial
I fif
L _______ _
I~.~:;.';.
~
substituted.
dh = ah)' dT
aT p
+ ~h)'
dp T
dp = ' CpdT + iJh)
ap T
dp
Also, since T ds = dh - v dp
-Dh) - v 'as
T-)
...L
op T - I ,ap T
Substitute the expression for OS/Jp)T from the Maxwell relation, ,~q.
(13.25),. to obtain
(13.41)
ds as) dT + as) dp
aT p ap T
:;;p :;)p - i
= :
Then
yields P
so
+ + x1
I so h at
(13
--
.
':--
, >rATHEMATlCAL MODELING - D-JERi....tOD'(l\' )'I1C PROPERT1ES 327
. ay . '. 773.15(vc .- v3 )
v - r-) = Vb -" . '
a.T p . O~2
= "-0.010 m3/kg
The br.ick~ted term in Eq, (13.43) is essenti,ally c.onstant at a value of -0.010
·throughollt the 'p~ssure rnnge .of 0.6108 to 4QQO kPa so t.he, integnil is
C~O.010)(4000 ~ 0.61) = -40.0 kJlkg." Finally. h at 4000 kPa and 500°C
is 3488.5 -"40~9 kJlk:g = 3448.5 kJ/kg.
TABLE 13.4
Comparison of Example 13.6 calculations
with tabular values'
. Vapor enthalples, kJ/kg
~ROBLEMS
:..... ,: .. ',13.1. Use ~e m~thod ofleast:s~uar~ to .find the tbre.e param,eters' in the fo1l9win~
., . . ,,:.' ,' e~:j.1-laf:i6~s:~at :giv~ the -best fit of
tile.' li'lui4 density"orwat~r"to ', the ,absolute .
,.
. : : J.~'" .,~" <~ ;~. ,7 '!emp'e~~ ~ JJ.s~. the ~,~ fr.9}I?~ Ta~Je ~~: 2. . " ~ . '... . ' : '
. '- .', _.' :.. ' (a')'" dens ' rl~ty'" ",,::,:~'.~.
.I'~ ~O.,...
'+"'a' ,;,T:+·"·a"2.
.J....1..: ~
' ..T·:'!:'. ,V:.'t~·:: '.~' .:-~
.
T ' . ':"'.' . . . '~" . .. .~. ".". ;:_;.i ':. b ··f'-~;·" . '. ' . ;~,:':'.'. : .,.-.
>-i::.
'.
i <1'/i
" '1, 1' • ." r • • :,.'. .... ,-'.
. (b) density'· = Co .+' CI (l.~~ 'i'rI:e: i~~~·':+-.~;( > . ;~)'~3:"." ....;~ . . ",. . , ' ....... '..,: .. ~.
where'Tc ='~ritical te~pe~ture1 647.30 K . . ..
. Cdnip~te the sum of the deviations squared. for harp representations'.·, -
Ans4: (a) 30,885, (b) 174/. -,' .
, ' . ,
13.2 . .· Using the 20 temperature-pressure data points fi?r water at saturqfed condi- .
. tioris fro'm T~.ble ~3_21 write a computer'progTarll or use one from .a comp~t'et _
library tO'determine tbe values of A ~d B in the equation .
p = e(A . ~·E!T)
. that give the rnin.imum average ..p~rcent deviation. Select the trial yalues of
A and B by substituting two, different'p-T. points jnto the equation,
(0) What are the values o( A and B?
(b) What is the 'minimum average-percent devi~tion?
Ans.: (b) 6.61 % or 6.530/0 depending on trial values.
13.3. A vapor pa.s ses through a venturi-type flow rn~asuring device, as in Fig.
13-]0, havjng an area ratio A tlA2 = J.8. The process from point] ,to point
2 is usually assumed to be isentropic. The specific volumes are VI = 0.06
m3/lq~, v:! == 0.068 m 3Jkg; the arithrnetk mean of these two values may be
used in Eq. (13. 15), If I1p {-2 := 40 kJ!3. what is' Vl?
Ans.: 82.1 mls.
13.4. Examine the 20 temperature-pressure pajrs for water at saturated conditions
from Table 13.2.
(0) Detennine the values of ~ B , and'
C in the revised form of Eq. (13.22)
I
P = e{A+BI(7-C)]
13. J~ , Vhea cp is knov/il, C\', ray, be determi0ed! if a..'1 ,expression for' cp - Ci' '
" ,:'Cc) ~W~ai is' tpe magriitude of. tp'- - c fq(.~,flter vapor at '300~C p~d".7000 " ' ,
l ',
REFERENCES
.
1. Handbook of FundarMnLab. Che.pler J. Am~rica.a Society of Heating, Rc:fr{gerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers. Atl~nt.a. GA, 198.5.
2. W. C. Reynolds. Thermodynamic PrOptTlits in 51, Stanford University. Palo Alto, CA.
1979 . .-- ..
DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
.1 ~ ." •• .. w • •:
.v.~!.· a.. j
----.--
. I, ,', '-:', ',,;c ' ;'~ .,,!~., '. ,', ."", . : ',
•• ~( ')I,' ~'.' ""=",'. • • ,' •• ~ • " . • Ii', _~.: , • ...; ' .
~ l • • ~.. •• '.- . . . ._ . It
" ~': ~' . . .. ,. ..:c.,-'!. It:.,. . . . . . - ';. .. ' ': ... :-
~TE
J'
OF
LARGE
SYSTEMS
331
DESlGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
ter approach can. found than blindly trying one after other until a
one is found. I poinr out that techniques are available
to a without acrually perfonning the successive substiturion.
Unfonunarely. the test often requires more effoI1 than the ve
. We , consequently devote our effort to
I
of ho,w to
A clue to the converg'en'ce criterion 'can' be
Seidel method solving 3. set of Hnear, simultaneous equations. The
Seidel method starts with values of alJ except one uses I
Exainple 14.1. ,Using' the Gauss-Seidel method, solve for the x ~s ill the
following set of s,iro.ultaneOlls Un~ar eq~ations:
- .J~
A: 4~ I - 3X2 + X3 = 12
B: x I - 21' 1 + 2t' 3 ~ 6 ',
B: X3 =(6 - Xl + 2.xi)/2
the calculation, as shown in T4b1e 14.2, piyerges.
I
1 3.0 -1.5 0.5
2 1.75 -1.625 1.375
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • •••••• 1 ...
10
:lO
-- . ---l.045
2
-1.021 . .
-1
0 .977
1
334 D~IGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
•
~pJe .14~1 with a9' .. ~"' ...... C" solved' ,
in the A. . C . .B seVIUe.![lCe
'f0vcle .r,2 . XJ"
I. ,
:" ,2 , " '2.625 . \' .... ~-" 3.75': ',"'r, - .L;.~U.L......J . - ~ :". '", .
0.703
-3 -3
[I "1 iJ [r 1
:-2' i]
,lp the convergent s,eguenc:~ the large-magnitude coefficients appear in the'
djagonal position of the matrix. ' , , ,
More precise me~s are available, to test the c,oefficient matrix to
',detennine whether the sequence that if repr~sents is c,~nvergent or divergent. '
One technique 1 is to multiply the lower-triangular terms by the constant A~
set the determinant' of the resulting matrix eq'ual to zero, and solve for the
values of A. If an
the.A ~ s an absolute magnitude less than unity the I
convergent. to A-B-C
4,,\ 1
;\ -2), '2 =0
2;\ A 3;\
4A 1
2;\ A 3' =0
. 1 A' -2A 2,,\
A = 0.0.2713. -4.] 46
so J\-C-B is divergent
The translation of Gauss-Seidel criterion to nonlinear equatjons
wi}] throu gh '\P e.
STEADY-STATE SIMULATION OF iAftGr:. SYSTEl'vlS
E,. '':l j,1ple 14.1 _ The Do'ver required ' by a certain ' automobi e is a function of
its speed~
' By means of successive subs,ti.tution" determine the speed ,of wh'ich the auto
;;) capable and d1e p()wer detiver:ed by the engjn,e at that speed_
~' ,--_Eq_
, (_14_.'_)-----J
AUla
r __' _E_q,_(_14_
Allra
, 1_)-----'
pi
V Vl p
I Eq. (14.2)
Eng.in~ Engine
Eq. (14.2)
(0) (b)
FIGURE 14~2
Information-JJow diagrams for Example 14.2.
TABLE 14.3
Abstract of successive substitution
calculatioris nith flow diagram a in
Example 14.2 '
Iteration P Y
0 50.0000
1 60.0000 32.0188
2 151.9144 47.8273
3, 76.6163 35.84,g7
a ••••• It ••• t ••••• , ••• JI ..... l ••• , •• I •• ~ • ,
18 112.3907 42.2501
79
8() ----
--.
112.3893
112.3905
42.2499
42.2501
336 DESIGN OF 11IERMAL SYSITMS
TABLE 14.4
Abstract of successive substitution
•
ailc1ilatio~ with Dow diagram b in
EXaJl1.ple 14.2
'f
. ,
Iteration p v
- --- - - -
." ' ~ , ',::.'~ .110.8078
",': "'i <" .,
.' . 2
. . . ' ." . ' ....
' ;
114.2082
.... ... . ." ....... .. -. ' ... .. . ", "
. 24 156.8580 . 29.431~
25 49.8492 51.2382 ·.
26 .. Squa,re root of negati ve
flIunberin Eq'. (14.2)
--
Flow diagram b diverges, however , as Table .14A shows, even though
the trial value of V = 42.0 was close to the solution.
The insight provided by the coefficient matrices in the Gauss·Seidd
method will now be translated to the set of nonlinear equations. The clements
that make up the coe,fficieot matrix ', ""j~ the set of linear equations are
comparable to the elemeDts of a matrix of partial derivatives:
al, al,
ax, aXn
al. al.
ax) ax.
and we propose that the partial derh'atives be used fo( the nonlinear equ ations.
Tho arrangement is th at if variable.T , is computed fromiJ ' the afJ I ax, must
be one of the diagonal elements. 'At th e converged values of v = 42.25 and
P = 112.39, the matrices for the two flow diagra m are as shown in Fig. 14·3.
For convergence .we seek a coefficient malIix thai has large magnirudes down
the diagonal. Figure 14·3 shows that Flow Diagrar:' a, which is convergent,
best meets thai requirement.
v p p V
Eq. (14.1)
Eq . (IA .2)
[ 6.36
-5.52 -I
-I
J
Eq. (14.1)
Eq. (1~ . 2)
f -I
-I
6.36 ]
-5.52
FIGURE 14-3
Matrices of parti al derivelives in Example 14.2 .
---:.,---
ST""c.AOY·STATE SIMULATION OF LA.R~E SY~fS 337
'The test of the absolute values OL.A. desfli.bcd p[\.:. via ···s!.y is vu).id for
Example -1.4.2 and con ceivably could be used ' for calculation loops with
many. egyations ..vV irh l~ge num,bers of equations, ho'wever, ' the method
b~comes cumbersome and is quite. impracticaL OUf approach ·wil..' be to
.. use the -:oncept in d, qualltative m~pn~r ,;:iJ. trying to arrange · ~e caIcu.la-:
.". . . ./ ..: "ti.o.ry, . ~~q}~S~F,f :~~rfh:~.~. I-~f~9:!a~.9·qar )~Jetpeh~ ~~~)P"'~ Jru-ge.-:,~qll~t~4~ E<+~.i,al . ,
'.. ·derivatlY.~s~.~~Ail()~flet "vi'ay ,'of st,atin.f'tfie"sa'rpe o~jectlve','it~,to: ·lIy...ti:t s'truc~ :.'
,.. tun~ the sequence so that the vanabl~ computed through use of;~ equa't~o'n'
chnnges only ,a.·small ,amount for large change's in the othl?f vaJ.iables'in that
equntioTI_. ,
It will not 'always be, possible to choo~e a calculating sequence such
, that the largest-magnitude partial derivatives appear in the diagonal positi,on
, for all equations. Choosing the yariable to be solved by one equabon' may
force into the diagonafposition of
another ~quation a 'partial derivi:ltive that,
.is not ~he largest for that equat,ion.. A crude rule is to resolve the cdnfJ,ic{ by
placing ill the diagqnal position t,he partial den vative tha! has the' greatest
ratio in comparison to (he other denyatives of its equation:
"
I ,
..: :
t.:..
o
, .
l00~----~----~----~~--~----~--~
~I
-0, L-_-=---t--.:.'...:..- ~C-==::I:::=:=-----=---L
, " ---:-
.'~~
__ .:......L..-","":"",,,,----l
o 0.2 '0.4 0.8 - 1.0 1.2
600
500
400
13 300
200
100 ~ J
J.,~
o
~
-----
~
'0 0.2 '0.6 O.B 1.0 1.2
j3
flow b
Table 14 .3 sp-owed that Vi/hen Lhe va1u~ of 1f3 was unity thai: the ch&.i.1ges
in V 8n d P during an iteration ~Nere 'too ·la1rge" resulting in oscillations
aro und the ultirnaie solution. Vlhen f3 js set ?-t '0.55; Cc.1.v'ergenc:e ~.o the cri-
terion list~d in the caption :of Fig. f4-4 occurred in 8 i~~ra[ionS. Increasing f3 .
'beyo1;ld 1.06 results jl '). div.erien'2e. Fl,aw.:diagram b \A/~·th f3 '. 1, .is divergent; .
.' 'but, ~ 'Pig. 14-4q shows, choOSI!l.g.f3 less' tl1.?rf 0"~95 perinitS· the siriluI2_tioD.
.
~:,:~,; ..,=.;-td co~y~rse': ~'~'~;-::_'~:~;'~ .' ",._...' .'.<' i.-' ':'. >-" . '::'~"~'::':;.' :. .::. -:"', ":',: " : . '.>' ..." ":''''. :'.' ..... :'.':...' :
tions with respect to all variables, arid tb.~ solution of a set of simultaneous
linear equ~tlons to compute the coqectio~ I9 each of ~e variables. The
" user has the responsibility, 3:Dd indeed will demand the 'right~ to, describe ", ,',
• the system by spec;ifying the equations, ~d pro,viding trial. valti¢s of ~e
I , <'
.' ,'< :'" variables. ~ . ,. ' , . ' ",: ' ., '. .', . .
: I. : ..~~ ~': ',~', 'The p<?5.sible strU,cture o{ ~e' ge'rit?i-afued: ._ ~yst~1p.~,,~~~~~.~or: P~~graW ,':"
1.- ,., ' " "
. . ,·listed in Appendix If is shoWn, mFig_ ,14-5 - Jbe user 'must prepare: the M.AIN": ' , .
..::-.4:,..·.·'·"-·."<pregT¥Ii ·~d . th~. ,~l!qroutine co~.~alning the. equations, called ·:gQNS': !ri': tpe ',. ':
. : "~-MAlN 'program·
tli~,·~us~~r.~::p~~~-id~s': ihe:~r~ uiretf j1lferinat1on:~fudiM~.~~,:mifig ~. ;"J:~'
14-5 .and finally calls the simui~tiQ,q·'i;ov.if.ri~,," ~ere· I)~.mectSnv.rt:rJ::~' S~~iii:'~;<";'i::'
turn calls E'Q NS, PARD;IF, and 'GAUS'SY. Subroutille EQNS computes ,the":," ~'
values of the J -fui1CtiOD's, pAR]jwriurQ'erically ejdracts_.partial' derivatives"
and GAUSSY solves for the ,changes ,to be-made jn all the variab'!es_ After',
the val~es of the variables are, updated, the co'nve.rgen~e test deteirnipes
... w~ether to terrrli!late or to r~tum to EQNS for another cycle_
• 1 ' " . ' • ... • •
MAm progrpm
Designa'tes:
number of variables (and equations)
convergence criteria, for example.
the. fraction of change o(al I
van abies' i nd icati ng convergence Use"
trial values of all variable.s provides
Call subroutine SIMUL
FlGURE 14-5 .
Struclure of s genern!ized program for sleady-stBte simulation of systems.
-.
STEADY-STATE SIMtJUTI9N OF L ttRGE SYSTEJAS 341
&-
lJ ~nC>l'al; s-::l\/p.~
i ;,
~ ot: ~ 1.:. zea' l:r)··o .,- -a'·....,-
1 g,t iLL 11 Cil,,,,
a.. "".:J CO"lSi _ ~ 1..'1 1(..
LLU!..J
L -.; C,.... (·i~'n
"", 'U.:"" c, ~-
l..L..)" 'I\,,, " J''1(' =-~ rro:1 C 'l-m-'t;>
(I f;'l:~
'" ..-..{,. W . O. ' ~ J. '---'
"
'J. '
• j ~ ~
~. ! ., _ . I. .' _. r.~;
-.., ". ~ ...
.". _!:,.: .~: -!>L-. '''-' /, -' -. ': ' ..~'.
.'
/1.
(14.4)
0.4 0.19
)
I
0.3
II. )1
!.(
.~ I
ZI·
·1 .
Ne\\"U)n-Kapn!;On iteration may move the values the variabJes the solution
f= =0 (]
----- ..
StEO\DY·STATE SHvIUL4.TlON OF LARGE SYST B .;IS 3 3
. 0.15 r. J
. 0.10 r. .
0.05 !- ~'
~~ l ' "
.. ~: ·I .':. · ' ; . . .
'~ ,,'-
-0.1
flGURE 14-8
Behavior afJin 'E q. (14,.5) o\:er a range of values of the wat~r flow rate \Y.
c= ,4.19 kJJ1cgel(
, kg/s
MI.
- '-ndfJRE 14-9
Oil .
cool~i1;1"tared in Example 14.4.
~
. .
. 344 DESIGN OF TIIERM.AL SYSTEM-S
.
:~;p,~:' ."~" ~ ~'. '. :. . . . ;. ~~. '_SDlu1ion~ ~jn~!"SoJuti~n is 'to .' . 62~ 70°C ~a:D.9. ww ' .' ,0."8095 k!is u~der: whIch ."
." ' .. ~ ". :~'O~dJii'ODS'· t~;. in~';6.~·fl~t: w.ate~t~tQ.p~.W!~;i\~·:q~.~"C;:.J. lP._~)!,?!p_?,~~-.of.Jhj~ . ~,~
: ," example,' however,. is .~o' snow ·seve~"~peDerices·Jbat,:occuf·~~~.,·qi.ft~r(;b~~:.~\'
.. equation formulations' and ~al. valueS: Fll'St-·usectb~ equatiOJlS~ __ :,.... . .
A -simulation attempt. ~ith the trial vaJues S~ow'fl"ln Table '14.5 fails." One
approach to circumventing the problem of me negative logarithm is to express
"Eq. (14.6) in terms of an exponent' of e which~has no' limitation on lts
argumeryt. Tpe executjon may be able to pass temporarily through the physi..:
cally impossible siruation that terminated the execution in Table 14.5. Revlse
Eq. (14.6) by taking rhe antilog,
and use in combination with Egs. (14.5) and (14.7). As Table 14.6 shows,
the simulatjon is successful.
Lest it be concluded that the exponential form of the rate equation is a
pan'acea choose trial values as shoWn in Tabl~ 14. 7 .
t
TABLE 14.5
Simulation of Example 14.4 using log-mean.;.
temperature difference in th~ rate equa tiOD
w. t. t..
1:~BLE 14.6 . J
Successful simuJ.ation f .0X:-: j-n r Ie 14.4 u~ngJ
t ti.. l 'fornI of tl2e · ate (::quation
t,..
.. :,,=', ".-.
-Trtal val.ues '., .. _ . . 5.000 70.00 48.00. ' .' . . " . "~'. "
'. Tteratiort I .~ ~ ''':''',fj~5{)7 -,'" - . 71:69,:-·--1,:1,:,_- 4:r.'50~·'·i./:-<';~-·';' .-.... ,'" ." .. ,.. , /, ",~ .,',.!:-,.. .
Itera~o[] 2 ~T:OOO '56_61".'" -_. 53:'~~ -.... ";... "
IreIiJtion 3 4,563 75.20' 132.87 . ,i .", .":-" :'.' ,.'.
Iteration 4 2.958 69~S6 72.85 .
TABLE 14.7 . , .
Unsuccessful attempt at Simulating .
Example 14.4 USing the 'expQD~tial fonD
of the ~ate equation
that the rise in water temperature equals the drop' in oil temperature (this
situation' was first explored in Sec. 5.4). The mean temperatu.re difference
is 80 - 49,6 :::; 30.4°C = 65.4 -' 35. Thus the rate of heat transfer =
(2.1)(3.2)(80 - 65.35) = 98.45 kW. The required VA value is 98.45n0.4
= 3.24 kWIK which does not agree with the specified value of 6.5 kWfK.
The source of the difficulty lies in Eq. (14.8), where the numerator of
the argl.!ment of the exponent drives to zero, so that the control e;r:erted by
the VA value in the numerator is wiped our.
.Incidentally. the use of the logarirhmic form of rhe rate equat'io~ is
successfut' wi th the trial values of Table 14.7.
A third form of the rate equation is availabte-that of Eq. (5.6), which,
along with Eq. (14.5), provides (\.Vo independent equations for »'w and 10 ,
Unfortunately, with·ehher sea of trial values used so far, (5 kg/so 61°C) and
(5 kg/s, 70°C) the simulation converges to impossible values of Ww = 3.:24
kgJs and 10 =' 49. 14°C. '
Example 14.4 showed some difficulties that can arise when simulating
systems that contajn heat exchangers, and most thermal systems incorporate
heat exchangers. To place the situation in perspective. it shouJd be pointed
out that "the trial values cho~en jn Example 14.4 were rather far from the
346 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
'correct solution. When the trial values are close to the final solution, any of
the formulations should work. The occuirenCei of any.of.the problems cited
',-, ."
in Example ,14.4, is' but can be tr011~lesome, so i~ is beneficial!o he
, ,alert to this possibility.
: ': ~.I ,i. 1 _
~:
~,~, STEADY~STATE SlMULATION OF lARGE SYSTEMS 341
~~:
~:
~w: , ...,
! -
~K ..)'
~. '
K i'
f.j!."
~~i~, ~
~
,
l.f
&', ",' G) .. :.,(0 nGURE 1~10 ,'-: _ ' :"'"
L. ~':'::"~' _~-"~~,} -. '• . l .. ~~~u~~e~~g_dien.OPZ~{o.e:ep1e~~;~ilie mauj~;.:. ' ... _ " ...... - .~ ."
: " : ~(4) = -1,A(S), = 3?' and !\(6)' ="1. Inste~d :of the, A' aIT~y heing:, hvO- ',','
dime~sional as jt is in co~vention~ G.a~ssian elimination, ~r has ,no\v become ~
~ one-dimens ionaI- alTay, of nonze,ro values. The IROW array prov!des, the
designator of ,the' frrst nqnzero' ~lement in,eacb rov~". Thus, IROW(l) ,=' I.
~OW(~) = 3 IROW(3) , =', 5.
I 3Jld . ',' I, .
There are two JeOL arrays: JCO~(lt ) and JCOL(2, '). The'
JCOL(1 ,de'signator) in9icates the coliunn nuniqer of each' norizero elemenr~
Thus JCOL(I,)) = 1, J~0I:(1,2) = 2, JCOL(1~3)..-' 1, JCOL(1,1) =' 3,,"
.;reOL(l,5) ::;:: 2, and JCOL(I.~) = 3. The' ]COL(2, ) array sp'ecifies the , '
,designator of the next element in a row after the 'fIrst nonzero element. Iri
the ftfst row for example, the irrst element' is design'ated 1 and the .next
I
this coluITill are zero, ,the eq~atjoO$ are dependent). Then exchange
the l( row terms with those in Th1AX. .
BA Produce zeros in the K column below th~ diagonal term by sub-
tracti~g from at] teiw$ ~~.tpe l"equ~,tion the quantity A(/,K)/A(K,N) ,
where! runs from K + 1 to N. .
ll. Back substitution.
Back substitution is performed to solve for the X values.
TABLE 14.8
Oper~tions perlormed by XGAUSS '<?D the set of equations> (14.10). '
. )
·n
. ' :-. :..', '0:." 'Oricrinal .' II :1; t<~.:, ,0. ".J .. J- ,0: ,·>lROW(n}.,_ .' , l' ' 3 5,
·.'~:r,: :": . ,~~~:,',--','" ,_..'~3~> ,,- if: :'~~:,,·:";~g~f,ii:-F~~:_:~' g.:<f~.: ~-~~;"~b&;+:: :~: ":'(?; .'~~~
. . . . . :. '" • . ; , : 0 " B(n) , 7' ,"8' , . " · 1'-'
Swirch ,.' , 230 '. -l~ ,8 ·1ROW(n) 3. 5
rows J ]1-2:! ',: '0' 1 JCOL(i-;n) . . ·1 . ,2 1- . ' 3 -2 3 .0
, and 2' O' 3.5 '.. 16 .. ' ·1 . .1COL(2,n) ) " .A- O. 4 0 6 0 0. , ,"
. A(n) 1 . J-'1
·2 -'J. 3 ·1 ·0
B(n) 7 a ]
.So'me, elements that wer.e originaJIy nonzero may reduce to zero, and
SODle that were original1y zero may ' take on nonzero val ues. Revision 2 in
the third line of Table 14.8 reduces A( 1) to zer'o at which value it rC1Dains.
Revision 2 also introduced a new nonzero element designated 7_
The economies provided by XGAUSS while not obvious in the sma]] t
a
1. In searching down coll\fTIn for the largest element, only the no.nzero.
values indicated by JCOL( 1 t-) are checked.
2. When rows are inrer~hanged, only [he nonzerQ, elements are switched.
3. In [he triangul arion process, of producing zeros in the column below .the
diagonal term. computations are performed on the nonzero. elements.
4. In the back substitution proces.s only the nonzero tenns in'a row are
~nsnttred. ~
STEADY-STATE SNULATfON Of LARCffi SYSTEMS 349
I ' ~ •
A tilLE-corsuming
,
process in the generalized,Newton-Raphson
"
simulationI is
the computation of the partial deriv'atives. which are computed numerically
using Eq_ (14.4). Each equation is corripuied once for 'each "ariabie, thus
11 X n ,equations. Most of the equations 'db not ,contam a'given variable., so
[he result of most of the computations is zero. '
An approach that saves computer ,time is to ~xecute the foll<)wing
steps:' (1) compute the complete 'set of partial derivatives in' the usual
f~shion, (2) ide'ntify the .no~ero partialderivatives, ,and(3)'wben computing
partial derivatives, for ~ucceeding iterations, compute only those equations
associated with nonzero partial derivatives. Applying the cOIDputed-go- to
command, .is one approach to
executing st,ep 3. Application of a fast partial
derivarive routine on an 81-'equation simulation 6 resulted in a 15% increase
in compilation rime, bur in a 40% decrease in execution time.
x = -H F (14.11)
where X '= the column vector of the f1x'5 that are additive to
correct the variables. X is rhus the negative of the
LlX ' s used in, Sec. 6.1l.
H, = the inverse of the 'partial derivative matrix = J- 1 "
F = the column vector of the values of the functions fl. 12. etc. '
Furthermore, H is updated for each new iteration not by recomputation
of me, partial derivatives and in~er1ing the matrix, but by an operation'
e~pressed symbolically as
- ..
(14.12)
350 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
where Yk == Fk+i - Fk
subscript ,k indicate$ current 'values
. . subscript k' + 1 indicates values for next iteratio~
.' : '. ' :.... T 'indicates the transpose,.' .'
;-.'; .<'~ '~~SimUIlltion of a sin;;ple sy~tet.ii. will ill~trate the quasi-Newton, ..'
'. " "method .~d p~ovide~:~'''c6mpaiis9i1 wi.th. the' :coliventiori~l NeWt.on-R.3phson.,' _
,:.:- .;~C:"~?tec~q~e.;~:'r.h.~.:'.~:~Y.~l~;,~~9~,1ists'. of two .components--a ,lap: and a. ~llct, .
. ,as' shown in Fig .. ' '14-t i.a~:~,·~\Villi .~~Pf.eS·S.~~7n~v.(::~dh'ari¢t~§1j~':·;§:9-~Wlt jp.... :;;, :,.
.Fig~ 14-1 lb. The .component. eqp..~UoDS aie." :. " . : '. . -,-.:' ....... ''':....'"1 .. ,.. "'';'.:~''''
. .
and
Duc!
0.3
.p
/
Duel "'"
Fan 0.1
O'~--~----~----~--~~d_'-'~~
o 0.2 004 0.6 0.8
Aow rate, m) Is
-. (tI) (b)
FIGURE 14-11
(0)
-.
A f.!,!!-duCl sysltm, and lb) lhe
.
p~ssure·now characteri!tics.
STEADY-ST/,TE SrMULATION OF LARGE SYSTEJ'IJS 35'
wkgls
in borderline stability. and (b) determine the valu,e of f3 thn~ provides the
most rapid convergence.
:' 14.4. A counrerflow hea~ ~xchanger having a VA value of 12.3 kWIK and shc,--'lll
in Fig. 14-16 is part of a system being simulated.' Within the: simularion the
heat exchang~r is described by two equations: .
b~pending"upoir the trial values chosen for the simulation, one of the
solutions. shown in Table 14.12 results.
(a) Do In 'and/n + I = 0 for both soJutio.n s?
(b) Which of the ' solutions is valid?
WI CP = 3-9 k!/(kg K)
0
/ .I
UA = 12.3 kW/K
C P ::; 3.6 kJ/(kg" K)
F1GURE 14-16
H~nt exchanger in Problem 14.4.
TABLE 14.12 .. (
Two different solutions to the heafexchanger
simulation in Prob. 14.4
5<llutioD WI loY] J. to,
'I t)
. -,.
W'''f
.' :; ."
'.- . '5O"C ."io'oc
~~~ ;;;"i90 i.WJ1( ~ ' 90I:;!ft: ~
;'7f~~.~ .
"
cp .. l."i" c , .. 4.19:- ' ,',..'.
15l~ 96HW1!l;~
' -.' ,.-- ... . .
::, ::~.:.;.
- "'mp .- kg/>
- --
n GURE 14-18
Stf..lUn PO""~ planl in P rob. 14 .8.
. f~ ""
- _(tb +273. I·
+ 273 ,1 -
(280)('11) Ie
)
0 .5 - qt
Enthalpy dungt
."
EnthJlpy dl Jnge through the boiler is 1900 kJlkg, so
h "" 1900 I<' - qt>
Enugy balance
J6 ~ ql+qc-'lb
The solution is Ib ~ tl07 .1"C. Ie'" 38 .69°C, W = 10.774] kg/s, 'It> = 20, 471
kW,qc= 15,39Jk W, itndqc -=5078.6kW.
The turbine is enlarged 1.0 percent in the sense thaI the flow rate I<"
iol l is incre ased 1.0 ptrccnr for givc n values of It> and f e . Use Eq. (14.17}
to compulc the . influence coeffi cients and determine the new IV and the
newq,.
Ans.: Fro m a simulation new w = 1O.82t12 kg/s, and the new q, ::z
5089 .02 ),:W.
14.9. A helium liquefier opera.ling: on the now d ialram shown in Fig. 14· 19
r~ceives high pressure he hu m vapor, liquefies I frac tion of the vapor, and
returns the remainder to be recycled . The conditions of hel ium v.lpOt entering
lhe' liquefier a t point I arc as (ollows: p .. 1.000 kPa, W ,., 4.6 gis, T ...
18 K, and h .. 101.8 kJ/kg . The ~ep8rator and the entire lo w-pressu re side
operate at J00 kPl. So~ helium propenies are
At 100 ),:,Pi utuntion lempe.ratUrt .. 4.2 K
enlhalp), of utunted liquid - 9.74 kJlkg
enthalpy of salUnt ~d vapor - 30 .31 Ulkg
enthlilpy of su"perhded Vllpor, kJA:& ... 2.81 + 6 .79 T - 0.0578 T ~
At 1,000 kf.
- ' 0 - - enthalpy of su~thealed \·Qpor. kllka ... - ::!9.67 + 8.79 T - 0 .0826 T~
TABLE 14.9 )
Jewiol1~·Ranhso:i]
A _
siInuiation of fan~dil'tt syst em.
"
'. ·_.At ~-iar c· . • .. p':;::::: 0.::. --.:.' "_ ;'- .~-::--LO-'~""'\.1:7i59 ,-.<',"'. ·.~O,,2539 -o.l46~· '. .
.~ .-, .:~ .' ":. ": Ilaliies -'. ""., :-~.,. .... ,·. . .·ft ",~.i, EO{.·~.-j5''';. :~ ...b...:!~ ~. r:o"'~ ·::"':::'0~-4008-:",,·:·:.:~c.-J:'~:!"';':·~:~ O:,,<?.3=4:.5".:.:·;~";""':"D':·6345~~:I;~.'-~'~::; ;,~~:.~.~.~:,,.
'- •• ',' • .," , •• , _., J ';",' "? ...'; c"~ .. , " '. - ?' ....' . . '.." ~ -.'
.p, =".0..25,6. ._ ..... ,-1 .. 0 . 0.7QO-.. ,. , ' _~O.23-?6 .' --:-0.7644" .•
Q = 0.608 .' .,' -1.0' -0.2435 ·0.9674 ....:.0.9674
'2 P = '0.250 '. ,-J.O 0.6836' . :.....0.2291· -0.77D9
Q = 0.508 '-1.0 -0.2031 ~.1276 -L1276
3 P = 0.250 '':'''1.0 0.6748 ' . ~6.2285 -0.7715
Q= 0.500 -J.O· -0.1999 . 1.1432 -1.1432 {.
4 p'= 0.2.50 -1.0
Q = 0.500 -1.0
so : o( ,-.0:-,.
F_
k+I
= [ 0.07402] 'd y. = [ 0 07402] _
-0.03058 an k -0.03058
0
[0.6155]0 . ['-0.5414'8]
-0.03058
Applying Eq. 14.12 yields the new inverse.
H - [-0.24630 -0.74956]
k+ I - 0.76030 -0.69190
The complete set of quasi-Newton calculations for this example is shown
in Table 14.10. . .
TABLE 14.l0
Quasi-Newton simulation of the fan-duct system
Iteration Variables, Y Functions, F ~verse, H
TABLE 14.11 .
fOJL-I-D '10
O!. - • - . I
EL!..rreCt
,"P It.
if Inc eases liD COill pOnent j
.Pen::e.nt - jncre~e' in
:; .. ~, .is. ~nciCrC~ Se(~ 10-% . :
'rl.,
~:
.. -
,. .... ~" .
I I 'J ._
a11 10
I '.
..
..
,,'.,
. ' :'
J- :..' ~ -, ; •
·1
t.,: •
.-
th
0
0
• >
+- row"
Xj,old = - .
(14.14)
J ij is the cofactor
14) can
a approaches ,·or.
. Ax)
-- :::::: =- (1 1
a ACi
__ , I ..•
an its eptering temperature j.s - JOC. ~he steam coil receives saturated
Si;e.am at 230~C, and Lhe enthalpy or' evaporation a.t 230°C is [812 kJ/kg.
The 'condensate Leaves the st~arn cO=, ~ at 230°C ~ which js a high enou.gh
temp erature to preheat 'the ajr, il1 a condensate..cQ·i~ ,;:hat is ~sumed to operate'
as a COUllteIflOW heat exch~ger. The U-yalif~. and ?Teas of :i1,e c~i'ls are:
- ~; ... ,-;"'-........ "." , ., ! . ,
.. ',.: _ 1\' _ •• , . I,. • __ , ; _ ..... _. 'r-~-.' .~ .. -4 ,.. ~ Vni-~ • •~ ~ . .... •
.. " .
-"("",
, '
(a) Simulate 'this system to ,determi2e the st~am flow rate w. and the air
, I
temperatures leaving the condensate coil t l and leaving the stearn. coil fl.
(b) If .there is .the possibility 'Of increasjng the area- of either- coil 1;>y a. gi yen
~ount, whicb coil should be increas,e,d in size to provide the greater
incre~e in 12?
.SOLition_' 'The three. equations that 4esc£ibe the system are as follqws:
Energy balance on the steam coi11
Il = (0.8)(1.0)(t2 - II) - }~(1812) '
Rate equation, steam cOlI,
12 = -'(/2 - rj) + (230 - tL)[l - e-(O.OS.5)(A s )/O.8]
-*" -
SallJ.Iilled
~ steam, 230 0 C
trap
flGURIfl4=12
Series of heat exchaoge~ in Example 14.5 (or heating air.
DESIGN OF
'.
[-J81~ - ~1
yields
.- -I -1812 . -0.8]"
-1 .
69
at"J
det [-"
o -0.8
0.22
]
,- 0 2
_A- =-1 1 2169 = 0.309 Clm,
SIMULATION-FORM 2
. The section explored influence
constant
a parameter normally a com-
the must some-
to one of simulation.
a pump is one of.the-components in the
a rate cW'Ve as illustrated 1 13. What is
meant by a 1 of the pump? it mean a J
flow
STEADY-STATE S - fiJL AnON OF IMRGE SYSTEMS 35i
- FIGURE 14-13 , .
L-;-------------~s_. T'}!~ rntewretations. of. CI. 1.pe~·cent
- . I
I
) neglect
1
1
+P
1 - p +p2 ~ p3 . ..
A positive p' indicates' that x k increases. by a fraction p. Multiplying x k at
all appearances by (1 - p) distorts the original Ji equation by OJ'j
fi,nc.w - fi long = 0;
Express Ji as a series of p,
r----------~ neglect
~J I j)J;
iJp
I
p=ro
p ::::: p [
a[x,t(l-p)]
aif a[x k (1
up
- p) J] ,
p=o
. a[xk~l - p)J .
= -Xk
~P
and. since all leans in the followi,ng differentiation disappear upon differ-
'entiatioD' and setting p to Ot
oil
- .. oh I
:=--
. 358 DESIGN OF ~~AL SYSTEMS
..1bell
<' aft·
B; - -PXk - . - ".,
i)Xk .
:r~ = 0.5
-I
J =[
-1
The ~omponent in which the capacity in.crease occurs is the fan. so i = 2.
The riature. of the capacity incr~as~ is that Q increases while other vanable~
remain constant, so k = 2. FinaJly, the effect on the system flow js sought,
soj = 2. Applying Eg. (14,]7),
. . of1 J . . .,
~x') = px.., _.. -----
- . - ax.:! del J
/1X"l
-..
~ (0.01)' (0.5)( -(}.~). ~
0.875
= 0.00] 14 m3Js
third. The user selects from lhe large 2c~sortrne~t of subroutines' the' compo-
, ,rient pe.rfo~~nce and "pr9P~rty,: fu.j1ctI9I!s needed) organizing ll-te, variables
"ill_an apprppqa.te:,ni~in'ner for the sy,s~eln:'being,si~uI~ted~ .; -, ." ;:> ",-' :,: ,"", ,','.
" ~ ~ "<;;This chapter,h~:--exp16re'd~ sol-fie .technit:[l:l~!f~a(are': ti~~fuL'·a~d.'~same~':
. times·~even nec~ssaryf' when siinuhi.tihg large ,systemsd . . Thes~ topic~ .might
be c6nsld~red 'an extension of techniques of solution of the set ~iinu1ta-' . of
,neoqs ,Poruinear equations a'nd can be very usefuL 'It should be emphasized~'
however~' that describing the sYStem' (setting up, me equations) )JUlY cOhtinue
,to b~ the significant· chaJlenge ~n sir:.J1ulating large ,sys.teins. ' .
PROBLEivIS
·14.1. The sy.stem consis~ing of' the two nir-heating coils in ,Example 14.5 i$ to
be simulated using successive subsritu[ion. The three equations are to be
solved for the three unkno\yns t t. fl.. and w., '
(a) Construct all the possible information-f]ow diagrams for a successive'
, substjtution solution of the equations (there are three different qiagrams).·
(b) Using the partial derivatives from Exampie 14.5 ahd'the test on the
matrix of partial derivatives described in Sec~ 14.2, detenn~e which of
the information-flow diagrams ,of part (a) are convergent. and which are
divergent.. ,
(c) Solve by successive subsritu~io~ the flow diagram(s) that are shown.to
be convergent.
1402a One of the methods by which some of the water from the blowdown froIj1 a
boiler can be recovered is ~o throttle ir and condense the steam .that flashes
into vnpor, as shown in Fig. 14-14. The system is to be simulated, prim~ly
to compute the flow rate recovered~ We'
Throttle valve,
Slowdown. 2.8 kgJs Satur.l.ttd vapor
h = 11 85 kl/kg
Condenser
Flash tank VA
I 70 legis
,() C
Wd k&l,s
We k.g/!
Discharged Ret;overed
condensate
14.. 5 .. The following ...... ......, ...AL.I,U.'U.l.lo.> are to be solved by the Sp4:u"Cf~-rnlatr:lX routine"
. !
14.6):
'1'"
+ ,= 0
.. ,. '".',: ' ..... ::. ~,.,. J" ,$.;,"!' ''" . . ,
~_i
....; ,.' -", 4,' ',', .':: : '. .~.
~-.~~.~.
. ,.'"
n 2 3 4· 5 6 ·7
·0 1@)' JCOL(lyn) 3· 0 2 0 3 3
0 0 -5@ -5 2 0070 0 0
A(n) 2 -1 0 I 0 -5 3n
B(n) -3 9/2 5'
= [ 0.06078 -O~061
-0.4862
078] .
s
with a P!~uct, .
is
~~~_._ evaporator as 8 fU'flction
,..
STEADY-STATE SIMULATION OF LARGE SYSTEMS 36':)
f1I'
11 ,________ ~ __ ~ La _ 9
12
J----I----.-- - - -
\/\N\A
UA ! =70 v..'IK
\!\/W\fvV\,.-
2 4
"
.. ~ ' ..':
.; .
....
") ......; ', ...
Work
-,
pump. ,
Pump characteristics:
'-
A-B np, k.Pa = 300 + 2.464Q - O.04648Q2
C-D 6.p. k.Pa = IBO + 3.294Q - 0.1 i63Q2
F - G tJ.P, k.Pa = 180 + 2.107Q - O.0131Q2
Control valve
>~~~----------------------+--------~~---------~------~H
FI GUR E ) +l2~
ChiJled.wa~r distribution system in fStob. 14.10.
366 DES1GN OF THERMAL SYS"1B.1S
'ibe pressure drop ~!1 each of piping or <:oil sectioDs"is given -bi the
equation: Ap~ kPa =: C Q2. J
..... J : ! ~
,.' , ., ::"~
E-C ' . ':0'.546'
E-I 0:089,
C-F 0.0359 .
G-H. , 0.0302
·H-I" 0:.0089
-J.":"A .' 0-0199
'H-F, 0.162
Equations for the enthalpy of sarurated liquid and saturated water vapor are
hI kJ/kg = 4.184 r
.h,. kl/k.g = 2524 + 1.68 I
20s(' NaOH
";- .
I ::: 20" C
w!::?
Stage'r
.",-. .,..----..., Flow regulated
W2 to maintain
h:!. x:! l::l 0.38
FIGURE 1-4-21
Multi~21poralor in Prob. ~}4. J I.
STEADY-STATE SLvWLATION OF ~-\RGE SYSTEMS 36'i
h .kJ/kQ
. . ... '+ (4.249 - 7. 932~ +" 38. 97x~. - 85. l5x? + 61.38x -l) (t - 26.6)
;'600
...,
~
~
E-
~
W 400 ~ ___-I-_--I----+-"IC..--+--
o L -__ -L--~----~--~--~~--~----~--~
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Mas~ (merion of NaOH
i1GUUE atJ n-
1
l~ ~--~~---.~---.-----.-----.-----.-----.-----.
.·140
.....
o
Q.)
L..
~
ctI 80 \
~
E
Q.)
c
' 0
.::3
. r.i
'-
C
U') ..
20
. FIGURE 14 23 w
RE'F ERENCES
1. W, F. Stoecker, "A Generalized Program for Steady·State System Simulation:' ASHRA£
Transactions. vol. 77. Part 1. pp. 140-J48, ]971 .
2. B. Carnahan, H. A. Luthe.r. and J. O. 'Wilkes, Applied NIIJllericnl Methods, John Wi.ley .
.New York, 1969.
3. R. W. Hornbeck, Numeric-a} Methodl, Quantum Publishers Inc., New York, 1975.
I
4. 1.1.' AnseJrnino, "Computer 'Program to Simulate Central Chilled Water Syslems," M3ster
of Science Thesis, University' of Jllthois at Urbana-Champaign, 1977.
5. R. P. Tewarson. Spars! Malrjc~l. Acad~mic Press. New York, ] 973.
6, W. F. Stoecker, "Computer: Simulntion of rhe Performance of an Aqua-Ammonia Absorp-
tion Refrigeration System:' Paper B2.30, InternationaJ Congress of RefngefQtion, ()nlcr-
nalional Institute of Refrigeration). Moscow. J975.
7. C. G. Broydtn. irA Class of Methods for Solving Nonlinear Simultaneous Equarions,"
Malhtmotics of Comptl/mioll. '101. J9, pp 577-593, J965 , . ,
8. E. J Jienlcy end E. M. Rosen, Mtiurial mId EIJ~rgJ' B"IOllct ComplJlariollJ. John Wiky.
NewYdrk. J969, ,.
- --- - - - - - - -
-... -DlTNAMIC
. BElr-J-Lt\VIOR·
-OF
THERMAL
T.' -·_SYSTEMS
./
st£Utup 1
.: . ~ ..
. .,:, .cHAPTER· -.
are related to automatic control, and' it·
that any .this cannot be
one :chapter. It 8$'sumed, that the f(::ader·
subjeccts th~t. are to :mat field
then is the: inten,t pf this chapter? .
I'
on thermal
'-"-IA.""....., .•Urr"<'T.r. ..... (2) the
emphasis of (3) .
si.tuatiorts into symbolic or mathematical :representation.
The,underlying objective this chapter is to app~y the principles of
dynanljc to physical hardware. Many of the texts on automatic
tro"1s unfqrtunately choose few examples from the thermal
in_stead mechanical or systems. One objective, is
more comfortable dynamic analyses of thefU)o-fluid components
and
S~condly,
the of automatic controls can a .highly mathemat-
ical one'~V{ith the challenge being· the development of some-
a process or system. While the field
some in skills) there is. a far greater
interpreting a somewhat lower level of mathematics into the physical
sjtuation. of the techniques that provide this physical interpreta-
tion is ~ as .. of perfonnance in the time
domain. This cont-rasts the practice of many automatic control
specialists who work primarily in the transformed
The third· contribution of is to more
U~~''''''''L.''U''' into a control diagram. We .
automatlc control highly
r""'1""""~C·A""''''''''J"I as a block
~'U'4'~~. ~~,'H~'&U.~~ [he
first pJ -namely.
the symbolic fonn. chapter
some in
a bridge from the simu1ation 14 to the·
work of the of this chapter the nex t t a hybrid
:---.. --
DYNAMlC BEHAVIOR OF TJ-IEru.~AL SYSTEMS 371
'.. lj.. ":?1odesf extension frQ m ·st~dy-state. to dyn'!mic SilTIulation is 'appropriate ..'
for' some syst~ms, ·where, for ~xainple, the thermal' capacity of all' compo-'
D:eLtS except one car. be neglectedA An example 'will illustrate' the, approach.5· .
··TIle refrigeration system shown' .in ,f ig·... ,IS-1 is to maintaiDl. a low ternpera-
'lure in the' chamber. The evaporator that is located In the cbamber removes
the heat from the space that is copducted inJ1u:'Ol1gh the \V~.s·.·and. also' that
heat.Temoved from the thermal 'capacity ot the' contentS of the chamber,
.' First"coIL~idet the case where the cpnditions have s[abilize9- throughout
the' system such that a steady-state simulation""is appropriate. Th~ controlling'-
. equations · a r e · \
Con.denser
) Tr;
Air UAr;
11jennal capuci!y. M t:
FIGURE 15·1
S'ys~m
--
with on~ dynamic element-refrigeration plant serving a cold room_
- ~
DESIGN OF THER.MJ\L SYSTE.M:S
I
...-..-. . . . . . . ~,.,,- to chamber: :=: 'VA ch ()Tamh -- Ts)
The
aJ...II.,UAJ....""..,., of the system: '
'
"
. "
p. \'.9
. . . "" ............................ of
the
no longer equal to
Eq. (15.6), . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tarnb'- Ts)
Also assume that heat the space temperature Ts
and the objects good internal conduction 1;ligh so that
of objects is the same as balance within
the -a equation.
, (1
------
..
DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF TIiERM.AL SYSTEMS 3"73
' .
equat~ o12 .
To resolve the diUicuhY 9 relllo ve ) ~-~ d.S a variah'e; of the steady-
state sim ulation. The initial v(]Iue of 'Ts 'mIls! be ~cno ~lIl just as is usu-
'a lly required in the' so; ltion of d:"fferential equations. If Ts = 3JoC i~i-
. tiaJ.iy the ~et of 7 equations ca~ be solve.d for the: 7 variables, :.ncludirig
I
.. (~Ts I dt) o:~§.~RI??.se ~a~. ,,(~r~_!.t:!~~._ ~~T~.s..~l!t. .~~.OO~~.4 .oC/~ •. If a ~irll~. ~t·ep .·
_: d. . • ot JOQQ. s l~··.·arbltranly- ~hoseD. '} tne··:value· ·o,f.Ts after. 1000 ·s "vould be Ju -{-
:. c.Tonq ( ~) ~ 6. Of)Q.24. ~C/s)·' == ',;29',FI6- .~€~:::.Thi~ val tie' ,of 'Ti""worild"~tlien \'be," hsb:r~ ~;,y:, :,
for the next ::;te~dy-s'tate sjmllf~tiR~~ ". ".'' . -.' ~ .' ./ "...: " . ,'. .' .. ' .. ,.:. ,-
. The foreg~ing apprC?ach , of alt~mating ,between. a sre2.dy-s'tate and a
dynamic'simulation applies to> 'cas~s where the resp'Onse of the steady-state
processes and Gompone:'lts is r~pid. in
e,:ompa.rison to rhe elerllent(s) treated
dynamically'. In. the above example ¢e ne\~ sr.eady-stat~ val~es of Tc~ Te ,
P , qc, and qe were assumed to respond very qui.clcly to a change in Ts 't'~lhich
is 'the slo\vly changing variabl~.
Solutioll
SolutWn
Then ~{ sin(al)}
a
(sin(at)) = s2 +a'2
-----
..
TABL ... . 1.5 ,.1.
Table of Laplace transform s
J(s) p(t) f(s) IF (t)
I I
1 ·5 ,-
- 1 cosh(ar)
s _ ,j _~. 1. :-
. .... ,
,.' -. I
... ..... ... ...
.........
r2 :-- aL . ', ,' . ..
~,' .J.
.. -.
.\( ,~
.
~~
: ._~:,~'4.'~' •• "'
~: :.;:.~. ........ '.'V' /I .. . • ... j
..... , ... ~ .. .',' .. '
"
.. '.
...
.:,;~
, '1
-
.. r. . .- ' . - ...'. " '. ··S···· .. · .'
.' ..
"jt":'
[ , , t .. ~ ~ '.;, ~- . : : ,.~
'=o~.(at)
a2
';.).
S2 S2"+
1 t~-I b ~
- e-.Qr·sin(bi)
s" (n· -:- 1) ! (s + a)2,+'b?
• • • -1.'
n = 1.2.3.
..
-
1 r
-- ..
is ... fo
, . \ '
1 5 +a
,.. af + b
~
(s - a)l
1 teDr
5(S2
I
Q"2) - i~(l- Q-
CQS al)
."
r t""!"'e DI 1
- 1
-
-(01 sIn ar)
'(s - a)n (n - 1) ! Sl(S~ , a 2) aJ
n - 1, 2,
I
1 s t
(5 - a)(s - b)(s - c)
[(b - c)e nt + (c-a)e hr (.s2 + a~)2
-
20.
sin(ar)
(a - b)e"']
'.
-
(a - b)(b - c)(c - a)
s J 1
1 (ae lJI
- be b ,) b~ [e-
D1
1 1 ·/a 2 + b2
-
2• .. - sin(Q/) + sin( hI 8) ]
s' +a a I
I
b
1
-1 sinh(ar) l ~)b'
I
52 - 0 2 . - .. .. . - a,·- .. .~
where e c
.tan-
1
-. ".
D,ESIGN OF THE.R.M.AL SYSTEMS
)} F'(f)) - f'CO)
• I ~"
, .
• :. .~: ; 'f' ~.. : ' p.. .' ~~; •
: ~ b 0'
The .~ dynami~proce~s' or
by determining
A B
--+
s-2 s-1
find A and B, 'equale the numerators,
s = A(s - 1) + Bes - 2)
two
constants: " 0 =
and, s: 1 = A +B
Then A = and B =- 1.
- ~'
---.....--
DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF THEP....'VIP.~ SYSTEMS 377
A
r'J.
• -.. ·1" 1 t..
sp ec2J SltU9.tlOD. .~revm. s \Vnen t!Jere are repeatea ,0 ts_ "J! '.~7. at ·:,ase tIlE:
- l 1 1
• • , • • ... .,,;; ... ~ .. , ....: .>,' .... • .'.. . ' ", :':",
Another technique for finding the A., B , and. C C011St-aJlts in the partial
fraction decomposirion of
~. ~ . .' .~ ~ N(s) A B
+--' +
D(s) s-a s-b
is~ for lion-repeated roots.
B = N(s)(s - b)j
lX.s) J~b
N(s){s - b)2~
B- , (15.13a)
D(s) Is-b
J ':"'d{ N(s)'(s - b) 2]
and
-. B=-
ds D(s) s-b
(15.13b)
378 DES1GN OF THER..\1AL SYSTEMS
• • J. ~ ••
~ .. ~? •
f'(O) = L but :J'(O) is not yet known, so assign it the symbol C . Solving
[ory(s)
)
1 ~s 1
.'\." (s) =. s-(s.- + I) + s~
"I '). -- -'J + -.-)- -
+. 1 . s- -+ l
-JpC'l inversion .. ' . 0': f _,~ _/: . . . '.'.!f(~:~..'. '! : " . ,-
.so
Then y =x + 1TCOSX
+ -
lnsrantaneow
-~ '. ~ ",. -[... ~ .
FIGURE 15.. 2
Symbol~ ~--"""'I-n-b"'roclr:: diagrJ.ITls. ~. ~
380 DES1GN OF TIIERMAL SYSTEMS
,
.
G X<s;G
__ G (~~
- -
- - , -'"
I
H (S)
'
.
Des)
~~
: . ) -
IF =
, ,
O(S)
,~(5)
= G(S)
"
,
O{S)
'-J' -
. (S)
= G (s)H (.S)
,
, , -, - ELn CCS)'
I-----I!""'i ". G .( s)
.. -- +'
I, '
(a) (b) ,
FIGURE 15-4
(a). Unity feedback loop' (b) nonu~ity feedb~ck
' -
loop. ,.( ,
to which the prot;ess, responds .. The n6nuruty feedback loop of Fig. 15-4b
typically results \vhen the response of the sens'or is time dependent. Of
special interest to a designer is the transfer function 'of the entire control
loop, C,(s)/R(s) , -which is useful in stability analysis, of the loop and in
predicting the response in the time domain of disturbances to the system.
G(s)
non-unity feedback. TF - - - - - - - , (15.15)
1 + G(s)H (5)
} ,D e~' arDple "-viII ill ustrote a proce:'is of thjs cJ~.ss'J the deve",o_ w.en.t Df the
transfer fu ncriqn for the proce,ss1 ~.nd the in~.ersion into the time 'domain .
The response of the tem,pera~ure T of a ~eD.sing bul b ',.'lill be sought
as the fluid ternperature' l j in contact ,with ~he,bDlb. )ch~.ges, as illustrated -
, in Fl,gs _• .~5-5a ~d6 15-~~,., ~T~~: sens~,?p,,;~~,b. h~ ,~. m~s ~l~ ~pe~.~~ :..ea~ '~,- :
J.: .co.u;vectlon c::; cific:.ellt 11.. 'and an area A ror· heat transfer, befwee:·~.. the fl uId .
:.:..-;. 'and th~ b'u!b.·' Tbe-standi'rd-techniquc;'i'of a~velopiilg1lie-'n-a:nstei"furicfion: is"" : ~I,
I :',. as ,f611ows,: . . "." '., . " " " . , '. "" . , ;, '. '.
The f1rs~ attempt at these three steps·will give an awl;cward transfer functi'ori, ..
.so after seeing tliat result, a revised approach will' be taken. An. energy .
bal~ce pro'vides the differ~ntial equation': .
. dT·
.nzc- = (Tf - T)hA
dt .
'.·whlch \vhen transformed becomes
..
(;;J
, ' ,-
Mass. m'
Fluid . S~cific hear, c
.Convection coefficient, h
Area, A
T{I)
(0) (b)
FIGURE 15-5
(a) ResMTlSe of a ~mpcrature-sensing bulb to 8 change in fluid .temperature (b) trnJlsfer
func t i on or
tf\ is ti me-cons! ant block. ...
382 DESIGN OF THERMAL·SYSTEMS
d(T - To), .. . I . .
me '. - . :=. [(Tf - To) - (T -:- .To)JhA ',
.' ./""r:":::'"':: " ' '-:'. '. ~ .' :"~'" ,dt.. ' < .... .', •• ' • -, '.' . " '• • ,. " ' ;, ' • • ,. ,
: . . :<~{~.~>~ w1),ic~, after.. tran~fo~atioD ~d, ~y:i~;o~ by'''£{ Tf - r,o,} yields tb~ '~~,sfer'
. , .'.-" "', ,.
. : ,'" " .IT -,-
.:{:~;:~ ::'7~f~~t:;· ~"',,:T ",. ~,C ," .~ '.~ ~j: To;;,:' i'~,.' 1."
'h {y'.- ~ T."}~""-,., .'(!Z!f.)'s.'_:+:-~1-'~' :>.:~~,t"."~.~ .:: _:::::.(1,5) 7J.:,~~~-·
.','.:' :;.: :_'~ .'.' .,. '.,. '.', ,','
f, o· hA.
" - -.., , '.
.L. . .. . ~ .~
. .Th~ 'definitio~ of th~ tr~sfer ~'cti:o~~ j~ ~ay .be ~~~~(f, 'had fu~·stipulati'~~.:'" .
, that:: all' iJ;lltial conditions were' zero. ,ThiS)5 the frrs~ appearan.ce' of· the. ':"
normalizing process which can be accomplisheq.by arbitrarily settlng rcO) ".
to zero in Eq. C15.16) if tbe transfer fun~tion is .n·ever ~o be inverted. 1f the '
,.response in th~ ,ttme dam'ain ~i~l ultim~teiy be deter:mined, the redefin'ition .
.. .' of variables (T 'to T ~ To, for ex~ple) is necessary ~ ,
,'. . The power' of .the transfer ~nction, Eq. (15.17), is ·th~t the. response
r'
of to a 'variety of
changes in Tf can be' determined. If .Tf experiences.
, a step increase ·of.!l from To ~. illustrated in Fig. 15-6, the transform of.1
-1 A·
~ {T - To}- - fi { Tf - T. } -. ml' .
- - 0 (~;) s + 1 ,,:s [( M ) S + 1]
1. •
/
/ I
/ I
// I
/
/
-I /
/
/.
FIGURE 15-6
Step increASe in fluid ~mper
o t
sture 1J and response of the
Time bu! b tempe~ruri!,
-'''"-,_,~ _ _ ....c~__" ,
AlI pressure, P
.
S
!
Volu. m~ ,/
A.rea
. . , , ' . ~
. . . ". .... .
" :Force, F '. :
". '(a)
FIGU".RZ 15-7 ..
Time co~~t block wirh gi~ k.
force, N . . 2
. .' ") = area,-m·
pres~~.~ Fa = N/m-
where subscript 1 refers to h and 'A be"tween the air and bulb,' and subscript
2 to h aQd A between the bulb and liquid. Notice that in order for the
be represent~ by the time -to
-
-
heat-tnmsfer process from the air to the bulb
0
-
384 ' DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTElvfS
;;;;'>0:': ", >:~:' ~f"~' -' :.>" :',~ 0, ,. ;::,', ' ,;, ,';,~ ," " ; ; : , ( Q) :" ~-,;;" i, ",'" ';t 1~" :.'::; ,; :,:> ," ,,,',' ".,; ',:' ".<:'
-;:? ,". ' . "'. ,.':'~.'.~.:!. ", ':,.:- ':'.' ."":}' .--~~~. '..... .:. .- ...
'. ..... . I '
., ' .... .
Air to bulb · '~uib to l,Iquid '
(h) -
.', . ', ":<-'. ~ -
'constant, ill~/h'lA :l' 1 the'rate ofh~a(transferred to the liquid from th~ bulb
'must be negligible. When those relative. rates of ,heat transfer do prevail,
the product of the individual transfer functions'js the transfer function of the
cascaded process . .Suppose that. Ta experiences a step increase of magnitude
j, fro~ To- .,Vhat is the response of th~ liqujd temper.arure TL?
(15.19)
( 15..20)
; '~
"''§
~
:::I
g,
£:
i;
T A
" .
10-
FIGURE 15·9
Response of single and CBS,
Tfi caded Ji"me-consr'am" blocks 10
0
-- .
Time a step chan'ge in the input.
DYNAMIC BEH)\VIOR OF rr-1ER; ...l P...L SYSTS.....iS 385
1. TL - To =: 0 at t = O.
2 . d ( TL - :'"'0) /d t = 0
at t . J. I
. 3,. ,P:1.S one 'f becomes very short relnt,ive' to the other" 7'2 ~ T J for exa:tL~.Jle~
TL -: To '.1.( 1. -. ~ -:-(17"1)
, , , 'I.t \~{b'~~t !l. . ,T2, Eq. (.~?/ ~ 9) ,. P1!lst ~e,r~il~"e'rte0 '(se~ pr,ob~' J5D'1.3) ~~ ~bi~n ,"' "
,"... .~:: ~, 'A'~ Tr; .. .....• ,:.: ["; '.c-.. i~e~I/' ' , . , ' : •. , ' ...' ( 15,2 1) ." :
".•.>, .':, '. ...
. - .,
Jd +(27rjT)2
and the phase lag is tan -1 ( 21Tj T). The amp 1i fi cati on ratio decrea ses and the
, ,phase la.g increases as the frequency of the input sine wave increases.
The principle that Jeads to the Bode criterion for stability is based on
transmission of sine wnves throughout the 1~.9P· !,he sum of the phase lags
around the lo·op and' die 'prochict of the' amplification ratios are computed.
Consi~ .dle eJtampJe of the ..ai r heater in Fjg. 15-1 J in which an electric
386 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
-, • • 1
,
,. ;'
" , . • • ~.,,:. J
r·
~ .~j
• ", _, I
~. '
:. " :. " ": "~;;":' •• ,
~
.' • J " . I'· •
. - :<.
'.' • - .. .
", .l .
: . "
~. :.~~:;
j ••
'? ':
::I .
. ~ , '. 2 ', . .':' ",
...! '
....
.
~.
-"i', _ ..
. :
, .
J,
". .:: ;: '.:::'~"~/'~'/ <~<, ".:"::,~,.•. ,~; .••. '::~ . c". ' ..
. he~ter is controlled by 'a loop that senses the outlet air ~einperature Ta and'
converts this sensed temperature'Tb to a ' {:ontrol voltage ·Ve·• The elec~c
,'power provided. to.the air stream is proportion~ to .the differeDc~ _V set - Ve.
The block diagram 'is shown .in .F~g_ l~-llb, .a nd it i~ assumed that ,both ¢~
, tempera,ture s~ns~r and 'the heater possess themal capacity that introduce,
phase lags at those t~JO elements.
The visuaJ lzat'ion suggested, i?Y the principle OJ the Bode diagram is,
that for SOD1C reason Ta experien~es a disturbance that .js the top half of
a sine. 'Nav.e , as shown ,in Fig. 15-12. The sensed temperature Tb lags the
variation in Ta by an, 'angle .¢l and also varies with a smaller ampJitude.
The variation jn Tb translates to a half sine wave of Vset - V CI but reversed
in sign, as shown by the 'd ashed line. This reversal is needeg because as Tb
increases the power input should decrease. This reversal is equivalent to a
phase lag of 18Ct. Because of the thermal capacity in the heater a phase lag
of 4>2 exists, provid.ing a variation of T.a, that is' a continuation of the half
\ 'SCI
Controller
\ ''''''r
and
+ healer'
Transducer
(b)
.;·1......
.~
.j & ' ...
' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . , - - - - - - - - - 0..'-
. ·F~GUi:E 1.5-12
Perpetuation of-:sinusoidal disturbances· throughout the control loop. of :th'e air heater in Fig.~
,IS-Ii.' . 0 . '
sine wave that started the oscll1ation.· From the position marked'x a bottom-·
.- ·"Yo ~ half sine w~ve hegi.Ils ano"ther sequerice, and 'the'oscillations ~ohtinue.
. .
, The Bode diagram prQposes th~t a ~rucial frequency is that. whi.ch
causes the sum of the phaSe lags. to be 1-80° •. as ilh.~stra[ed in Fig.
15-13a. In combinati6n wi th the buil t-1D 180 reyersaI, a 360 0 displacement
0
If at the frequency where the sum of {he phase lags in the loop is ] 80° the
product of the ampJirude ratios is greater than 1.0, then the loop is unstable.
.
.
... .
~. :~.
,.
',.';'
-
.. ... :..,:.
.
. ..
:~
Ratio J
~ombined
10.i-=--.,--:"''''''',....,.-''I.J--- - t - - -
Ratio ,2
F (t ) F(E) F (t)
il
F (t) ;::: e -,01 F (t) == ~+Ol
r< 0 r>.o
, (a) (b) (c)
~ve.rses F(t) are dependeh.[ upon' ' the 'slgn of.rhe ro()~ i~ (const)/(s - r). t~. "
are imaginary numbers appear frequently .as well. If the root is, a + ib.
for. example, . the inverse is ear e~bl. Since eibr = cos( ht) + i sine ht) 'this I
Example 15.8 .. How' many 'roots with positive: real paru ;ue there ' 'of' the .
_ cb~a~~r{stic 'equation . ' . . ..- . ' .. ' .. ,
, ' -1 1 ~ 80
b n - 3 = hi::::: '7
7 , . 0 = -8l3
1 -10 -80
7' -116
6.57 -80
-30.8
The one sign change down the left column indicates one root with a positive
real part. (The roots are 4; -5, -3 ±·2i).
,--,
1011 I
Array
o I~:"~ (JII~ .
J 0,,_1 : 0 /1 _) (J n-~
I'
I h /._ t I h /l _} bn _, -I }"
.' , '- .~ .. ' . \ :
r I
I en.' I C JI-.\ ('n .. ,
L __ J
--
- .
(15,32).
DYN.~'vIlC BEHAVIOR OF THERMAL $YSTEMS 391
S j~me techniaues
., are 8_'.'9 i lable for deteIDl.i.ning
), the. ..SC"2cific
t ' v2.Iue of ,d"J.e
roots sho uld that be required. H ere 'we 'will dilly discuss'second and third
~eg,~ee polynomials. Tne rOOfS of tIie characteristic equation that is a second ,
degree poly[iomi~l can readily be'fq und .by use. of the quadratic forn-.. :ula. ~
.If the. charac~'e~stic equation is.:a 'cubif one~' .the f<?ors ,fail into ,'o ne._ QI. ib.re~ .', .
. . cl::li:..ser--- :- .' .. - .~..,,,,,,,,,,,""_~. . r.JJ-,• • ~.,. ". • ~~
.. •• I •
,"." ";"<:~'. }'~.: .::s,p~.'" '::'_ ..•. ,':'''':~''_''~'_''.' ':'-": ',~ . ., ." , .
I .
1. o~e real root and, ·~o roots ·~ri.a:t· .ar~·a conjugate 'pair :'.,. ' .
.", 2. .three :re.al root~ ,tWo' of \vhich 'are equ~l'"
I'
- .
15~13 'NORMALIZING THE VARIABLES.
FOR INVERSION TO THE TliV1E DOMAIN
The next several sections address the ch.allenge of trans[a~ing the character-
istics .of the physicaJ equipment into the symb~Is of t0e control blqck· d.ja-
gram ()JC?ng with the specification of th~ ·transfer functions: WheIl 'the loop
transfer function must be inverted to determine the response of one or more
variables in the loop in the time domain, a normalization of me vmables is
usuaIJy necessary. Considec for example~ the controller in Fig. 15-17a that
regulates the air pressure in a reservoir .by admitting a stream of air from a
high-pressure source. The spring attached to the piston is under tension, ~d
the displacement of the valve stem is proportional to the pressure difference:
x, mm = K(Psct - P, kPa)
The flow rate admined [0 the reservoir is proportional to the position of the
valve stem:
Win' kgls = Lx
The block- diagram of the loop with ·PSl:( as the reference value and the
reservoir pressLlre p as the controt1ed variable is shown in Fig. 15-17b.
If the ~ly analysis planned is that of determining stability based on
tl,le loop transfer function. some short cuts can be taken. If Ws is constant,
thnt summing point can be ignored, and the loop transfer function TF is
written directly as
TF _ K LG{s)
-. "V 1 + K LG(s)
392 DESIGN OF TI-IERMAL SYSTEMS
Pressure
~
~_p_~_r____~~,_. ]!. ~ass,M kg
.- .' ~
;:- , .
, p
4, -
, (b) .
'V J dp
Llw:= ( RT dt' .
To avoid the dangling term of the pressure at time := zero, p(O). or Po, the
variable must be redefmed as was fust, done in Sec. 15.9. In this case when
the pressufe variable is revised to p - Po,
RT
G(s) = CVs)
15-18a now justifies the following treatment of the w summing point. Since
the pro~s to.be examined is one where w, remains constanL w. = W, 0
• " . I
I
DYN}lJ':"UC BEHAVIOR OFTH.5.-,;(MAL SYSTEMS 393
I·
. J .
.. ~:. -=-- .'. . . ~:
..... :... ••• , ••• J • •
(a J~~""
.' I' .:
·,·Psr:I-:-P ., .. P-Po:
(b)
F1GuRE.15~lB '
(~) .Norrnnlized .v~~bles in' pre:s5~re c~ntrol loop (b) w'ith ~V summipg ,point ()m.it~ed.
So \'Vin' - win.O ·p~s.ses dj~ec1;ly to the RTJ.( ~s). transfer ~cti<?n, as .in Fig.' .
15-18b; and the sumriling poin~ d.isappears.
. ..
. Exa~ple .15 .. 9. In' the pressure controller of Fig. 15-17~' V ~ 3 m\ T =
300 K, R =' 0.287 kl/(kg . K), K =.0.2 mrnJkPa, and L' 0-.3 ~kgls)Jrrun .
.(a) If PSl:t.O = 200 kPa and ws.o = 1.2 kg/~,. wh~t is Po? (!') If at zero time
Pset is abruptly changed to 225 kPa, what is the .equation for p as a function
'of time?·
Solution
(tl) Ws.D = win,O = O. 3x o = (O.3}(O.2)(200 - Po) llnd since Ws.o = J.2, Po =
'180 lr...Pa. . .
(b) G(s) = (O.3)(O.2}(O.287)(300)/(3s) = 1.722Js
- = .-e- 1[ 25[ 1. 722/s l}
p Po s 1 + 1. 722/s .
P = 180 + 25( 1 - e -110.3807)
The new steady·state pressure is ~05 kPa. so the same pressure difference,
PSI!t - p, is restored because the same steady-state flow rate of 1.2 kgls once
agaiii prevail~. .
, Ws ~ Vii.S' O~_'.~------------\---.-.
~.in - Ws fa' ,: P-PCJ
~ l4··r-!I------------------~-
-r'
-(Wjn.o- ~s.,t:I _ •
. +
. .' ,I psel - Ps.et, 0
. . " '.'
, IV +
. , . ,.' .
,~ .. - . ~) . - -- "'in""" ,Win.o Pset-P
r:" .
)
. ,'--.----:-:-.-.-'-.--:-------:---1
-, .
, . - '. ~ .
IV.\)\:~~;:; ~. . ~ ~··---.f;~i;·,,· :-; •. '.~
- '-t':J, '-" ... I r . \" .
. ' " ~ .. ~
• J ~
..
~
t.J'-,.
'.' . .' .~,.
, .
,. . : . :'-.'
. . .:.' . .' :.~. ,"
." ) "
. .
.' ". , Win -:- Ws' . , ' , ' r----"-..... P.-Po·····~· "."',
1-:-----------....,...---:--:------:-,------.-, .. :. _
.' .'.- ( H!in. ·O~ W S, ~ .. ' .. .........,;_ _.......
• ~ ::;' _ - 9 ••
.',f,!Sd -;SCL~ ..
P-Psel· ' . '1
~(po -Psel.O)
. (b) '.
FIGURE 15-19
. Pressure controller with w, as
the reference value rransla.ted to (a) the ,preliminary block
dl~g~am '(b) with- sign revisj.ons to provide the stapdar~ fo~. . .
abide by the
.physical requir~ments, but eliminate the :two above-m,entiqned
problems. The transfer function of this loop .is· ~ ..
. -' -
RT "J, :
. (Vs)
TF == ----=-----=-
...~[ RT J
l+KL-.-,
. (Vs)
If the initial steady-state conditions ofE~ample 15.9 prevail and Ws increases
to 1.4 from 1.2 kg/s af t =:; 0, .
p
_
Po
.=
-
/,-1 [ -O.2[ 28. 7
s s + 1.722
1]
and p =. 180 - 3.333( 1 - e -tIO.5807)
nlay not be the case for loops having more than one dynamic element.
FIGiJI~. 1~w20
-" . '.. Combining. two tfa.l1Sfer; fuOCtlDDSin ~e:ries; -
-' -~"'-:. \.;-~ '-'.:.- .. ;:<. _........ ':. ":"'::" .. -: . . . ., '. '. . . .:. .' . , . . ." .
;. - ,,'
4 ~ . ., • ;..".....
. '.1 ~ C(s)
_ ..
. ..•..... .~ . A(s)
.~'f Bt~).; : . I
FIGURE 15-21 .
E~cruinglng two adja.Cent si.uriming points.,: .
Example 15.10. Convert the lo,?pll shown In Fig. 15-24' into a nonunity
feedback loop.
So,lution. First move the summing' point and combine it with the surnming
point for the referen~e variable, and move the r.a.k:eoff .of the lower reverse
path, as in Fig. 15-25a. Finally, combine the upper and lower reverse paths
. to obtain the nonunity feedback loop shown in Fig. -15-25b.
B (s)
A (s) + C(J)
FlGURE~ ".
Moving a summing point around a bJoc.k.
396 DESIGN OF TIiERMAL SYSTEMS
B(s)
: .;.. '
R(s) + C(.r)
FIG1JRE 15-24
. COl!ITol ~lock d~agnUTl in Example 15.10.
R(s) +
~
'-------------11- H, / GJ
(0)
C{s)
~ GI G1 G .1,
r
t .!:!J. .+
GI
. H2-.."
Gl i
.. .- ...'
(b)
FlCURE 15-25
Modifications of Joop in Example JS.l0.
. '.,
-.
DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF THERMAL SYSTE.i'yjS
Heater
Air ~mc;;:::M
~ Sensor
Ti -=!---hA Te
we::; W
~Th
Tt.et
F1GURE 15-26
Air he;)[jrTg ~srem ar.: its control.
398 DEsIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
~
" " 2 ' ,·3-
, -, ' K . Ms .' .
.,' ' " f - , '. ", ' . .+
-' , ..- . .: .. . '. ,".
, J:,' :. . - .
: ,.,.'
. . .' ..
.', .1. '"
. ' 1
.~ ; -. ':: ;.
, 1: s S+ 1 '" I
TABLE l S A l · . _
D~igi:lations
.
of variables in . diagram of ,Fig.; 15-27.
'block'.
Position N6nn orm ali zed NonuaJized
_+7}o-Tr, '.
( Tc - T, ) + 1c. - Tc: 0
L . . . . . - _ - - I - ...:.. ( Tt.. 0- TI. oJ
FlGURE 15-28
Ch8n~e
-.
i!.ineu.!..,to summing point.
~
OY~.-\M!C BEHAVIOR OfTHERJ'-:iAL SYSTE.J.\;!S 399
. .
. FIGURE 15-.29. -.' . '.
. Diagram ~.fter e.1imlllation .. of tWo summing po~nts_
.1
KE/UvIs) Tr:-Tc.n
t I + ~VE/(A'/5r
. 1.
:rs5 + }
FI G URE 15-30
Simplified nom.hii.ty feedback "loop for air heate~ conrroller.
value and T h' - Th,o' as the output_ When that loop transfer function. -:is
. substituted, the final diagram in the form of a nonunity feedback Ioop:-is
that spown, in Fig. 15-30. The expression for Tc - Tc,o in the time domain
can be obtained by inverting the product of the loop transfer function and'
the transform of the Tset - Tse"Q disturbance.
using a low gain in Fig. 15-31a can be red~ced by increasing the gain
as in Fig. 15~3 Jb. A -further influence of the high -gain is that" it may
introduc~tion as the systsm adjusts to a disturbance. Some control
systems become unstable when the gain is increased beyond a certa~n valu€.
400 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
Pset" Psct
--------------------- ~----------------~---
\ ; ~ '. Controlled F
:/'-/ '.'~ -,., . .
: •• 1"
..... '
-.'' ' ..;... ,::". - ' -
'
~ . ,.
.. ~ .... ~~ .. ';." . : '~' " ~J"~, .... ~, . :. .
...... .. .
.. "."
.". ~ ..
"
. .
~------------~----~--~~ . .
.. Time . -,.'. , '.-- ',' TI~~'~ v
(0) : : , '(~,) : :
"" . . .' .'1:":~'. ~r ._. II ••
F1GURE 15~31
Pressure controller (a) with low gain (b) Ylith -high, gain.. .
KJ J (error)dr (15.24)
1F . KI(j,)/s2 K 1-
==" jjs =-s-, - (15.25)
In the control block diagram t.he combination of the" P- and I-modes are as
'shown in Fig. 1.?-33.' Each combination of system characteristics, K P. and -
K I exhibits a unique response, but to show the behavior of a PI control,
consider the example of the air heater shown in' Fig. 15-26. The block
diagram of this control loop. sho\vn ·in Fig. 15 ..30. must, be revised by
..
~.
",.
DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
fi7
401
J" A) .
.---~
J
I f
~:.
' . .. '.: . .
·~~~:in~l · . .,. r .' ., :.},,~
,-'.~ ~~:'-":
.. "" . " .. !
I - _~"- __ --L-i_____~ . '," .. '" '" - . ' -, ' , :
~ ',
.
.
I
Transformed
~omain
I ,
" flGURE 15-32
.. Transfer ~ric~ton of.tpe)-m. od~·. :
cl1angi~g K ,in the forwprd' path to (K p ' + K I Is). Intrqduce :the following ,
'numerical values:, E == 0.7, '/1,11 , 50 kJ/K, W '=, 0.6 kWjK, -7 == 4 s, and ,
,..th~ entering temperatur~ .of the air,. Ti == 22°,C. The loop tran~fer function ' '
then becomes' '
(0) (b)
FIGURE 15·33
Block dia~ esYtirbols of the PI conir&'
402 DESIGN OF TIlERJIAAL SY~TEMS
is the one to' invert for all four cases: " '
, .'
. .
. (15.27} ,: -:,.'
's[s3 + O.258s 2. .+ (0.0021 + O.0035Kp)s + 0.0035[(1]' " ' : - " \ .-: ..
:"....... :;. .": ",'..:1!..-1{':.' : .O.16Ss +. ,0..042. .'.:. ." J': ' .,:."(1''5' .'28),' ',; ",
. "'.::. ~....",-:<>'
.:~ :::. ~~ :, ·~'".·7:c;.!-:-:-;~rc,p. 3
'.: .,..
•
..... .'
• .
', ' ".'.
' , '
-, '
• '-'
, ', . :, '
.' ;
.-
.:-
'~.' ;.' ~,;
• • • -
S,: ',
t .- :.
+,..o.258s 2:. j-·
;• • ',
"
.~ _ , "
, : ... ',
..'OrQ-.10~s ·y..Jl '.. '. ..
. . ....: • • ~" ,- ~~.I'; ... ,. . . . . ... t •• -~':. : .....
.' . :. .-§-',.
I.,~. " ~s· "~
.:-.... ,.':~~~", ", '.,'"
" . from' the 'steady-state .calcuhlt10n. Tc.o. . .: ' ~8~C;,-'~d lrorli'.the·inverSiolf' of~ ' =-':, "" ,:.' ':~
,,'. . ' . Eq::-.'-(-{S.28), ' ......,.. '''- ' " . " ' : . ",'. ,.'-
Tc . 42 ~ 4."220e -:-.{j~9.74 '.+' O~~20e:-tl~.823 ','
A graph of :Tc wjth P-mode 'control is 'shown ' in Fig:, ,15-34. The . ini~.ial . "
, , offset of Tc is 4°C, and the 'offset ,after the change in setpoint is SoC. T.qis . - .'
. ': ' ."",response will be the basis of comparison ,with 'the PI mode which will now" .
," . be developed by cOIDQiping the I~mode with the P-mo.de ~ -
Cases II, ill an d'-IV, are all PI control with. varying magnitudes of KI '
:".and shov.;ing ~espoJ;lses 'as.ln' Fig~ '15-35..' " , - ~ . .. "
' I . '
48
,-----------------------
u -:46 I
o I
r T~,
2 44
I
:J
I
g.E 4"')-
.~ 40
38~,- - - - '
36 L -_ _ _ _~______~~_ _ _ _~~----~------~~
Time, ',S
FIGURE 15-34
Response of the air heating system wirh the proponional-<>nJy contro.t. K JI Ii:a: 204 ~nd XJ ~ 0
(0 a slep chnnge in setpoi,nt. . ,
-.
DYNA ;lie BEHAVIOR OF THERMAL SYSTEMS 40'3
'1
,FIGURE 15-3$
J:<~spons~ of the air hearing sysrem ,wh~n ~sing PI modes with various values ·of K / . _
Caselli:
, With the increased value of KI the correction of the offset't*es: plaee
rapidly' andTc experiences a slight oscillation around the final'steady state
of 47°C with the excursions 'q uickly "dying out. · ,
This case shows that when Kr is set -too high the response is,,,unstable.
The illustrations in Fig. 15-35 apply to only one value of K p, ?TId
it is clear that the two constants must be selected in conjunction with one
another (tuning the controller) to give the" desired control characteristics for
the particular process being regulated. An active field of 'd evelopment is [he
application of an on-llne computer program to self-tune the control.
rapidly, the operator will back off on the co~ection in an&effort to home the
,controlled variable in on the setpoIDL In the above situations the operator
l )s ~aking an adjustment baseq. on
the rate of change of the CO~,tr~l1ed
. v~able, or .more precisely on the' derivatiy~ of the .error "with respect to··
: ; :.' '.'.~. ~time. The differentiation 'process , in the time .doma,m and, jn· the'.s .· domain '·
': , '·:· ,··' . . ·:·:'>:;:are 'shown,in Fig. 15~36a .and 15-3.6b., respecqv~.ly. ·Dividing the . ollq)·~t-6f . . ·.· . ,',
....":. : ·.:·~:',. · : .,·:·:;:~:~,~:~t4.e{~bldckjn.~Elg~., j~:~.3.pp.;.by_·.ih~..:iiJp.~;,. spows .t1;lat '.tb.~ trails(er function of ':. ; .:',
. ':".;' ~. ~:···· : :·,: · ·· · tfie·~"diff~rentiationj)JC)cess,:: .i~>s~>f(.di( ·~1.'6c~-:'~rept~~:~P:!:inR)~~;J~I. ~o~.tro~le~r··. , '.--:.:'"
.. .. : .)n 'Fig~ t5-~3 ' is extended. to incorporate .deijyative· cOP"tror\£iili~~·:'~c6nsbuitr..,~;,;~~::,;.
' . " ; .. r K D "': the ' transfer.function of the ·]~:>.Ib controller 'b~cor.nes- · .. " . ,., ".',. ,. ·:··..··t :..:: -
. - . ... -
' ,'
. . .. . ---: . :
. ,'. .' To illustrate the i~uenc~ . of the D-mode of cODtrQl, apply PID control·' .
. ' ·to the pressure regulator of Fig. 15-17. Examine the case where p ~- p.o'·
is to be determined in respons'e to a ,change in th~ outlet airflow rate Ws ",:-ws,o
, as represented by the block 'diagnim in Fig. 15-19. The same parameters as . _. '.
in .Example 15.. 9.·will be used, namely, V = 3 m 3 , ·T == 300 K, R ~ 0.287 ·,
kl/(kg ". K), and L ' = 0.3 (kg/s)/rnm. The pressure setting Ps~t is 200 kPa'
\vhich remains ·unchanged. Replacing the proport'i onal constant K~ by :Eq.
(15.29) yields the 'loop transfer fun'c tion .' "
86.1s
. "TFloo~ = (3 + 25.83K n )s2 + 25 .8·3K p s + 25.83K J .(15.30)
If steady state has be.en pennitted to develop~ the I-mode \vill be assumed to
drive the controller 'pressure to the set ,value of 200 kPa. For a step increase
, of l~'s from 1.2 to 1.4 kg/s the transform to. invert 'is
, .
p
~ 200 =
-
("-l{ ' (3 + 2~.83KD)s2 + 2S.83Kps +
.' -17.22 25.83K J
]
,(15'.31)
Figure 15-37 shows the response of the pressure with and without the
D-mode for values of K p = 0.2 and KI = 0.05. Following the step increase in
'1'5- the pressure drops rapidly and sinks to 2.7 kPa below the set value when
Fen dF(I)
(1/
F'( I)
,
J(S). [ TF .'" f I sj( $) + F(
.....-=0
~)
differenlialion , diffdu:ntialion
(0 ) (b)
F1GURE J5·36
Th~ differe~tialion process in (0) the 'rime domain. (b) the transformed domain.
DYNfu',:IC BEHAVIGR OF THI;R1'.1.AL SYSTEMS <05
:: ..
~ ~
, . ~ ,: J99 ~
0... , '
.!<:~ ' . ',' .
. v .. .! ~ ",
- 0
,
' ;J
L-.
~ -
" 'Kp=O.2
:,I]
o [(, '= 0.05 , ,
a..""',
198
, ..! \
Q' 2 4 8 10 12
, Time. s
FIGURE J!5-37
Influence b'r the D-m,ode on the response 'of pressure controller of Fig. 15-17 to a step ~Crease
In the outlet flow rate,
" ,
, '-no, D-mode is appEed~ Using PID control with KD == 0.08 t~e maximum
deviation is , 2~46 kPa. In, this case the 'PID control experiences a short
interval wh~re the deviation is greater than for the PI control. This difference'
is attributable to the,I-mode, which was accumulating a greater corree'tion'
during 'the 'penod of high deviat'ion occuning \vith the PI control. '
combustion th~ percent ,of excess oxyge'n in ~e stack gas 15 ~lso regulated.
The excess oxygen is a function of the combination of flow rates of air
and fuel, so the t1o.w rate of comb,ustion air must be adjusted ~ the flow
rate of fuel changes', Two possible control concepts for the air fl~w rate are
(1) PI control to regulate the desired'percent excess oxygen, or (2) an open-
Joop controller ,that sets the
rate of. combus~on air baSed-'o~ the rate of fuel
406 DES1GN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS .
stack e.as
t
I ~
I 'J
. .02 . .
,"": '
\'
,
.'
Air flow
regu~a.tor .
. Feed water
... . .,. .. ~:_:. ',
~urne~
Combustion. air ..-.._ _-.-----=-_----:._ _---1 Fu~ace
Fuel
FIGURE -15-38
Controller. of fuel ~nd air Dow rate to a furnace using a combination of feedforward and PI
modes. .
Example 15.11. An electric hearer. shown in Fjg. 15-39. raJses the lemper~
ature of a stream of water having a flow rate of 1.2 kgls from T j to TJet which
is 6SoC. The temperoture of water in the tank. which js the some as the outlet
. temperature Too has reached a steady value of 65°C with the in]et .temperature
Ti of ~O°C when at I = 0 Tj changes to J5°C. Determine responses' of Ta as
-.
DYi'JAlyHC BEHAVIOR OF THERt'v[AL SYSTE\-IS 407
(!}
r-
>t-==~~
" ,
FIGURE, ~5~39
_'~lectric water heater an~ storage '.tank in Example',15 ~ 1L
funct;ions of time if the modes 'of control are, -(a) ·PI control 'aion~ ';'i'th K p ~ i5'·
" 'kWtC an:d Kr = -O~02 kW/(oC . s), and '{b) if the"'PI,controller of part (a) is '
combined with a feedforWard control keyed to Ii such that its -c ontribution is
q ff ,= .{ .1.0) ( Tset _-, Tj) .
, .
'$olution. (a) The block di,agram incorporatlng both the, PI and feedfonvard
control modes is shown 'in 'Fig . .15-40. For PI control ~lone the ' loop transfer
function is
I T!.et =65
------------------------------------,
I
,
Fecdforward section
J
I
, +
/ " ...., . , , - - - - - , qrr +
, r----~ 1.0(4.19) 1-----1>
\
+- /
------
I J
I
TI I
FlGURE 15-40
Block diagram of outiet water temperature in Example 15, II .
.".. 0
408 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEJv1S
~ r---~~----~----~~----~------~-----~----~r---~
,"
. ""
- - I 'i'
:':::~-: J;~. ;~=2~,::',:' '~/·~f/:"·~: ~:~);,; ~.:<t ~:"::F>":.i.:' ;', ~::.:~;f,:/:·~: :-;: - ._:.·,: " <:i~·" .>~
. .. . . .. - . .. _. ~ ...... ,~; ..
, FIGURE 15-41
R:espon,s e. of the outlet 'te~perature of the water heat~r in Ex~~l~ 15. j 1 to PI and PI-plus-'
, f~forward con~L , ' ' " .. " ,
, , ,
without' the 'need of the PI modes" The flow ' rate for this particular peater is "
, ~ormally 1.0 kg/s whlch 'explains the setting', and at this moment the flow , '
rate is different than expected. The loop transfer function of the complete "
'loop shown in Fig. 15-40 that includes th.e feedforward control is precisdy :
, 1./6 , of that express~ in Eq.' (15.32). Proble"m 15:23 asks for the execution ,
of this 59] ution .
15.20 NbNL~ARI~IES
'The analyses presented so far in this chapter have "been based bn ideal
-- performance of components and systems. Actual equipment often functions
with losses, friction, and delays. Most valves and othe:r"mechanicaI actuators
suffer from hysteresis so that a rev~rsal in the direction that . the control
signal is changing does not immediately reverse the direction, of motion of
the actua.t()r. In thermal processes there may be some heat transfer to from or
unaccounted, 'extraneo·us sources. When fluid flows through pipes there is a
finite time required for a gjven mass of fluid to move from one location to
another. Th.~ existence of noniinearities does not repudiate the linear control
analysis, becal.lse the solutions for the linear cases indicate the dire~tions
to strive for good ~c.ontrol. Sometimes the extent of nonlinearity is small
enough that the linear analysis s~ffi'ces. '
One nonlinearity that will be explored is dead time or transportation
lag. which is often combined witb a time-constant representation' to ade-
quately model certain complex processes. An example of the existence of a
transportaTion iag is shown in Fig. 15-42 where the sensor of outler air temp-
erarure is located some distance downstream from the coil. If the, tempera-
ture at the coil is a function of time X (I), the sensor receives that function
-.
DYNAMIC EEHAVIOR OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
~ - -
409
.-:---------'r::";=~l7l'
C~-fi
.
, -
,~ I
-~=~o-----'-----
.. - • I . ) _. , . : .- • - - .~ • -
. ',--___ .. '
. " /<'::' " ';'. , ;' '. <, :<._,;:::' ':. '._.:'~: _'.: - -. ~ .' ~ .:__ ::~ . . ,.....,..:. ::; ~. :~;-..,;~.: i.:\.J•• ;_-.: - ,'~ / ;:... .': - Vel6~i ~)f-t4'l';;\:'»:~':~"':~s~·:~· .--::', ~~""" .>_~ :':: l::: .r-!,>~-.._ ..~", ~<.'.~':~;1' :'.-:
- _Ai!'JJo\}~>.-,{
__::-_ ,; .." -XC)'
'.'." Coil . f '.- '.' ..--.- ,:;.--;.;,.'_:u':\~ ".
'. -.-~ .. '....
. '. .... ..
-- . ' ,,:.!y.(r)7' ".' ---'·: ·S~n"..~cir-·- .- _ ',.-.
-TrJ1l.."porru[ion ;ag~ T. s
..
. J.
}
'Transportation lag' due to the distance 'b~tween the coil outl~t a~4 .the tempei-atur.:e - ~ensor· in
- a~ air-tempe'rature coo,trOller. . ,_ . . -
.
-
. 'y{s) = J'" X (t -
T
T)e~SI dt '
Let t * . t - T, then dt = dt tt which chang~s the lower litnit of integration
to o.
(15.33)
')
Il.) ---------------~~------~-
l-.
-~
~I
k(TSS + 1)
. TF]oop == Ts . (15.35)
+ + +
~~
I'
,e ('res 1) (TsS 1) k .
pipe 'size is often specified 'to match that of the pipe to and from the
~. aJ though sometimes the pipe size of the valve is smaller in order '
d uce the cost of the va] ve.
' --
DYNNAIC BEHAVIOR OF THERMAL SYSTEMS t~11
C7
.
_ _"
~~~~ 'Ii i
~"__ ·. Coil ",
.. ! . . ( . ') ~
---
Valve " . :,t.,. j', ' . ., , . ,' .
. · . T~~
_.~;. -,-",
. - ,"
, ", ., '.: ': J.. '- ' ~P<o;i~ 2,5 (Q,Vs) i: .>t
. '<:" '\.."';. .: :.":.-," :.,' ~: " , ~' , "
. '. .
_. :_~
~ ..
:~:~.l~~
'.
.
.- - I . •
FIGURE '15-4-1
Valve and coil combination.'
. '''.. : ····(15·.36)'
where' !1p IS the pressure drop in kilopasGals across the .v.a.rve ~hen th~
·valye is 'in its wide open posi tio~. ' .
3 .. The three different valve characteristics c4?~QJ11y availabl~ are -shown
, .in Fig. ~5-45.,
. The valve manufacturer provides a certain characteri.stlc by means of
the design.cbQsen for the seat and the plug. The influences of the' choice of
valve characteristic and C..., value are demonstrat~d by two ,9ifferent choic:es
of C v ~ designated case I and case n. Suppose that the coil has a pressure drop
LlPcoil' = 2.5 Q2 leRi "
where Q =' flow rate in LIs' and the available 'pressure difference across
both the coil and valve is constant at 80 kPa, as shown in Fig. 15-44. A
valve with linear characteristics is used in both cases, but the ell in case I
is 0.6 and in case.11 is 1.2 .
. For the valve with linear characteristics,
percent stem stroke r;:-
Q= .. .. 100 Cy yt"p
·100 Q
or percent stem stroke. =' , (15.371
, Cv -Jflp
For a given flow rate say. 2 Us, the percent stem stroke can be computed
I
for the valve. The pressure drop through the coil would' be 2.5(2.0 2) =
10 kPd, requiring 80 - 10 = 70 kPa to be dissipated in the valve. In case
I, with C." = 0.6, Eg. (15.37) indicates the percent stem stroke to be
---
.
-.
"412 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
lOol 100
i
. ~
o j ," 0
• •
r
,': :.', .
I ,
. r::: .
_
/:,:~' : ::>':··:]-X:L
... .
." ~: , -: .' :
" ....
:-. :~
.- .: 0, - " _ .• -, " .0 ·
. . -."
.0. . ' ioa
, COpen)
, . Percent of stem stroke , I
O.~J76
.The" relationshIp of the percent stem stroke to the flow :rate through
the coil-valve combinati9n for the nvo cases is shown in Fig. 15-46. from
which .two '.obse.r vations can be made: (l) even though the flow-stem stroke
~
E
ffi21---f--k---+---7"---t--t------1I---+--t-----I
20 40 60 80 100
(Open)
Percent of Slem stroke>
FIGURE 15-46
Flow-sl~-stTo~e
~ . relationship of control vaJve 8nd coiJ combinarions.
,.
DYNA!'vlIC BEHAViOR Of TI-IERlviAL SYSTEMS L}13
relationships of the valves are Ijnea[~ the flo-w-stem, stroke relation of the
cornbination is not Iinear~ (2) the cOlnbination 'If/ith the valve of the high C'v
yields the. characteristic 'with less linea~ity. I.
. 'i te c urves D.~ Fig. 15-46 .are significant, because the' slopes of the
., curves .rep.!,"esent gt ·p.ortiol1 of the gain of the control loop., The curvatu~e .9f
, , ' ,the 'C v . 1.2 cHrve.-in Fi-g':: ~5-4~ '~s ~e~s_~esir3.t'lf: th~,n that of the valve \vhose .',: ',:, .'
.. :~ ..,;·," ·:~C~., == o'.~,6~ Wirli:.qle':·(~,:_y,aVl.e;·".9(,{~2.-..the g~.ip-j$JQ;o/>~~,:J;le.n.thfkYaIy.e)~:near~~~L",~·::.
~lly~ .opecied~ v!h.i~11 w'ou-ld' c-ause: high~;-throttlin-g~.' ~ange; .if:-.th:e:.Goritr{;ner:;.is ··,:::,:;>:·:~'
. onlY ' pr~poriionaL Wheh the ,valve is iiearIy closed the .gaiI{is hign:·.· and,:the:,·:::':'\<,
loop !pay b.~ yn$.~a.ble. This behavior may explain $orn~ syst~ms being-stable '
ar moderate land' heavy loads and un'stable':~t Iovj·' loads. Another mean's of
approaching.. a .linear flo\v-stem stroke relation .''is. 20 choose a valve WiLh
~qual-percentage c~aracteristics' as. -is don.e in .·Prah.',J ? .~5. !'.
at 70 Wall
,
. 'changed to Ts ."- ."
b
FI G URE 15-47
, Transient temperature distribution in a
waH, ' . ,
- .
414 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
. .
For convenience normalize the t,e mperatyre by defining U = T - To~ so~at :
--.- .~. :-.' ~ :
.,;
- ' - ,- ~ . . . X . .- -., ~ .
. T- To = x + :2 L
(_l)n e-Cl:I,2r,1,tib'sin(n?l.,) . .... (i5~40r
, Ts - ! 0 ',b ' 7f n =:= 1 n - b I ·
,Th~' in~ersion -techniqu'~ is', a general' state~en( of 'one of th~ IP~thods :cited '
In 'Se¢'., 15. S:
r
- I[ S + 1 l'= 0 + 1 01
e + 2( 2 + 1 _., ,-1
' --2) I ' - 21
e - = - 1 +e
- s2 + 2s J · 2(0) + 2 + 2 2( )
-.
. Step ~.
Transforrn t to.S:
,l ' . . '.
'Ino(.l:, s)= ,( ![s 'a(x, s) ~ U(x, 0) ]a
. One of the boGnda.ry sond~d6~s in Eg. · (15.3 9) indicites ~h.ar U (x ~ 0)
',;':'". :~,:. :~' :"." .:~.. ;.~":: " :~'1.
...'; . ·::;'-:'.ISO"" . ...~.. ,~ '~ ... :.:.:.~~."I_ :~, :":'...:. :::'/:'>::;;"l. l:.~f, ;~ :::!.. ... '. : ". :' .•. .'.:... . " - . : . :.', ,", " .. . ,.. •.... "
.' " 0') "
.: . . " ': ,'. ' j .
.· (1~·.4~) "·,
' {]! -'
Step· 2. ~ .
. The ordinary differential. equa.tion, Eq.: (15.42),. is . a .familiar. one ~vhose '
solution 'is' ' . .
. .
sU.bject to the transformed ·boundary conditions U. (O~ s) =
0 and u(b~.s) =
(Ts - .To)/ s. Application of. the ·fIrst of these two boundary conditiC?DS yields
- .. ". "
u(x, s)
-. (15.44)
Ts - To
s(sinhj ;b)
\vhich is the function that will be inverted using the form ofEq. (15.41).
Step 3
A series representation of the hyperbolic functions will repeatedly appear in
what" follow.s so for future reference, recall that
I
. . 1 3 1
slnh y = y + 3! Y +... and cosh Y = I + ,),2
2.
+ ... (15.45)
', . .', .~- - ' .... - '.
Ne s) I sinh.jfJC /"
D'(s) s~o = 51anhjfJ- b . +~. --cos
s ·
. ..a 2;,fU:
hJfh- s~o a
.- .
,416 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
If the SiWl and ,cosh functions are 'e xpressed in the seri-t;s of Eqs. (15.45)
and ' .JsJ a canceled, the result is ".' I '. . .' ' .--,' .'
..
' . p O.
'
~ .',
- .- ) ,S . 3. , -' ."
..... ":'.' .
x + 3"r;x ,+." '.
. ' ' ., ...L':' 3 "
S (b +" 3! a b . + . - .)
n 21T2 Ct
S = b2 for n == 0, 1, 2, ...
but the 11 = 0 poTe has already ·been accqunted for, so the n values of .
interest are 1, 2, 3, etc. Applying Eq. (15.41) to perfornl' the inversion,
cc
p_ J{ } • =~ i s j n(12 1T X I b) -/1 217 1at / bl
- Iranslent L +'J
(. n 1T12) cos (n 'l1' ) e
0
liD }
- .
DYN}-.~AIC BEHAVIOR OF THER..vlL\L SYSTE;\IS .417
,. l... h 1 - • - l'
,:WHIC!1 'IN ,en COWDH1:::G 'VIr.1 HJ.~ steaClv-st~\~e DJ..' O[U(,f.J
I •-
u
.,..--
/::"(J1..' _
f ~ ~
Q i..J
-1 C\
':-1"0].
-
21ves [nc
7
• ." j - I' ""-
;'"
" .:' .
15~24 - SUIVIIVIAR.Y
This ~hapter 'addressed ,numerous' 'topics related' to 'the dyna,mic b~ha\;ior
andcontrot of thermal· systems. 'Th'e intent has been remain close 'to to,
thenn-aI hardware and to
use' mathematical tools of onlv:moderate difficGlrv
to provide more ' ~nderstanding bf the ~esp'onse of actual ~Yst~ms." The chp.pt;r',
also sought t'o provi.d.e pract~ce in' :t ranslating physica.1 equipment and systenlS
,t o a symbolic fonn ,that- can 'be attac;ked by the mathemati"cs .of control
s'ysren1s.
PROBLEIVlS
lS.L Compute the time necessary to raise the pressure of air in the storage vessel·
, from 200 kPa to'900 kPa 'with the two-stage compre~siori system sho\vn in
Fig. 15-48. Data and conditions in addition to those shown in Fig. 15--1-8
are as follows:
isentropic work
7]c = , (100) = 75%
actual work
Displacement rates
Properties of aJr
VA =052kW/K.
0.15 kgJ$ Water ~ . .. .
,
, ~- Storage
. .. . -.' :.; ',. '-vessel ' ',' ',-, '.'
HIgh stage " ' . .' ,
AssmD.'e no heat transfer between the environrrlertt· and the compressor, ' '
, intercooler and storage vesseL
1 ,
The principles of fillmg processes applY "to air entering the·, tank~
namely, the temperature of air after entering is 'greater than before entering,
',the 'tank. '
The air at point 1 is drj enough' that no moisture condense's at either
heat exchanger.
' Use a time ' st~p of 4 s.
A.ns.: Some values ·whe.n the tank pressure 'has reached 900 kPa:
T~ == 130.90'C, 13 ~ 27.4°C, T t.a.nX = ] 44.,4°C, P2 = 21& kPa.
15.2. A recompr~ssion unit servjcing a liquid amnlonia stoql,ge vessel, Fig.
15-49 consists of a compressor, condenser, and expan~ion valve. The
9
purpose of the recqrnpressiop unit is to draw off vapor and thereby cool ' ,
the stored liquid. The vapor is condensed and passed through a thr.o'ttling
val ve back to the tank.
UA=12kW/K
Water.30 D e
FIGURE 15-49
Re,Cl)mpres~jon
unit for reducing the temperature of Jiquid ammonia in a storage vesser. '
- .
DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF THeRMAL SYSTEMS .::i';.9
I
:n ~he process under consideratio'n j the temperatu.fe of the 'at1unoni:1
,Jiquid is to be hrought down from ,35 9 C 'to' IOoe. D,sing a, stez.d.y st~tc
, simulation plus one dynamic element, deteolline the tilDe required ,for [hi::;
red~c~on in temperature. : ,Y'
O_OI8':"O_003;~
, ' [(' ) 1.2
. - I]
V/ork required
- ' . .
by the comprc;ssor which LS absorbed by the vapqr durin'2
' , " . ~ -
compressIon: , ' .
1 + 2.r
(4 . C~sin I + 2 cos I} - ~2 + J
420 PESIGN OF THERMAL 'SYSTEMS
" 1
(b)- ...c{sin(t) COS(t)} -=" 4
' s- +
s2 +,~2
(c), J: {co,s '\at)} ~ s~ +.4sa 1 '
; '::: ."F.', 1~ ...5~ U.se p~rtia1 fractions rujd Table i5.~'llwhere possible' to sQow 'th~t:~.:':- ':',
~;; ~· '
:>::.::-.,.. - ••" '(a) ·.• 'p~i.[ js~ ~ 4;;t~~~::;.;~~J: : .,~:t;.:t;:;;e~:' ::f~:~~;~:~',]. ~':-~; '· " ':" <~ .
•. C7'"'
,.-
,(;).L,-l{ 65 2++ )~s +~, 20} = 4+2e~1 c~S(2~)
. . s3 2s- 5s .
' . '-~- " ,
. '
15.6. S~lve the following diff~rential ' equations using Laplace tr~siormations:. ' .
(a) Y'\t) + 2kY~(t) + k2Y(t) :.-.- 0 ' I '
. "
(b) Y"(X)
,
+ Y'(x) = 2 whh boundary conqitions: YeO) '= 0 and Y'(O) = 4
-
Ans.: Y(x) = 21' + 2 - 2e- x .
~, . '
-----
15.8.
.
DYNAMiC BEHAVIOR OF THERMAL SYSTEMS 421
, :. ;' The' teu;ipetatllr~s.__,o{both ·ehd~ .of·the cylinder· . a;,.~ · 20°C7 ~arid, ·the·.
2.mbi~nt· aIr is also at 20°C ' ..
, .
(0) What is the' differential' equation. (including numeri<:-al coeffi€ienrS) and ' .
boundary conditions relating the teJl1pera~ure to the distance x .along . r
the element?: ,' ", " .
(b) Laplace tran'sfor~s, solve th'e differe~tiai e.qllati~n to develop the
Using
expression for T as a function of x., . .
Ans.: At the ffiidlength, T = 40.2°C .
. '15g9. The temper~ture-sensing bulb i~: Fig. IS-Sa is s~.bjected to ~ fluid tempe~
ature: Tf that varies sinusoidally according tq the equation
Tf - Tm = !1 sin(21Tft) ,
where Tm is constant.
11 .. = amplitude'
f = frequency '.,
(a) Determine the transfer function .L'{T - Tm}I....tCTf - Tm} if at t = O.
T = Trn ...
(b) What is the equation for th'e temperature T of the block after the process
has been in operation for a long time?
(c) Develop two graphs-one of the phase shift in degrees and the other
of (T - Tm)/i1-against 271fr where 'T = mclhA. Graph 27TfT as the
abscissa on a log scale over the range of 0.1 to 100. ·
Ans.: to (b):
Fan
.
3.8~W -
"
'J~)'i:;'l}{,~':j},ff::c~;.: , .: : : , .''c::; ..•.":'.'.~.',., ': :';" ".•',;i':; '.~~':~ •."',' ,; . . :::.' ':: . ',:,•.'
"
. '. a pre~sure of 101 kPa its cp = 1.0 kll(kg . K), ,~d R, -:- 0.287 kJJ(kg· K). " -
t
-
The heat is ·supplied in an on/off maimer in that'a thermostat switches OD. an ' .
electrlc h~8:ter w~eri the _room temp'e rature "drbps to '24°C wher~upon 3SoC'
, ' -/- -
. '. air immediately b~gins entering the room .. When ,the room temp'eratun! rises "
, to 26°C tpe thennostat turns. off the heater and the temperature of the supply
. 'air drops immediately 'to .th~t of the re~rn air~' ,1qe ~eat loss from the room
is constant at 3:8 k\V. '
(a) How long 'a period the 'heater on?is
(b) How long a period is the h~ater off?
15.12. For purposes·of dynamic analysls, a steam coil that heat~ air is considered to
be a mass of metal that is at a uniforID temperature throughout at any given
time, as shown in Fig. 15-52. The magnitudes of some of the parameters
are as follows:
FIGURE 15·52
Steam coil in Prob. loS.l:!.
-.
DYNA0.IlC BEHAVIOR OF r.\SR~1.:\L SYSTE\lS 423
fl,5D13·g · Inven the transfer fU?f.rio~. fOf the. cascaded ti.n~~.~ CO:JS!:arit blocks . Eq_
;.:._.' : ' , :• (!? ..19.), subJ~~t;lQ \~¢ .~·?~P.j,i)P.':lt .t.o .:de\f~,loR. .Eq 'J>J;i,5.:.2J)·~:fo.t·.tb.e.ca.se...\v.htre,,4""
• :. " : ,•• _ ." ...J
':"'.' t ;·TI ·· ~7i·."···.~· . .. ...:.. . ::. . . . ,..... :.. . .. , : . ' .. ':: ... . .; ". ,,::,
i5~f4 ..· ·The'. h~.~i.djty is c~ntrop~ci in a 'labor~torY' that uses. IOO~ ,p~ld~or ai'~
by '
'.' . . , ' . adding water vapor as ·needed~ In the .syst(;m shown in Fig. ,1..5-53. [he
humidity sensor in the 'exh:..lusr air measures the humidit}, rario.H . which is
J:he kg o(\vJter 'lap'of Liss.ociated with a kg ' of dry air.' The humidity sensor.
has a time constant of 30 s. The controller regulates the power suppl.icd to
the electric heater iri the humidifier and th'us the Tate of water vaporiz~d inw '
me air stream. w~w .. according [0 the equation .' .
.'
h\",\.• kgls = 300(H;~; - ' Hsensed)
'-Due to the themlaI capacity of the heater and the ' \vater reservoir. the
." res'p onse of
the "humidifier is nor instantaneous, bu[ has ' a time,qJnstnnt of
'4. min. 'Assun1e ~h;i the e~ fering .ou·tdo01: a!i contains neiii·gibie:··:~~;~·te.~· ~·i.l·por.
and [hat ('he mixing of v,:ater .vapor throughout the laboratoI)p is: unifom1.
Use ·.trequ.ency response and the principles of the Bode diagrJm (Q
detem1ine- (a) the frequency resulting in the loop phase lag of 180°, and (bJ
the combined loop gain when the loop phase lag is 180°. (c) Is the control
stable or unstable?" .
-Ans.: (b) 1.2 .
15.15. The expansion valve regulating the flow rate of refrigerant to an eVLlpo~ator
in a refrigeration system is the type that controls the number of degrees of
'"\ . superheat at the outlet of the evaporator~ The control loop is represented
~y a combination of time-constant blocks. as shown in. Fig. 15-54. The
Laboratory
FIGURE! 1~-S3
J5.1 . t
424 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
Superheat, 0 C ~ Superheat,OC kJ :::: loer.e " ) Bulb . k2 kg/s perce Flow, kg/s
setting "+ differepce
.--,>
.. / .
. " Block
. . '..
di.airam of ~vaporntor-exp~sion.v;i}ve control loop in ~~1:>.
'. . ' "'. .. -
15.15.
. .
. characteristics ·o f the evaporator and certain characteristics of the valve' a{e> "
fixed ·and are
:designated"·in Fig". IS~54. . . '..
, "U se · freq·uency response and the . principles of the Bode diagram to··
determine the maximum permissible gain of the valve, k 2 , jn orqer to make
" trusloop .stable. This gain kg/s in per
°c is pred()~nant1y dependent on th~
"s ize'·of the yalVe port.
Ans.: 0.028 kg/s per °e.
15.16. The transfer function of a feedback contro'11oop js .
14s 2 - 2s + 3 .
S3 .+ 6s 2 - 59s + 156 .
(a) Use th~ . R6uth-Hurwitz criterion to determine the n~ber of roots of the
charac;teristic equation that have positive real parts. .
(b) What are the roots of the characteristic equation? .
Ans~: (a) 2
15.17. The control loop shown in fi'g. 15-55 consists of three time-constant bl~ks.
(a) If '1"} = 72 = 7"3, use the Routh-Hurwitz· critedon to detennine the product
. klk2k3 resulting in the loop being on the borderline between stabHity
and .instability ~ .
(b) Choose any arbhrary combination of nonequal values of the 'j's and
compute the k Ik2k3 for b<?rderline stability. Commenr. the least stable
. FIGURE 15·55
Control loop of three time·constant blocks in Prob. ) 5. J 7.
"- .
DYNAI,-,IiC BEHAVTOR OF THERivlA_ SYST6-'lS 425
ca,~
~
combiJlacioD is when all 7'5 ,,-re up.a!. S",melimes a loop be maae more .1
stable by spreading apan the values' of the 'T~S.
~~5~18_ The ten1perature "Tc of an ,environmental chamber and if:s. interior ·[BaSS., ,' .1
sh'own 'schematically· in F.rg . .··.R5-56 v . is regulated by a controller ilia[ adjusr~ .
, the rate of elecLr1c :power. input, qhb The theffi1al ' capaciry ofLh~ interior '
mass of the.' cham~er is j il ~dfI(J~· m1d. .its. te~flpe~~f.!-f~~\,.Tc"~$ ' :J;~S~.i~~p.; :.t.o . be . .
1' '1
. ....
'~
,
'
,
'. . ' " .- .~" ':--'un ifami thIOH ghou·t~the. interior.:of...the."chamb.ep;,: bu bvariesd.vim:·~ timet ··The: . i ';," ,!, 'j • .
0
. J .. i nst?:J.itan~·o· ~s .~t~'~' af)~~'~t -.:tmnsfer~'from [he cha.mb·e r .to"the, ?-iJnb~enr~ '.q ~'~ is ···,
-" . represented by' the' equa'tion ' ' .< - "'. , : ',' ,._ ' . . .
where T'J. = _a~bient [emperature~ . The temperature of. -{he' sensor is T's
. and irs ti~e ,c~nstant is Ts. The ~h~acteri,stic of (he controller is tJh
B (Tset .:.... Ts) .
(a), (~ons~ruct the block diagram of th~ ' cont~o1. inse~g appropriate
toop,
transfer functions and. using the ambient teinperatJ-lre Ta as the input and
. th'e chamber temperature Tc as
the output. . ' ,
(b) Normalize the variables associated wi[h the block diagram in anticipation
of determining the response ~f -T;: to a c~ange in T:l while T renlains Sf:.(
constant.
(c) Simplify the loop to a unity or nonunity feedback loop.
(d) 'Some numerical va,Iues are: A1 = 300 kllK. B = 5 kWJK~ H = 0.5
kW/I(~ and- Ts ,= 10 s. If Ta = 30°C. and Tsc' = 60°C~' what are stead\'-
state values of Ts and T/!- " . -
(e) If the am9ient temperature T'J. changes abruptly to 20°C~ what is the
equation for .the response of Tc with respect to time?
Ans.: Tc = 56.36 -' O.085e-D.078:4r + O.9ge- D.02344t
15 .. 19. The pressure in the evaporator of Fig. J5-57 is regulated by controlling the
rate of vapor pumped by the compressor. We_ The purpose of the evaporator
is to cool a fluid that flows through tubes immersed inlhe liquid. The control,
is of the proportional type following the equation '
We = K(p - P~t)
T~!
Controller
Chamber
FIGURE 15 ..56
Environmenral chamber in Prob. 15.1 B.
426 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
. Mass of vapor
. ' . ".
. ' . -
..: .. . .. . .
' S~t~ ·
._ " .#-0 . ,
Dlass ~f
vapor in vessel, mv = 'Bp
latent heat of evaporating fluid = h fg
evaporation rate, W ev · = C(Pf - P!
vapor pressure of liquid, Pf ,= DTf
thermal capacity of Jjquid in evaporator =M
rate of heat transf~r from tube 't o liquid =hA(Tr - T f )
the state of liquid entering the evaporator is e,s sentially saturated liquid
at ternper~ture T{
(0) ,Construct the block diagram of the cOhtrolloop with the tube temperature
T, ,as the ,reference variable and the pressure p as the controlled variable.
~ndicate the ' variables (nonnonnalized) and the transfer fupctlons of the
components.
(b) Nonnalize the variables.
(c) Restructure the block diagram into a unity or nonunhy feedbac~. loop,
and specify the transfer ~unctjon of the loop.
Ans.: (c)
'co "
D,C ~A "
BMs2 + (BhA + BCDh{g + KM +.CM)s + KhA + KCDh[g + ChA
15.20. The air-heating system of Fi~. 15-26 is subjected to a step change in TJ.e! from
42 to 47°C which yi~lds the loop tran~'~,r function shown in Eq. (15.27) .,
The 'control chosen is integral only. with Kp ': : 0 and XJ = 0.02.
(a) Develop the equation for the response of the controlled temperature T,
as a function of time,
(b) PJot T, in the 0-400 s time interval. .
Ans.: (b) to check r~sults, T, first reaches 47°C in 113.2 s.
~.
DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF THfRl'v1AL SYSlE'\,t$ , 427
15.:2..1~ ?igure is-35 shows rhe response of the controlled. temperLllure 7'~t: to ;} step
change in Tset from' 42 to 47°C fo~ several di.fferent combinations of K ~
and K r • Invert Eq. (15.21) for d~e case where: !(p = 2.4 and j({ = 0'.1 tind
c.ompare with Fig .. 15-35. .
AIlS.: to check results, peak of overshoot is 48.377~C 'at 61. 1 '5. ' :
.' -.15022.1' i\)ligh.~[yalue; 9f the d~ri\iativel-cons.tanE I(D ' thair us~d ,In. 'Fjg~ J 5~37 for(";::
.'. ' ;'-',- -: . ;the
~: 'press ure- ·cE)ntrollei'f:·js.,:to,:be~explbred::'Compu.te:<-iuld-iprOi the' pres~'u re 'fbi :~:':: ;
-.' -20 sJollow.hii~(the -O.:J'kg1s step i~creasej¢":6'utli=tllo,w)-:ate\vh~'n 1(p..- ~:.:n:~'2.~· "-, '-,'
Ki = 0.05, and .KD = 0.4. ' '
.Ans.: to' check resulrs, ,max~irium drop ' in pres,S ,"Ire' .is 2.?3 kP=l"~':"
, 3.~7 s.- :
I5~~3o (a) D,erive the loop ,transfer function~ Eq: .(15.32), for the ·PI-only cO.ntrol
. . of the water heater in Example is.I-I. '
.. '.(b),,11ultiply the. transf~rm of Eq. (15.32) by ,the transfonn of the input ..
.-:-:-5/s, and then invert toyerifY the response of the PI-only connot shown .
.9n Fig. 15-4l.
(c) RestrUcrure the complete block diagran:I of Fig. ' j 5-40 (b~rh PI and ..
feedforward control) into a unity or Qonunity feedb;~~ :Ioop -to verify "
that 'the loo.p . transfer function is 1/6 mat given in ~q ~ (1S-.31)~ .
- Ans.: a check,v.alue in part .(b) is 64.02°C C?-t 300 s~,
]5.24. A ~ating coil is mQdeled in Fig. 15-43 as a 'combination of;:1 time const:tnr
and a transportation lag,_ In the Bode diagram' procec;iure for assessing, s~a
bility of ~ loop, as described in ,Sec. 15.11, a time-'constanr block. is shown _
to have a phase lag that only -approaches 90°. When combined with dead
time, however ~ the phase lag can exceed 90°. If the heating coil has a time
constant of 20 s and a dead time of 3 s, above woat frequency does [he
0
pb.ase lag exceed 90 -?
15.25. Section 15.21 described the fIo\v characteristics of a coil regulated py a
valve with linear characteristics. 'IJ1e ~quadon of the flow-stem position
for another type of val ve mentioned in Sec. 15.21, the equal-percentage
valve', is
"'!!·.r .::;
O<t<
t>k
1 on a T - x
iJ
+
au =0 U=T-
: (l/) -
dl
+
q= ------~--------- +
". 20
() i ..:Trt1lt"trnm I ube i n
DYNAI\'UC BEHAVIOR OF Th~RMAL SySTEtviS i12J
..'
, • ~ o
,
.
'.
0.0 . \ I
:.. "
• "l .
. ."~.
. I'
(16.1)
. (J 6.3)
430
-.
......., baa
CALCULL;S METHODS SF OfTIN!IZA1l0~J 43 1
Th~ optirnal values of the x"s are foui1~ by the simultaneous sol ~'_ 60n J;f the
12 .+ }~ SCalClI equations~ -some of \i1nich mdy be non-J.inear: .
ill
. . ' ~ ~ .
'1y - / Ai" ¢i =0 "( 16.4) .
. j "", ""." ... ,......
.._-_ ._.-, _.___. ' " _.' .f-1.-.=_1 :"'.- ~."-.: . : .. " : ,-
. . . .. , :-~
. ' ' . . - - I
( 16~ 7)
-.
DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
(1
, r
Vy = 0
vectors are to one
........................... at
.. + (1
----.. ---
CALCULUS METHODS OF OPT1M1ZA.TION 433
- (0) (h)
- '
, FIGURE 16-1
_:~' Ma.x:i~~rp.. chnn~e in y ~:he~ moving a di,stance r in (a) hvO diTl1ensions (b) ¢ree- dime~ions_ .-
, -dv '
, -"-,- -2A..dxi == 0
ax. ",' ,
so
1 t3v
dx-;=--"" ,
, 2"\' ax;
(16.11)
DES1GN OF THERMAL ,sYSTEMS
y .-.:.. y "" + J (I 1
a
2
1
( ) )- ( 1• • •
( 16.1
-----
.
CALCULUS METHODS. OF OPTLVIIZATION 435
e-
and nest alv/3.)'s be posit ive if y* is a)JJjni:cnu.m, or alvvays negative if]?=;: :is:a. :
mmcimum. Section 8.9. shov:;ed the conditi61J,S ne,cessa.ry for a 2 x 2 I-Iessian .
fnatrix to provide a positive s tun .in Eq: (16.14). A Inor~ general description
.of the condition ·is that' the Hessiar~ matrix QJ.ust ,be positive. definite. 'for
. ,·Eq.
.
(16.-14) to be. uniformly
.. . . .,!
positive', or negath'e' .deji'nile for Lh~ Slim, to);;e
.
.
" . :. D.eg~tiv~. .... . .... ,.... . . \' . . <. ....... '
I " . . ,
'" . ' ' .. _.~ '"
. " ,;:
.[ i~ -~ ],
. .-1 ,2 4.
are
.' ; ~
....
J2l
I: ; I
and
-I
2,
4
and since all of the determinants·are positive, the matrix positive definite . is
. ' The test for .a neg~~ive-definite matrix is to reverse the' signs of all the
elements and test whether the revised matrix is positive definite.
E'Xample 16.1. For positive values of the x·s, determine whether the optimum
of the function
whjch is a positive 'defU1ite matrix, since 011 of the diagonnl elem~nts are -
positive, and ' th~ leading principal diagonal delerrrunants are 11.31, 3.0, and
.2.831-all positive. Because the m'atri;t: of the second derivarives js positive
~e optimum is ~minimum. .
436 DES1GN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
'0
16,,4 CONSTRAINED OPTTh1IZATION
Most important engineering optimiz~tion problems are ,of the constrained
" type. While it is possible in principle to solye for on.e variable in each con-
,«,-> ", ,straiIit eq\lation and 'reduce' the ,problem to an micons~ed' 'optirrtiz~tion, -;,
of
,',';' ,': exec~ti6n this ,s~ategy may n-ot always be ,possible if the varIables' appear ': ':":,::' ,
,<, ~',"',~:"',::,,' in, anirriplicit fomi In the "cons,~i~t$. FuTthem1o~e~ 'ilie-' aJ.gebra m'aY,becQrhe.:'::":~",
~.~:;.\~,~~#o.r;mi~ap~e;,.~bringj~K-fr~~}t ¢e:,, ~~~sibility ' of er:rorSA "The ',La~g~ ', muIii- .',:,:",:"'<
':.~' :',",;' .,plier"~quations·, ,' Eqs~"~~16:~A"Jp'~~ltf-~~: .~tHu&~~p-te,s.~YJ.~th~, -P'?$.js:.fo~ !he ..~olgt.io~, " ,~ . ,'
:, ·;'·:~,· .. ,,:·;::,;'-', of'p~acticai constrained gptiqrizaupn -p'ioblems'.:::~~,::·~~:. ::< :'.: .~, ;~:::{~::: ':'~;~;; :~:',~,~:'~":;',-::' :':'(~~:'·(~Y'.~>' ,~ :
.. :," ,Proof~ of 'the v~lidity '.of ~e,tagcinge mult:iplier.equ~tlqns,~ppear_ori.ly ~....~'- "
. 'rarely in the l1terarure& The next several sections .present',not a proof in the
math.e matical sense but a de:r:nonstiation of lhe.,legit!illacy . the equations. of
," The tru-get proof is that ca:ll~d the Jacobian method developed~ by ·Wi'ld.e ,and '
.' Beightler.l Rather than prese:nting the veritlcatioIl-,iri full generality whiGh'
risks bogging down ilJ d~tails, the next several sections.procee'd 'Step-by-~tep ,
to progressively more complex situations-each time sh'o wing the soundness
, of the, Lagrange mUltiplier equations. 'There are 'at least two reasons· for
establishing the truth of the ' Lagrange multiplier equations. Fjjst, they are -',
such classjcaJ relations that ':lnderstanding their background is a broadening
experience. Second, these demonstrations offer the means of sqlving certain
Pf:.?S.ticaJ. problems related to optimization. ,
, The sequence 'will be to show that the Lagrange muItip~ier 'equat.io.o:s
apply.' to . the following cases: t\\'O variables with· o~e cons'trairit, three
variables with one constraint, and three variables with two constraints.' By
that point the direction to\vard full generality will have been established.
The base point about which the expansion takes place is on the constraint
and is the presumed optima] p6int. In this cons't rained problem I1x J and
Ax 2 are nor free to change independenrly \ but must change jn such a way
. that the new position conrinues to satisfy the constraint. Thus,
---
.
CALCVLUS METHODS OF ~OPTIl\tilZATION 439
and
.J¢
"(1 6~25) ,
, '
..,~,., ,"
-. "
-:~ .~- ~ .~
, "
• : I "" ,
. ~y
A·..:.. " ax'}
,, ' .J4J
aX1
or
Then
.'.
fr.9ID Eq. , (16-.24)
. .
"
The above three equations are the scalar fonn, of the Lagrang~ multipl~er
:quation " '
Vy -AV¢=O
fhe Lagrange multiplier relatiop, 'therefore, holds for the case of three
'miables and one constraint.
y = y (x ltX2,X3) ( 16.26)
Jbj~ct to " ,:-4>1 (x I ,X2'-~ 3) =0 ( 16.27)
.:.
¢l(x J f X 2. X3) = 0 ( 16.28)
If a point (xT.xj,xj) has been located which lies on the two coo-
'raints and-=". Ul .be tested 'at the ~optimumt the first~degree terms in the
\pansion of y around that· -point are
DESIGN OF 11lERMAL S.YSTE1viS
(1
' . ; .]
(1
" '
2 - (
-----=- (1
------
...
CALCULUS METHODS df OP'P}.1lZ.ATION 441
The ~xp;:-essions for LlX 1 and LlX2 c.an pe sdqstitut~d into the Sllm mLl:i:iop' o f
firs>degree . terms, Eg. , (16#29), and regrouped. Then, D.Xj .~s factored ou t:.
" : .;, L , ..... , '" ~'(~ 1.', --riY ; ,;:~::<: . ': .: ',-a (x 1, X 2 ) ' '. . . , . , ",
'. l • . '. . -: I,. 1 - ' ••' • •• ~ .' ~ ,
Defm-e tht:: co~fficients ,of a ¢1/aX3~and a'¢>2 i.a X 3 as (L i and>A.2;. 'r espectively_
The'x3:variable,is free:'to move" so: only \~ay,in which.~X3 ca~ change the
either negatively ocpositi'vely, and ' yet prevent t~e entire expr~ssion frorrL ,
.. chlli~giIig y in ~ favorab~.e .rn.;inner.is fo[. the tenns enc;loseQ in,the bracfcets
to be 'zero ~ ,.th1..is '
-" -
oy "
-
a ~l
A ,! '-'-·"P._
, '~Xi-<P-
, '=:= 0
' a '/"2-' "
( 16.36)
iJx3 '. ,' ax}' ax,} ,
' Eqll~tion (16.36) was the r~s~lt'when X3 was'decl~edthe decision ,variable.
IT XI were chosen as"the' dec]sion .variable. the resulting equ£:1.tion is
" ," . . "-, ..
" av . " J ".I.. , . a -;I.. J .
, ' ", _J_ = A i-''f/_l
- A~-'fJ-- = o· (16.37)
.. ax I aXl' - ax I . ,
'. and, when X2 is, the decision·vari~ible.
.- . a(y ,z)
DESIGN OF .(l.L:.J.'UVAru... SYSTEMS
.~ :'
'-
:; ," J~ t'--.-/ t
': ,::
--------~
an
manner..
a
y 1, x (1 )
=b (1
can as an
j,X 1,X - A[ h (1
.occurs -
= = 0- (1
-- ...
CALCULUS METHODS Op1JQPTIMlZATION t1,:.:~3
.(
.1
ana
(16.45) ..
'!long' w:i.·dJ.··conforinity to the ·cOIls·traint .. :,.,.:,.....:'. . ..;.. :.' ,-' :.. ,_M .:" ... :.- ., . . .. . . .
., , " «/:." ';~c'~.'-"';_:_ .~ : -.·~'.> ~. . '.:»--" ...··;·¢(x l·:~~(~Y . :::.;"13". . "'. .' ...:'0"....<. . ,':. . ..,.::.:.' ~.
-
<.: ", ,,,).' -' "
"::(.16'.46)-,: . :..... ~ . . . ~
:.' .'~ ~ . . :' .
I '. '
• . .' - l •
(16.4.7)
Also,.
A = (a y */a x i)
(a 4>18xf)
" ..'
By ax,·+ oy aX2 ~ A = 0
ax) ab aX2 ab .
(1
o
a" ' a
- - ' -A
a~r i
, and
--
......
CALCULUS METHODS Of- Ol'T11Vl:IZATION ~!-L~-5
SYSTlElVl
, "A,D, opLiInization problem -thsx has 'been -adc;lressed by several a~thorsl.,J.~ _fqT
, _\vhich L agrange intiltipliers seerh~ to be a npiuraI :hok:e 'is, the selection
, , -_of dU,~i diaIT1et~rs for a muitibJ;aIlch I'air"supply ' :system:: In' ::~":'Sys.t~ni ,s,L1;¢h~ ,~ ,
... ..
~
::: :,.-,.as,';o:s'ho:p.Yll: ' iIi." }?ig :_:~:t6-:.2 y!·,/the,~" .gep,me.tric,--,Jay()llt;';~itp.e~' re'qqife-a": flb~' "ia'te~" .a:t ;.',"',;'~
-:each quaet~ a~dithe static -pres'sure','at'the Jatl '.p,utlet,'afe':sp~cli}ed. , 'The taSk
is; to -,s~1.ect the duct diameters ,ot' 'each se<;tion (0-:-1,- ,'.1:"'2; 1-3~' ~-4; " ~d
, 3-~) s'uch that the total' first c'o st is' a minimum~ Afirst app~oximation is that
'-t~e cost :of a section '- of du'ct is proportional t<?,' the l~ngth and th~ diameter.
Thus, the rotaJ cost C of the duct- n,etv.:ork is
C = k O- 1 DO-l + k l - 2 D [-2 -'
, ", : ' -t-'k 1- J D l - 3 + k3-J,'D3~4 + k 3- 5 D3'-5 (16.50),'
, \vhere the k"s embodY ,the"length of theg~ven s'ectiofl. 'The constraints must
_ sOrl).eholv ,i~sure that th-e required f1o~ rates, QA, QB, and-'Qc are suppliecL
The underlying philpsopJ"iY-'of the se.t of constraint, equations, listed a.s Eq-s.
,(16.51) iis ,that al(ofthe available stati~ pre~sure, SP,,-is used to overcQme
friction in the straight duct. an~ fittings: " , '
, )
Atmospheric
pressure
4
SP 3
'It:ric o
FIGURE 16-2
Optimizatiau at a- InuJeibranch air ..supply system.
DES1GN OF TIi.ERJ\1AL SYSTEMS
can·
-115
11.5 -115
+
are
==
Oi-j
- ..
~ ....... 11
",.
CALCULUS M..EITiODS OF OF'TIMIZA.TION .447
Th~ 0._1
.L.
"1j-
" . _
den 1,-r./m3 .. Q - I =
_ t . <;"1" -hV
·. J ,J tn) -
- . 3 1. f,·r- ev ::;mY)
;.j ?
1 ""- J'\.5.~t .1~., '\}Jhe"1
_O~ 1.... 'L"he ""p
G . .. 'J C . •' p-O·""·-1
J .1V_ 5. · 2.Lc
· · ."
...... .... . . ~- •. 1. ~ j \I _.,. J. r }~.i
is
.. svstehl' "s·ii,3S'6. . . . . .
be to. choose the static pressure and the optimal du~t system that resulted in
minimum present cost of the combination of the first cost of the duct sys'-
tern with the lifetime energy costsfor the fan. ~ k Fig. 16.-3 .illustrates , ·the
Present wonh
/ of total costs
/'
Present wonh of
,,----- lifetime energy costs
FIGURE 16-3
TOIaj owni~~ a function of statjc pressure with optimized dUCl system.
DESKiN OF TH.ER.h1AL SYSTEMS
-'
y l - A1 ,I -, • .• - Am t/ ( 16.
( 16.
-
---..
.. &I •
CALCULUS METHODS OS- OPTIMIZATION
• t~ •
449
I. : ., . • • ) 1 .-
• ~ 'J" .. - : ... .
... " . . . .. .
,',
!Vhen any of Eqs. (lp.55a) is expres.se,d as 'q. Taylor s,eries ·the result is l
1~ +-
,~,,~ , ax
(y 1! - AI'+'
"P
'I
7 1. ' -:- • • • -:. ,/.,' ,I'.) L\, x 1
Am, ¥'r:n +,' . .
, ,'. 1
+-'(
a
)L\A 1 .
aA[ ,
+-(
a
aAm "
!:l,x j == x j - xj c
and
I1Ak = Akc
Since both the x's .and the A ·s are variables the differentiation of a A;'¢',.-k
teon ,m ust be treated as differentiation of a product. The Taylor series
expansion of any of Eqs. (16.S5b) is
( 16.57)
Since
and
-- 0
DESIGN OF TI:lERMAL SYSTEMS
" -
II "\
~l 1 -
I --,. 1\ 1 '1 -
.n
.:' .
•1.
11 ·x 11 n Xm·
I .. I1Al
-.
X 1'l. 11Z X rn '.
m Ak r/>k:ij. 1.
k 1 .
i -:- row I to n
j - I 11
B IS
[- .1
.n
1'''- ,'1]
... - ¢m.n
is
,I
,II J
.1 .n
)=
are
I,X:h . xn) - y )
"it
.i}
8
....- ' ., ...... -
CALCULUS METHODS OP<:lPTIMIZATION 45 ~~
- I
whef.e
.
y -; = y (x 1 7 X 2. , . • • X i -I- Ii ,__-. .-"'x n) - Y (x 1 ~ X 2' , ••••1: lZ;
."
. ' . /J.
. _ _-P.,.3 ·is .typical of the _l're~!tpn.-:i:la:p~~~:)l?; p;r~s~~~r.~~~ }4~~l yal~es nlu'st b.e, -',' ':'
. , entered.,.. ~ope[lJil y~:,the.-,:~s.er..,. 9f .:-j1e..~ gerieraliZed,;. progrmn{," ·\vill: <be\'-faJ.-nili a{- ~:":i.::
--. , erio~~< ~th,.~e_'-,phY,S:ic3J. ,.syste,m:; to-,: ar,rive .,a.t-. reasonaDl~(tri~1 'v~hi~~ ;of:the' .'
"".'''. -
s<~·. Usually ~ however ,_the .magnitude of the A's ' is di~ficult _ .to predict fn;:ml
of
,the physical understanding. ·the problem: ' Trial -vaili~S of the A'S may be .
estimated by introducing 'the trial x's
in ,Eqs. · (I6. 5~a)- "vvi.tll·- Uie f~" s' - '-':'" .0,
and soly~g f9.r -the )<s using l1l ofthes'e 'linear ~quatio~s~ · · · .
PROBLEMS
16.1~ The equation f~r the two-di~ensional temperature distribution in the metal
plate. shown in Fig. 16-4 is '
' 2
T, o C = 4.x} - ill + 6Xt X. 2 +. X22 - 4X2 + 25
o 2 3 4 .s 6
FlGURE IG4 ..
Two-dimensional ternperarure distribution.
DESIGN OF TIIERMAL SYSTEMS
+
to
(b)
y'
1
CALCULUS
.
or OPTIMIZATION
METIlODS 0- ~.s3
].6J L SpaCe is 11D:U.ted in the region tlEough which duct ~eclion 1-3 in Ex. 16.4.
passes, such that D 1-3 can be no ·:gre;3.ter than 0.4 T']. D'etennine the new
~ptimaI. diameters for a minimum-cost duct system . . ' '
.' AnsG~ for checking results~ total cost ==$1 C52L
; w,.
-; F£l'i.\ ~r~l'T:r>:~ .<ES""·~· .: _--, ' . _'. .;, :'..:.;. " <. ,·,:· )t:~,,~:>r -;;'.' "
,.: " '. ':::... >:..... ».:'<, :.:.~:;;.';.:." ':. " :',';
." '. "" ,: ., '~ ~.~ ..-'.~' ......, . <:: ';-' . ~:" :'~- ".' '. :.' . . ' : .. :' . . , "'.~ .'::... :, ~' :.,
'1. Db J. Wilde ruid Cl ,S. 'Beightler. 'Foundatir;>ns of Oprimization, Prentice-11a11, ·E nglewood. .
Cliffs, N.J., 1967.' ' . . . ,. .
2. M.·· I<;ovariI<:; UADtomatic Design of Optirnai Duct Systems," Use of Computers fo~' Em~i-.
ronmeJ.1tal EngiJ1e~ring Reiared10 Buildings, Bl:lil~ing Science Series' 39. 'Narional.B~reau
of Sl:atidards, 1971. , "' . .
3. VI. f ~oecker, R. C. Winn,. and C; q. Ped~rsen, "Optimization of an Air-Sllppl~buct
. System, n . Use of Computers for Enyironmenral Engineering Related to'Buildings ,. Buil0ing
.Science.Se:ries 39, National Bureau of Standards, . 19~ l~ .-.-. .
4. H. Aikin and A. Schitler, "Stlidy .o f:Engineering ailej' ECODOnU.C Parameters Related to ,
. . ~e .C<;Jst' of an. Optima) Air-Supply Duct System," ASHRAE Transactions, voL 85, part 2. '
pp. 363-374, 1981. ' . ' " . ' . .
,. . .....
----
..
""" ~.
CHAPTER
""1'7
.. .
-.
. '., : • . - ~ .I.': -_. .- -"0 .
.: .- ~ . ~ -, . , -
, .'.t '.
I .
.: -: ~ .
-.-'
/:."
y. +X
,
tP .x 0 .. /
a., to
y (1
J
10
JOO
1000
'VECTOR AND REDUCED GRADIE\",~ SEARCHES /,-1-57
w
.3
H
T.rue minimum .
P
I+------"ri..------:::o-+---+------'----i-----i
=i
4rur+--T----~-----r_----lr----4
3 '
P = 100
t o .••"
Y::::30
o~--~--~~~--~--~----~ o~--~-~~---~--~---~
o 2 3 4" , ,5 ,0 2 .3 .- 5
, . (a) (b)
FIGURE ]7-1 .
.,Contour
.
lines In the penalized
- ', '
fu~ctjon
.
qfExampl~ .'
17.1 when (a)
..
P','~
.
' J. :(b}.P. ";:: : 100.'
1.. Moving freely in the ' direction, of greatest fate of change of cp. 'Ibis
operation occurs when mOVing from the trial point to a constraint plane,
or whe'n moving back to a constraint after a move tangent to a ¢-surface.
2.' Moving tangent to one ¢-surface, in the most favorable ' direction with
respect to. another ¢>-surface or with respect to y.
3. Moving tangent to two cp...surfaces simultaneously in the direction of
impro~nlf ~ ~'
458 -.DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
&
The. first class' of moves is s~p-~y ,in the] direction of V cP' or - V 4;,
depending 9ll whether 4> is negative or pos.itive, ;respectively. ' '. ',
, ' .. ' 'T he s~cond class of inoves coyers. 'the gdneral' situation of moving:
. tangent to Olle 4rsurface in ~e most {~vorable diJ;ection ,with 'r~spect to the
. objective, function y or wirp' 'respect to,the other c.o:r;tstrairi.! ,<h. Propose that
.. ' the ,current point ·i s ·on the 4>->surfa¢e, ~.ajVing reac;hed that surface tlrrou gh a .
,,'Chiss'·'1}nov6·. Next ' deteIniine '\7 4>.and V y "at"' the"point- 6n the co~~ttaint,.·
. ':': ~ a$.,.~!1: fig'~~..J.7 ~ 2,~ ~ Th~ cr~~s, ·pT.oduct. of .v:. ¢ and :Yy ';, G.alled.fl.,
.: .. ~ ~ . : • I .~ . .... .. . .1 t ,:' ,_ .. ': .: ..... -:. • • f!.: " ..... ,,', ,L' : :,.~ ~:_ . . ' •• "':- ~- - ',: ' { ',-"
,is ."
. " , ...
~: ~ .~.~.
, --?>'" ' :. ,":~: ;. ,," ":", . , .. . ,.'" .' :. 'I-!' , , ,'. :-- <. '" '.-".-i. 2~ >.,' ':, ..: '.:i3' ...:-..... -'. ":,::,,;.,',,.-::.': ". " '. ' ,
'" ,- ,... . : .. , . . . : . • - - .I ,-:-:::.: -; •
. : .. ,- .: . ~ -' .. -
, ':,·~ ... ···'·V¢,X Vy'= .a¢r.axl" :a"¢/f/X 2" {J¢lax'~".·- ' ,.. :, (17-.2)- '.. ·
',. . . . ay (aXl'" a.y la X2 . By I ax 3
is
The A vector normal to both' V ¢ apd y " and bec~~se .V ¢ normal to 'v. is
. the ¢-suXtace A- is tangent -to thi~ ·~wface,.,,,The next task is to frnd a vector
that is th~ rotation of A back to the.V 1> -:\ly plan~,. but still t~ge~t to ¢~
That vector B . is the cross product, ,
B = A X .\1 cJ> . , (17.3)'
·S-o' B is ' the ges~red vector that poin.t s. in the direction tangent the _¢- to
surface, yet also moving in the di.r:ectjon of maximum 't ate of change of y .
The other necessary inJonnation is whether B points in the direction '
, of an increase or a decrease of y. Because Vy points in the direction of'
"increasing y, as was. shown in Sec. 16.2, .B when computed :from the
, seque~ces 'i n Eqs. (17.2)' and (17.3) will also point in the direction Qf
. in-c'reasing y 't and should be used for a maximization process. If y is being
minimized, the direction should be .opposite. to B •
The third class of moves for which vector' algebra gives. ~ simple'
indication of direction is that .where the curreptpO.lPt H~,s on bqth. th,~ :.!P.-1r-
and 4>2- surfaces and a move tangent to both constraints is desired. ' As
.~' .'
FIGURE 17-2
Vector that is tangent to a constraint and points in the most favorabJe direction wjth respecr
to y.
--.---
.
VECTOR AND REDUCED GRA~'Ei\'IT SE.::\RCHES 4-59
-
"""" , "-,~- -'.'--"
.:,.....
_
-"
• • : t I
.FIGURE 17-3
- -The cross product of V <PJ and V ~ is tang~n[ ' ~o bOoth ·constrain[s. '
. '- -.. . . . ' . .'
il i2 i3 ~
ay ay oy ay
ax, JX2 aX3 ax~
o¢r2 ach
-----'-
ath. a~
ax! cJX2 aX3 aXil"
,
This vector'D which has components of d J I d 2t d 31 and d'4 is crossed again
with cPl and ¢2 [0 determine the vector E which indicates the direction
sought.
- 0
DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
i3 l
to
.2
. , .0
2 =0
.'
2= 1. ( 1
"
VECTOR AND REDUCED GR.A.DU:J.
b
".'T SEARCHES ,(61
/'" RetUlTl to the cO::-lstraints by adjusti'ng, llLl of the variables through appli-
, cation of Newton-R,aphson to the JJZsirquItaneolis equations provided by
the cons traints. '
5. If in the process ofretuming to the co~stt3_in,ts the value of y is degraded
:relative to 'its 'value.?-t th~ s-tartil!g\point;' r.etun1 to Step.3 with a srp2111eT' : -
',' "', ':,.-.: ,.-,.:st~p:,~'siz'~,~,,~:~:~. :,:',~,,';;,::~;,:' ,::'~:'~~,~~'~";"..::,;:'.'~;,':'>:'~': ',\' ~, ',' :0::':>: :,;<,;~~; 1:~<~;",~' , ': " , , :: ~.; .~,_ : ,I, .. .:, ' ' .....,'" ,..'-~~:. " ; :
'~ ., . 6.:·.Jfno inlpP?''Yemenris possibIe·with.-a _su.fficj_ently-~~nan"step,'size';- termi-,
'.~ - -", o· ' nate, ·.o thenvlse, ·rep.~m to Step 2. ' _
•• , . ... . , ,'.' '. '. .
'_th.~· centTal'feat~re ,of the' GRG ,meth~d is. $tep, 3 ~Jlihich d~termiries 9
the direction tIiat is ' tangent to th,e constraints' and at the same time, jndicates .
a favorable direction -for y. Consider an exampl~ ' of optinllzi~g t]. tltree-,
. vadable fu~ction sllbje~'t ,to . two ',co~straints~ .a case' also eonside'red'in Sec ..
16.7 usJng calculus methods. 'The GRG 'development parallels the calculus
method of Chapter
• •
16 ..' A differential change in y 7.1i_~: is
.' I
..,
,x) ~. + X3 8 '
, Xl~'-2X3
" '.1"
=($
iJ
a
X3 as an
) -:1).,: == - • so
-J ~
==
- .,
VECTOR AND REDUCED GRADIENT SEARCHES 4.::53
X2 '\yhjle holding x3 c~nstant at 3.5 .yields the 'p oint (1.'8106,. O.94~81 3.5)
fo.f .w Nch Y ==.6-.64565.: Table 17.2 shows t~e progression. .
Equations (17.1.:5).. to' (17.'17) and ExampI.e . 1'7.2 address ' ,a "thiee-
variable, two-constraint prob,l em ill \vhich t~e reduced gradient ·indicates a
'. specific vector, and the. only decision is which .of the two directions offered
by the vector should be chosen., In problems ~here n - m is' greater than
I, ' there are more degrees of freedom of the resulting ' reduced gradient.
For example, in a. four-variable .problem with two constrajnts, the equation
comparable to Eg. (17.17) with X3 and x 4 arbitrarily chosen the deci~.lon as
yanables. would be
(17.18)
The gradient vector principle now applies such that in de-tenllJnIng the
relative values ,of ~X3 ~x 4 - and
L\ X 3 GRG3
--=
L\X4 GRG4
to to
a
k 1,
K.
= O· ( )
o
2
Y = J- +
-2>0
to g=xJ+X,2-4>O
----..
VECfOR AND REDUCED GRADIEl'iT SEARO-lES 4 f.5
, (a)From tt~c diagram. i ~l F ig. J7-4 it c9·n be seen .th3.t rhe :D.V.:'~li.GU.It1!. 'IS tbe
, unconstrv.ined minimum occurring at (1,2)). The scalar equations conespond-
=Dg to Ec::. (17.19) are ". .
. ,,2'( 1 - 2 -}l =0
. I
:8.f~:d .,'.: ., , . ...:, .:.:"..:;.: ."~.:'. : ..~_ ~·c,~·,.~. 4.:~.(t,t~,~.;?, .." ,.!", ..• ' ... ':" . . '.L,,'. _ ' . _" • . '. ' ..
.. . ... -, >..
b,~ ~"c?~bi~ed-v~ith· .~e. s~c6n~".:~f~upp "~d"'flfcli' I(TC~"-"':'-:
~' : ~.:
' .. \vhi<?h
.
.m·ay - , . . .. ' -. .. - ' -
, . ,
" j:- 'l + ;(2 ~. 2 >'.0'
, ,~ ..
.and Il >. 0 : :
. -. .: . ' . . ' . ' . " I
: ' '-Knowing that the Ct= 1~ ~t 2) solution is (1,2) 'leads .to g = 1 and u -:- 0'-
~
, (b) With th~ 2"(2 ~ 4 - u· =:0 con~trai~t, the' constraint is itcti';e so g = .1:- 1 +
X2 - 4 = O. The other variables at [he optimum x I = 1.5~ X2 = 2.5, .and are
, - Ii = 1.' So in this-case Ii > 0 and g = '0. .
. Suppose that in' part (d) ·ilieconstraint had been assl:tmed [0' be active ..
Then' g = a and the optimunl would occur at x 1·= 0.5 ~ 'X2 " 1 ~5, 'and u .= -1.
~e ~. ~~a.t~.~~~~alue of LL violates Eq. (17.23), indicating that the assumption
of the' ~onstrai~t being active was .il1,v~lid.
.. ,
2
FlGURE 11-4
o _ _--L_ _ _ _ _ _..p. .r I Constrain~ and contours of y in
-.
L-_----lL--_~ ~
o -& 2 3 4
~
Example 17.3.
DESIGN OF '~J....L'--'YLru..., SYSTEMS
16
y =y + 2
= + = 0
X3 ..r2X,3
1
VECTOR AND REDUCED GRADIB-IL SEA.."(CHES 4 67
2>
_ ".' .', i
.J
FIGURE 17-5"
,Engine cooling system .in ~~ob. J 7.4,_
has a UA ,'value of 12 kWIK. ,The equations for power in kW are I ' . ' • • . •
and x IXZX3 = 12
The current point is (1,4.3) which satisfies both constraints. The next move
in the search is to be tangerft to the two conS traints with a change of x 1
of 0.1' such that 'the objective function increases. Use vector methods to
determine the values of the x ts at the new point.
ADs.: new value of y = .17.8.
17.6. The function
. 3 2
Y = (1I3)x, +2x2 +2..t 3
-.
OF ~RMAL SYSTEMS
is to
1.5
./.".. .
Steam
in
VECTOR AND REDUCED GRADIEl'H SEARCHES 469
fl}-
(c) If the p;:oLJleITl wc.:ce insleJ.li_to be:, so!ve:d v,sing the GE.G sea..rch I.'ilethod ~
. make one complete GRG ope:ratio:..111 starting on the constraints \-vhere
A = 120 rn 2. Choose a s~ep size of A = 5 m2 • and return to the cO"iSLraints
after the stepv bolding 'A constant. Vi,/lj,at ~e the values 'of A:' t17 new
i)., ana y? , , ' .
. '3.75)0 Section 17.4· p,l1d.E.xfunp1.e J.1.'. 2jIlusu~ated the application of the generalized ' ,
':>""; ',~'red u~eq _graciienr " '('Q~9").t,. p.1~,thocL., tQ,:~ a. _.~~~:v.ari~~I~:~· pi09 ~~t9-!,:,yvilth:[w.o.,.,;: ,:. ~·,
I ' ,'
' .' '•. " 'constraints', De,,:,~lop .tl:;t.e_.~x'p~~ssions .tQ~..the .GROs. ~\yhe.rr,-..optimizing . ~.: .> . .'
. " '. ' ~ / . .' , _ " :: _ ". . . ' , ,~ ,I .
.subjeet to
_~I L
Street
-r ~~-~-----------
E t a :
o I
n
Building b:
1 L.-_ _ _ _ _ _
Jt-4e- - - - 30 m ------..j'"I.
-=-_~
__'-,:_---if--
.~
FlGURE 17·'
Setback requirement3 for construction of the buildipg in Prob. 17.10.
-.
---., ;,.a
DESIGN OF 'THERMAL SYSTEMS
:---..- ...
-- ---_._-------.----- - - - - -
.. j
. ! ~'- ,::.:- ..:.. . . ... ..<. • • • " ... .--
.-CALCULU,S
. '. ' ..:'OP
VARIATIONS ·
····ANl)
DYNAMIC,
PROGRAMMING
471
DESIGN OF TIIER.MAL SYSTEMS
/'
I (1 1)
CALCULUS ' OF VARIATIONS AND DYNAMIC PROGRAM.Mil'-JG
~ .
473
, '.J1:;· d
. . - - - - . - - - , ==0
1,.aF ']. . .- , _( 1~L2) " .
" ... ay . :'. dx \ ay , /' .~ ,
, . . ' . . . .... :. .-;..'," ." . .J .. '.. '-::,,'" .: " , , _"
. .. ,. ~' . .:\vhichj g':2...diffe:q:;~ti~.;,e.q.J.WJiqrl:,j-9-a~.e.~e,i1tu~.l Y.}P:U?'~·J.b,e; ,sql;~~d;it() .:p_~t.~~~~,~~,~ ,;:,>:',~;
·,.:funGtio*·. y.~ 1: ~' . . ~ " ' .• :' ."" " :""<~:'.~ .. _
'... :.:. ':,.' .' ....,. ......:. .-: ' . . ........ :~ .,".:~::.:.: : ." :'. ;.'
.. The· development. of the E":L equ.atiph parallels the. strategy used' j~ .t:q. ."., .
, '(16~13) to verjfy rhe existence of an optimalpoirir. In that case 'the functiolt'
'.:was- expan.de~ in a Taylor serIes, about me point ,b'eing tested. To :preveni tb,e
pqssibility of moving .one or more of.. the 'x? s and findi~g·a inore-favora.b le
, . ·p.oin~, it was necessary for \1 y to
'equal zero. . '. . ' ,,
. ' In' the developme'nt of the E...:~, equation a. function y {x). is. sho'wn 'in ·
. Fig~ 18-2 that is expected :to yield the' miniq.1um value of l'(called I o)~
Define another fu'nctib~ ,in ·F ig. 1.8-2" Y (x), .that deviates only slightly.frorp.·
" y (x) '~n~ is .express~d by the' equation,
y (x) . y (x) + ETJ(X)
. \vh.ere E is a l1!l~ericaJ. .value, and 7](x) is a function of .x .
SU.bsti.tute Y for y, and y' == dY /dx, for y' in. the integral, Eq .. (18.1), ·
'. .'
........, ..
_-----~ Y(x)
- - _ . . . . . . :.......
. .-g, 2
I·
~----~----------------~~----~~x
FIGURE 18-2
Function tbJir gi itS the optimal value o! the integral and a function Y that devi!tes slightly
from y. .
DESIGN OF 1HERMAL SYSTE1v.iS
I( E+ (
"Y .. =0 (
0,
can
are constants,
a ( 18.
BE
iJY
=0 ( 18.
aE 0
not a E.
yJ = Y ) ( 18 .
can to . (1
€
(1
=0 (1 1
-0
'.
y Y.
:=
two terms
CALCULUS Of VARJATIONS AND DYNAMIC PROGRAiv1MING
,r
2
rJ F 1"X~' aF 1 '
+' -,"-, TJ/jdx
" f
,
xI
-J-
O}'
YJ dx
J X1 oy ,
= 0
'~:,;_.'-.;':~'~E' '-~;~7~th:~~:;:.j --~; ·- : :-'='::i~ -:,·;L;~ ':Jf,.,~~~~j/J:2_, d:~. -."." ;"., :,:,,"';' '" ',•
J]
. . - "t ..
: ' .
~ '.;-- '.'
. (18~ 12)
, ,
Both 1](x 2) 'and ,1J(X ,} .== 0, so subst,i~tii1g Eg" (18: 12) back i,uto Eq. (18.fJ)
restih~ in " ' " ' '
'..,
~; -~ (~;) =
,
0 (- 18.2)
This ,is the Euler-Lagrange equation which is d. basic, tool in the calcull}s
of 'vari~tions. It is applicable where no ~onstraint x) y, and y'. The re'lates
function F will be known, and the task will be to determine}" which is
a function, not a specific value. Since the E-L equation is a differential
equation, it will be necessary to solve this differential equation to deter-
mlne y. ,
The E-L equation can be restructured into an alternate general form)
and also into siinplified fonns for special' cases. The chain rule may be
applied to the second term in Eq, (18.2) to yield
F,
y = oFla}"•
F ' , = 'a 2 F l(ay,)2
1Y , '
Then ~e alcemate fonn of the Euler-Lagrange equation is the second-
order equ.!,tion
- .. ....
Fy - F xy ' - Fy'y'Y" - Fyy'Y' = 0 (18.14)
DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTE1Y.tS
can
=0
.= 0
so
'. ~ ~l
.(1
a
can
(1 1
(18. are
to .x
(1
CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS :·\..1"(D DYNAMIC PROGR.A;.Y1MING 1.;:77
---------_.
. ~
. .
~71 kg
• ) 1 • • '. .' .,... . liqL~id .
~ ..;. ··'lOO-kP.:t : ...;. .. 'P..'i·::.';/:..,~ ,;:'::':~'~~:":;.: ;,~:~,,~:~~:: ,-,::,,:,"--m~={) when~~~~~D._,-____----,..;._'""""---....<!(;:·<.,~ .._:2::·:~·-. : .t.,
..~.
. .. \ ~ .'
_to, laminar flo~ ~b(the hydfaulic fluid, 'PI ~ j;2 : ~ 15 m'~ .wh~re rll.' .=,f;tow......:~- .
. rate ... kg/so The vessel ,pressure P"2' 7= :I(lq' '0.5111. ·The pumpIng .pow.er: is +
·mp'(PI .- 100), whe~e nIp' is·the. ideal pump flow rate .. There is back Ie.akage
in the pump such that · . '.
. . .
.in' =. mp~ - 0.2(p 1 -:- ' 100)
.. Determine the eq uation for ]}'z' a.s a function of. time 't such that minimum
pumping energy is ~equire~ ' dui-t...ng the process.
1 ~ Jor [3.5mm'
. + 60(m ')1 + 0'-05m 2 ]dt
Subjec[ing F to the·E-L equation of the fonn in Eq. (18.14),
In 11 - O.0008333m = 0
The sol urian of this differential equmion is
m ~ C1 sinh .JO.0008333 t + C2 cosh(O.02887t)
The boundary condition m(O) = 0 requires that C2 = 0, so
m J: C. sinh(O.02887t) .
The second boundary condition, m(120) = IBOgives
CJ = 18Q!(sinh'3.464) = 11.28
so . m = 11.28 sinh(O.02887t)
an..Q...____ . m' = 0.·3257 cosh(O.02887/)
,DESIGN OF UiERMAL SYSTEMS
o·
J.
6
',·5, '
• ot ,•
." 1
OL·~~~~--~~~~~--~~~~~~--~~~
o
s
, ::, .
1 - ( .1
to
,Y , =J (1 1
(18
- ..IIIIiIIIIUIMpr twa ..
....'
CALCULUS OF VARlATIONS AND DYNAMIC. PROGRAlvIMING 47"'5:
'"T1
J.[~C
1 -;
' .
I~·' -.., "
o.eVCloprncnt or [D.e J~. -L eqU3..o.o:n .lOL~ a conSCCd"tne (.' ,0 dfu
J .i. 1DCllon is a
r
1." •
short extension of that for the :J~constraiDed fUTIctiorl that \vas' described in '
Sec. 1 8~2. Th~ c~ncept to be, us~d l.s sixIular t6 that used in Chapter 16 in.
optllTlizing a function by calc'r},us methods to. find an optimal point subject '
, 'to constraints.' . . ,
:':. " PrQPos~ a.test ftln~tion y, (:i.) as tb.e,"one thatminirrlizes,:]. iri,.~,q. (18. 18) , '
. .b~t'~a.rso : .~~iti~fie~';:J:.- 'ill;" E(D~'~-(f8'] 9J: 'J~'t';',f" "'b~":~-'ri'~'arby ~ s~i ut~6~;'.?'-~~h{~ie·\'>'·~'::·' ~', ~;.,~':" "
" " ..... ', : . ' . '"
, where,D!. _ and
f3 are c.onstants. These functions show:q ,in~ig. 18-5 ~ III are
order to keep th~-,terminal' point~ fixed positions ' in
7](X 1) ~ 7](X2) , ~ 0 ' ! .
, 'and
, The deviati'on functions 'T}Ct) and l'(x) ~e arbitrary, but if ,7] is selected,
, Y ,must ~e cho~en spch' tha~ $e integ~al i~ Eq. (t"8.19) continues' to equal
J. The 'revised ' function
.
Y, and its derivative will r~place
..
y and y"~ .
the
integrals to determine if.,411 improvement of! is possible.
Next express J and K in Taylor series of a. and f3, which are ,two indepe~- ',
dent variables.
at aI'
I (a,{3) == l (0, 0) .+ ' - ' ,.- a + - f3 + .....:. "~-- (18.~2)
aa ex.{3 =0 af3 a.f3 =0
.v,
CUt (x),
.2
~y(x)
.xl x
FlGURE 18-5
Graph 'of the fUnction y ",that' gives minimum value of 1 subject to constraint J. and functions
and--.-...-
arl.,.t j f3 j'(x) that are deviations from y.
- ..
DESIGN OF THER..~ SYSTEMS
) .
' .. ~ . (18
=0,-
. ,.. ) ".
. == 0 (18.
(18
to a constant
--.......,..=A
.. '":'" "'~.
can
- it
-A =0 (18.
aa
a
,y , =0
aa
o (18
A.
CALCULUS OF VAFUATIONS AND DYNAJ.A1C PROGRAMMING !~ 31
Pump ,
~~--" - ",",,. ,. ,
Solntion. Since pump power, kW= !1p V' the ,integral representing the J
(1200 .
-, )0' (3600 + 6/)(V/)2 dt (18.28)
(J2OO -
subject to
J 0 (3600 + 6t) V' dt = 252,000 ( 18.29)
G'
rate so
';-'., " .
v:.-.. +
¥'= +
...
CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS AND DYNAMIC ?J<-OGRAMMING 433
.y y
B E·
x
Oprimize
4
L 0 (y. y', x)
, .. I
Oplimize f; F(y. y'. z) d:x
(a) (b)
. flGURE 18-7
(a) ~ra.mnUng (b) calculus of variations.
484 DESIGN OF tHERMAL SYSTEMS
18 .. 5- , STAGED.OP~RATIONS·WITH~RECYCLE { ' . .
. . .. .' , " " .. ..~ .
. .
. Som'e chemicai operations are char~"cte~zed by recycled streams, as-.-ShO.Wll . . '
in ,Fig. -18-8. The 'symbols in Fig. 18-8 are simil~' to those first used in . '
Fig. lO~l iIi ,the introduction to DP,- wher~ the objec~ve is to maximize the
summation
I
when ' the inlet. cOI)centz~gi.on S, the· entering flow rate Q. and. the recycle
rate:':R are known. A complication oecuning -in Pig. '18-8 that 'SN and is
S '] are not lnj't.ially kno\vn. The values 'of Sn and S' 1 can. be -as$umed~
however, ' and DP applied to the serie.s of .s tages. With the vi{ues of SN and
S'I detennined from the first DP solution, more.accurate values SN and of
S l] can be us~d in the pext iterati,on.
d,,' dJ
ldN
Q. S SN SN 5,. S'n 5J Sj Sj
N ------ n ..-..---
Q
rN r
lt r,
FlGURE 18-8
Recycle
-&.1re ar;n
. in a staged process.
CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS AND DYNAlvlIC PROGRAMMiNG c:t85
0-
enCOl2:J.tered, ho\vever just as has been the lease in CO:'Vo j\ dilen1T.oa 3.xlses-
9
in m,aking the 1ecision of Vlhich is 't he optimal choice within one block of a
table., l\To longer is it possible to select the lTlinimum, (or m.a"Xin1um) of the
summation beirig optimized, but,:a sacrifice n;1ust be rnade jr,t- order 'to ke'ep
,under control the c0l1straint which in DP is a Sll1Th-natiori~ _ . -,
7
' -- ,
:/ ;:,: ~<:-': '-', ''the qu~s-do~Cl~: ho-'v!:,,,m~ctit~to,:,&~de:,off JJ-~.t~~~~~n-,;tl].e.,,~J1p)i:n0~i9p.',.-he.::ng,<, '
-optir~zed~d -'-tbe ~ohstraint"surpmatiolf. )It'is here -,that iris-1-ght·-.~fr~ni:\=,6_y~~;U'·f:'
-providesthe answer. The value of A has proven to b~ the s~ns,itivity coef-,_ '
.ficient~ ~d the DP'process ' wil1 ,be 'conducted ,with interpal choices made ~o ':
hold a constant value'.'of A tlu;"ough the s~ccessive tables~:, '
, "
Solution_ Some understanding of the p~oblem and i~Sllit~ ~'~ - ~i;~~d~': ~'~~kii~~'
able from the COVsolution of Exampie 18'.2; ,that infonnatiop'wilJ,be applied
here. The first need is ~ _set of tables that express , pump energy arid Dlean
pressure for each stage between a given ,inlet and outlet pressure. To- com.pute
rsuch a table an assumption must be mad~ about how 'the pump'i:ng is t~take . '
place-constant flow rate, constant Ap, etc. Since a constant t1p 'prqcess '
was the optimal one - in Example '1 8.2, it will be chosen for given stage'_ a
No,tloubt the Jlp, while' constant for a stage, will be d,ifferent for each stage_ ;
Table' l8.1 provides pumping energy ,data, and Tab~e.l8.- 2 the cGntribu[ion
tq ,the lip suinmation for various combinations of inlet and outlet volumes.
Start at the final pumping stage. 900 to 1200 s,' for' Which the'"energy
and Clp values come directly from Tables 18.1 and' 18.2 for the available
. .., ' 3 .. :
pumpmg plans of 33.8,34.2,34.6, .)5.0, and 35.4 to 40 m . The ne~t table~ ',.
TabJe 18.3, applies to the 600 to 1200-second time interval and shows the
cumulative energy and !1p contributions'., . .
The extra dimension- of A is required in Table 18.3 to make the tr~deoff
in expending more energy in order to reduce the /1p contribution: In Example
18.3 the sensitivity coefficient is the difference between two energy quantities
diviqed l;Jy {he difference between tVia /lp c~ntributions on the line just above
and below within a given inlet volume block. Thus; for tfie inlet volume
of 26.4 m3 , the A between the first two lines is -0.008 and betweery the
second and third lines jt is -0.034. From Example 18.2 the value of A was
found to be-O.02616 which wll1 be the value chosen as the target jn Table
18.3. Because of the steps in [he DP solution, precise values of A c~nnot be
reproduced, and instead the choice of volumes pumped is the one closest to
the desired value ,of A. The best situation is where three lines give tv-Io values
of A that just straddle -0.02616, because the middle line then nearly reflects
the desired A .
Two more calculation tables that are omitted here would follow Table
18.3 giving the optimal result shown in Table ·18,4. '
The results are close to those obtained, by COV. with the difference
explained by the ·discrete steps used in the DP solution. In the COY solution
--Lhe value of ). was inherently constant throughout the entire process, and the
- • w
~
)0
"
Volume at end
~i
Volum~ ,
at sturt 15.8 16.2 16.6 17.0 l7.4 26.4 26.8 '27.2 . .27'.6 '
34.2
)5.0
"
TABLE 18.2
Ap Contribution in n Singe, Example 18.3
Votl1r1W ~t ,c'nel '
:1 Volume
ot'start 15.8 16.2 16.6 , 17.0 17.4 26.4 26.8 27.2 27~6 ' ' 28.0,
1~
, :;~
~
. DESIGN OF TI-lERMAL SYSTEMS
. 33~8 '1265~O
. . ] 0.0043
34.2 . 1107.0' + ·1472.4 = ] '-0.022
'.' ·34_6 ,+ 1635~9 = + 62919 ~ 11 .1 -0.049 . f
35.0.' . 822.7 1808.0 ~~. 2630.7 :+ ~ 1]5,509 ]
35.4 + = .45414 + =
,33.8 +. ~171.3 ,= 2436.3 61211 '+ ,~ 114~450 ] 0.0163.
:=.2424.5
- ,+.
57261
.- = 1
. '
J -0.010
27.2 34.6 ," 959.6 + 1472.4 = 243'2.0 53312 + 1
= 113. 005 -0.037
35.0 822.7 + '1 = + ~29.19 = 1 , ] -0.063
35.4 + ] 808.0 = 2504.3 45414 + ~6~46:;:: 111;560
17.6
33.8
.:?4.2
34.6 959.6 -r 1317.5 = 2277.1
61211
1107.0 + 1171.3 = 2278.,3 . 57261
53312
+
+
50013 = 111,224
53239 = 11 0,500 i
0.0281
0.0017
564"66 = 109,778 J -,0.025
35.0 822.7 j- 1472.4 = 2295.1 49363 + = 10.9,056.f -0.051
35.4 . 693.3 + 1 = 2332.2 45414 + 9 =
D P solution :Jso st.'i \red to use the"sarfle lvaJuc of ;\ in malaDg the decisions at
" each stage. A less-tha.T1-optima! result ),vould .ha.ve occurred had a high value
of i bee1} chosen ' i~" .t he early stages and'a -low one later a;3 nece~sary to Ineet
t.h e constraint. . . .
'r !l solving Example 13.3 F/e had ad1f~-,ce".infQrrna"tion L1at A SflOUld be ' "
... .:... ~O . Q2616 5 btlt if the problerit h~d.ilot b~n '· solv~d·rrrst-~by ;COV; 'this infor: '
.. :-'
• : . w.! ;.::".:...:~ .;
to
. .' "Kil."ati6n ·-· vJould p'of h~ve··b.~en-·:. av8:ila-bIe:r"Wh~ii"startingrfieslto-n:; ~i u"s:ttaiiie:d >.,Oi:
, j)P p~obI~m~ it is'l:iece~sary ;to'·: eSrimat.~:· a ·-v~u~ '! qfX ',aiid"talc,ll1)iie 'a"p"re~i;n- .,
)J.ary solution; The arbi~--iJy chosen :valll~ of A wplJld prqbably .r~~tilt.in Lhe . .
co'nstraint either being exceeded or undetused. B~ed on the results ·~/i thoLhe
trial A; ~ new A would ber chosen ~ ' " . . .
. PROBLEMS
"~18~1~ The equation for the path· through air 'is tob~ found such that-minimum work
." .results in tra versing betwee~ points 1 and 2 . in. Fig. 18-~ ~ The work js "' the
. ". product of the resistance and the distance, R ds, where R i~ dependent on
the air density. The equatio.n fOf: R. ·is '
R = 15001(y + 10)
JO 50
DistAnce, kIn.
FIGURE 18-9
Path through air resulting in minimum work.
--
DESIGN OF nrERMAL SYSTEMS
'.:-,
.' ,
evaporator
""'Y"H"''f''"C'l'''U is
-------------------- - +
$==
= S
as a rH·...... '......,...
- ..
......... ..... ...
CALCULUS OF VARLA.TIONS AND DYN:\MIC PROGRA.Ml'AING 4::.~ 1
&
18JL i\ rocket sta.rLs with zero velocity. and travels on a horizcrszl path. ag2,inst
ilegligible i-esistance, The mass of th:e mdtal of the rocket is w which 2$ very
" , ) , '
'.' 'A"~" . .',,:':' • ' .'.~ . ",~"'" . '. t~st" ~I;'~:~~Ajd::-"-":' . . ,.•... " " '.
. ,' . dM: . . ' . ' ..
~. , .'
.: "'where '~dt = fuel burnmg rate " .
e
Also deteI1l1ine' the di$tance trave:led in time when follo'wing' 'rlIe' oprim.um
.,plan. . .. ' . I .• '.
" ,,'
Ans
,0&
a " d'l'stan'" ce
,
:AJ
• W
3
8 M
U
3 ' ".
,1845,. 'rhe distance betweeq two pumping stations of a natural ' gas (me~hane) .
.pipeline is 20b km. The pipeline cani~s 30 kg/s and the pressure entering the
pip~line is 4200 kPa and the leaving pressure is ,7000 kPa.
Instead ,of ,cboosin'g a pip~ of constant diameter, ' the diamet~r can be '
,changed every 40 kIn. because of the expectation that t~e optimum diarn'eier
may change 'as the pressure decreases, as shown in Fig. 18-.11" "
(a) Compute the d'iameter that re~ults in 'a press~e' drop from 3000 kPa to
2200 kPa jn a' 40 kill 'length, and 'th}js' fill in the gap in Tabl~ 18.5, The
basis for the calculation of the pressure drop in 'compressible, isotherm~1
flow in' a long gas pipeline comes from the combination of the following
equations:
momentum
rel4tionship 9f ~g to the pressure ~o'p equation
, continuity
perfect gas (constant temperature of 20°C)
D.
40km ,
200km
FIGURE 18-11
Pipeline i!!,.Poob. 18.5 where diameter can be changed every 40 km,
-=- 0
· .DESIGN OF TIiERMAL SYSTE1\1S
IS
~ (b)
5
CALCULUS Of YARIAI10NS AND DY"NAM1C PROGR..-\iYEv1L.,\fG 493
length is 800 m._ The evaporating temperature is held constant du ri.ng each of
the five two-hour periods during the bl!ildup_ Dynamic progro.rnlill~lg is· to be .•
used to determine each of these evaporati.ng rernperatures such that m.inimuD1
refrigeration cc~npresso[ energ)' .is reg uired 'during the IO-hour btl ildup tirhe.
A_simple nlode! that ·yields real-i~tic res·ults is ·tqat the ice freezes at. the
. ·o0~tSide. -Surface at O°C- and · t~e :.atent neat of fusion .must paSs ·by conduction .
.
... ,,:... :..;- . .,- ... ' .tb,rouglt ~he ice tothf; r~fngerant.I,..as iHv>strfli~d:)n .. FIg.~·J ~.:-12~'·The· o~llY.:·. ~~.,:
~'/_~. :.: .::;, •.. • ~ •.• : >' f;~' ".~ res~tance to'·hear: tr~nsfer' that :ne~e·(r·De··;'cbilsid~r~d ·lS· thai: ·' of'the·Tce~·'·s:in~~ the·--: :~ Jr·r . • •
.. ·resistanc,es' ·of the .tube ·apd· the' qoiling ·c6effiCj~n.t are relp.tiv·f,::Ij(~maIL .l1ie>·: :., ,:..
. <;on~llction r~lations fot" a ~hlck .cyllnder must be··u~ed. ., . '.. ,
Ice properties·
.~ . > ~,
Coefficient of perfoIfllance (COf) of the refrigeration system is 600/0
••••
,that of ,tb~ Camot COP, .-at the prevailing evaporating and conqensing
temperature$. The condensing rem perat~re conSiant at 35°C. is
(9) Table 18.6 shows the energy in kJ required··by the refrigerati9h compres-
, sor
.,
fQr two-hour
.
p~riods in building
. .
tfle ice from one thickness toanother.
.
. ~ .
Verify one value on the table, for example, the building of ice. from ·a .
thickness of 20 mm to 30 mm.
(b} Us~ng dynamic progranuning- with the energy costs shown in Table 18.6,
determine the thicknesses a~ ,the end of each of the five two-hour pe.nods
that builc;l the total thickness of 50 nun · with minimum total energy
reqJlued of the refrigeration plant.
AIlS.: 8231 M1
18.7. The constrained optimization for the startup of the turbine in Problem 18.3 is
to be"solved by dynamic programming. The rotative speeds w 250, 500 • at
.,,------ ...........
ict surface
/= 0 C0
I rt = 15 mm
finnl thickness I rj ~ RndiU! to ice surface
:;;50mm "
T, = Refrigerant tempemrure
\
\
\
\.
"" ......
' ......... ------."",.-
./
Tube
F1GURE 18-12
Frcezin~be in an ice buildtr.
.b.
. '
TAnLE 18.6 .
:.
',
\0
A. Energy'in rvu required by the compressor of fhe refrigeration' system ·in prpbl
for freezing ice in hvo-hour periods .fronl initial to 'final icc thickl)esses' shown
' ,IIlnn t til Ick~e."", mOl
~I
lnltlnl
thlcknt!S, . ,~ .
• -..t
mm to 12.5 15 17.5 . 20 22.5 25 27."5 30 .. ..-~:. 32.5 '
JI'.
35
35 ~~,:~ ~
37.5'
40
"f" \
42.S
45
47.5
TADLE 13.7 . .
Cost in a ·stage, Problem ·18.7
or stngc 1t rp9 SpcctI ut encI uf Hinge 21 rps
:j
Speed ut end
Speed at
stllri., rp§ lQ.O 19.5 . 10.0 20.5 21.0 3fi.S 37.0 , 37.$ " 38.0 '38
~:, '
~
\0
011
a 170Dlcm ., . ~. ~
till
"
stnl1, rp!J 19.0 19.5 10.0 20.5 21.0 37.0 37_5 -38.5
:( 0.0 2521 2563 2604 2646 2688 --
--
19.0 6969 7021 7073 . 7125
19.5 7104 7156 7208
20.0 7135 7l8R 7240 7292 . 7343
20.5 7271 732J. 7375 ' 7421
21.0 7354 7406
37.0
37.S
~
38.0
~49.S
50.0
SO.S
Sl.0
Sl.S
CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS AND DYNAlvHC PROGRAMMll'JG - (-~)1
&
and 7.50 s from the start {;I.re to be dete.ffi1ined such that the sU.mrnation
4-
COSI, $ := .2: 1
_Costj
i.=== 1 .-
".is a minimUlTI.; where._Costi 'js the integral of 120 {u/f~ :in a pille stage~ The
- ..
- consu-aintrequiies ~he. total n~mbf!r of revotuti~Ds it"1 fiae LOOO.s startup 'to be
_. '.'" ':. :35))qO~.~.<...:' ~ ..,,:-:;.-,-.-.:;.'~.. ~:.;,:,.<,.:_. ~: -:",'.--: :".' '. _~: :~".'.'
-~ ~ ~
•' '.~ -..-'.~ .~ =~ ..- ,< ,- . , , / ' ,:-",:,.;:- ,., •• -.- , ....... : ' -- l_ .... -, -
4-
_where Revi i.S the' D.llIDbe::· of revolutions in' a time 'stage~' The- solution': ot-Prob-
lem 18.'3 by calculus 'of v~~.tioris de-teimined thaJ A , 0.01,44 ,$/revolution,
-·ano. this value may be .used in .the' dynamic programming soJutio'n' tOI gl;!icie.
th~ tradeoff between cost' '~nd number of revolut~ons. Table '18-.7 provid~s
,values' of Costj and Table' 18.8 the number of 'revqlutions Rev'j in a 250 s
.s~age bel~ee~ sele~ted initial ,'and. fip.aCvalues of W~
':{a) -Verify by integration of 120( w,)2dt 'and w dr. ope- entry in each 'of Taqle
18.7 and 18.8, -respectively (for ~xamp~e between the initial w of 20 rev/s
at.t50 s. and the finaJ.l1? of 37._5 .rev/s at 500 s). Use a quadratic function
. for iv, namely £r) = At 2 ,+ Bt., where t = time in ~ from the starftip.
(b) Perform th~ dynamic programrr11ng optimization to determine values of
w at the end of each 25"0 s intervaL
Ans.: total cost = -$467.20 with -34,938 revolutions'.
- ,
-----
..
, I
.
CHAPTER - ' -. . .
~ \. . ., ~
.,.
.- . .
, .
. .. ,- ' .. . ,, ', " .
., .
' _:. '.:. '1.
, ,<" I
.
,', '., '."
', . . . .
" "
,,:~
:.
"
;~ - .. ~ .
• ',', : ' '. J '- . ~ , ' . ...i.. "
~"
-. " i
'. ', .', ~ . ' ..
. ,: 'P ROBABmrSTfC-.·':'>'. ",~,.{ . t'~:~':J;: ",' :':'::'~':".'''.. '.:· ~C--: · ...,:.A•••. :· •.;,."· • .,."'-;.-:;'. :'.
.... •·. APPROACHES ,'~ '. .. ... ~ .;'.. . .'; . •. . .- .
." 'TO 'D,ESIGN:',:" . . "",. '
. ',' .
,:," r '
. . ~ . ... .
" ,
• .4 • • "
• • :. .~ ........ , _ 'T #
discipJines, such as
structural engineering and reliability analysis, have
progresse'd j!l Jlsing these, tools. The purpose of this chapter' is to present
a few of the principles and then show some situations where probabilistic
approaches apply to thermal systems. .
, One of t.h~ major challengps .is to alert thought proGesses, so that
situ'a'tions that are probabilistic can be recogniz~d. The next challenge is to
transl ate the problem to a form that can be addressed by probabili ty theory.
An intended contribution of this chapter is to' present some situations and
their solutions in order to illustrate the distinction between deterministic and
probabilistic approaches.
498 --.
PROBAB1LISTIC APPROACHES?"D DES1GN reS~9
",>:'~Tl).e ¢har~cteVz~tibn.'o.f'dis'cr6te' 'eY'epci ~ppe'ars in' i;io bability' texci.' 'in' e,~ain~ ', ::,:
:" ,," ple~' Qf rofiihg 'dIce'" selection of cards fro~ ,:a 'deck, ,an(r.~-aw$.g,l?·a:U~',,~f '. "
, ,··various cQlors from urns. The~e applications should noi' Suggest ,'that ~;~~1e ,
use:fuIness of the ppncii;les .,o (discreie 'pfo,bability is limited to games .. ~ '\
,"" ", . ~", If a disti.t!ction between the"analvsis of
discrete events and contin ubus,.,
represen~ations' is the d~nsity ,of. ,e,v~ts, it .should be possible to prog;~ss
.. from' th~ discrete':event equations to continuo'us"'o'nes. Indeed,. su'c h devel- a
' opinent will be explained' ~tarting.in Sec. ,19.12. First, ~ow~y~r~ the p~ub-: ,
.ability: of ,several elementarY' situations, involvi~g ratidomevents vlili. ,b e ,
, explored. ....
" . ~.:. ....~- . ..... "0:-
19. 3 PROBABILITY
No~ ~~ll pla~s fot the future involve"probabilitY. PredIcting 'the ' day o,f the
week on which July 4 'will fall in the year 2004 projects into ,the future,
- but lies o,utside the .realm of probability because we know with certainry
(barring a change in the calendar) on what day' of t.he week July 4, will fall.
We are concerned about the situation where there is both the possibility of
an ,event bappening and Dot happening. ' '~,;;
The probability is defmed as the number of favorable ways an event
can occur divided by the number of different ways the event occurs .. What
is the probability of drawing the ace of spaces from a 52-card deck? The
probability p is 1/52:
.- ..
500 DESIGN OF'IHERMAL SYSTEMS
..:-:~·~-~,~~.:0g~~gb~s~'E~N!~-·<"·, ;~.:F" ;";-'_C;_~~;."~,./~ -_, .':_;~ :'<:';_ " ~":-;;' _;:"~.' ' ;•.
" ' " ,An.::'.~~t~~~io!i' ':~f:', ~he. concept ~f ' fu.d~pe~de~t':~ ~~e~,ts'._'J..s'-: Qlat :' of ' s~c·ce~~iv~ ' ·, . , " ,'"
eventS', where ,.the flfS~ ev~nt a~t,~rs ,the prqo~biI~tY of tl).e, ~econd. event,. _.. -. . "
• • • ' •• ' -.- .: .~-- -~ . ' - • • & ' • - ' ,~ • .' ~. •
EXample 19.2. ' What.-is Jhe probability ,of dra.wing. two aces._ in succession
fI:Q~
'a .52-c~d 'deck'? ' , ' . , :, :, :,' , " ', ' '
~ ' Solu~o"n_ ' The probabiIity'of the fi~t ev'e nt p ~ is 4/52 since th~re are 'origii-u~ll:i
,', four aces. 'The probability of
Jhe second everitis '3/51 if the first event is'
' ,' favorable. Therefore, the probability ([Tawing ,two aces in s.llcces'sjon of is
(4/52)(3/51) = 1/221. . I • • •
,P ,= (1)(1)(1)
8" 7 6" = 3~!.
5" 1
( 3 !)
.1
p=-
n C,
-.
PROBABILISTIC APPROACI-IES TO DESIGN 50
Solution. The number' of ways ,that 4- ~/hiie'- balls' dm be-.chOsen' fro.m .the 10
-. \.Yhite :b~l1s is equal to .the. D.umbe.r:- of ,combinations.-<?f in $ings "taken L~ '~.t ~, ' .
·time, , .
"
c··=~
10 4 '. 4( 6!
, The fotal nl1~ber of ways in which' 4' balls can be·c hosen from the 1Ta~ailabl~ .
is -.
Example 19.4. The probability' that Paul will solve a problem ,is 112 and
the probability that John ,will solve 'it is 1I3. Whatls the probability that the -
problem will be '~olved if both work at it i~dependentJy? ' ."
Solution
1 ".
: ~.,
if p},
....,V'...A ...... V ! J were
P =Pl +
PROBABILISTIC APPROAG-iES ..TO DESIGN 503
VI
. Vi. W'
' , . '.
X . ~'~ B}'
. ~~.~ B
I
. .
X
A . '
.' -.. . '. ' . . ' .: . l' '\,.,-8 " ' " ." One vJhit.e,
J!1GURE 19.. 2
" Prob~b~litY o(4ravving one wruu~' and 'one blac~ b,?ll. " '
.... -
the ,probabili,ty of dr~~ing a bl~ck' b,all rust and then ?whlte 'ball, 'whl~h' is,
route ' Y,.is (3/5)(2/4) = 3110 also. These ar~ mlituhlly'exclusive events, so .
, th~,'probability 'of one wbite and one bla~k,baH as the' resUlt-is the sU1J1" C?f th~, .
, in,dep~rident probabiliti1:S~ . " '
.3/10 + 3/10='3/5
;'7".•
Sequences (a) and (b) are mutually exclusive, so the probability of rolling
exactly 'one 1 in-two throws'i~'5136 + 5136 = 5J18.
Three throws: The three mutually exclusive events each have a prob-
ability of (1/6)(5/6)(5/6) = 251216, so the probability
of rolling exactly one 1 in three throws is 3(251216) =
25n2 '
. ~' - ' .
.7 , .. ',0.3907 . , "
.:8 , . , '0.3721
,9 0~3489
10 " 0.3230 r. , _
, .
,. '
Example 19.8 . . Use the 'binomial law to compute the probability of rolling
exactly one 1 in 8 thIows of a die.,
, SOZutio11
p = 1/6, . n = 8, r =.]
8!
, "C r ' = 8 CJ = 7! l! = 8
Example 19.9. What is the probability that a 1 will appear exactly four times
jn the course of 10 throws of a'die? ,
Solution
.p so:: 116.' n:= 10, r =4
---.--
PROBABILISTIC APPRO.-~CHES TO DESIGN 50S
, 0.3 , f-
pr -
0
" '0.077,8
0.2592
n=5 2 0.3456 -<:-
' ~ max
-3 .0.2304 .
0,1 f-
4' '0.0768
--
5 0.0102
rL'
O~~~=-----------~~----~-----
012345
r ~ 0.3
0 0.0060 r-
0.0403 r- 1-
. 0.2 -
2 0.1209
n= 10. 3 0.2150
4 0.2508 -<1---- max ..... r-
0.1
5 0.2007
.. - ......... ...
9 0,0016
"
0 r k ,
10 0.0001 0 5 10
r P,
0,3
3 0.0003
4 0.0012
.,. .............
II 0.1396 fJ·2
n = 30 12 0.1474 ~ max
13 0.1360 0.1
.,. .. to . . . . . . ...
22 0.0002
, .... I ill I." .. a
0
30 0.0000 0 S 10 IS 20 25
FlGtmE-19-3-
Probability of selecting Brand A hear pumps if the probability of a single event is 0.40.
DESIGN. OF TI:iERM~ SYSTEMS
p r n = 10 . n = 20 n = 30 ·n 40
0~2 1
2
3 0.201
4 110.0904
5 0.0264/0.0189
6 1
7 0.000810.0001
8
9
10
0.4 5
6
7
8
9
JO
II
12
13
PROBABILISTIC APPROACHES TO DESIGN 507
.
, us~aUy _ 4i,lf~i~nt tha·n . [fH~~.~;" pl}~~Jn j?J,~J;:q~ . :,(lSLJ.}.~-.. and~ while ,~-there-:,' is', no:~.- ,',:
" ',' con1plet~ standardization~ a s.et of 'symbols often 'see'h .is, ' " '.
,1 "
Pr '= ' e "-(..r - t'
'0
)'2/J,....'2.
_'-' , (-,1.-9.4)
, ', u,/2 rr'.
When .Eq. (19.4) is , graphed; as in Fig'. 19-4,- the . curve takes 011 the'
, characteJ;istiG' bell 's hape 'with the peak value'of Pr = 11 a.j2Tf' when x '.= x o.
The cUrve is .h r9ad for large values of (J ~~ is ~l£tttow '"vith a high- peak '
'when u'is small. "
, 'It sh'o uld 'be P9'i.nted out that the ordi:p.ate of Fig'. 19;.4 is no.t probabiiity,
, but ptoba.bility density. In ,other.words,- the oIdinat~ ,alone does nat g~n~rally
.provide practi~al inforrpation. The area unde~ the Pr . ,,~yrY·e indica~es ,t he,
probability; for example, the area between x I and X '2 In Fig. 19~4 represents'
the probability of the event occurring between these x values. Even ':~for'
the 'discr~te probabilities._shown ih Fig. 19-3, areas were :impIied became
..
.. -
0.2
L_~ ___ _
?;>
.:;;;
t::
4)
'0
.q
:g
.D
0.1
o
~
-10 o 20
F1GURS-I~ 1 ...
Normal probability distribution curve.
-f)ESJGN OF THERMAL ~ySTEMS
- 1
- <. 0" to x 0 Z u.
T/li5lli :;1.).3
Pr' .ba.bHity P (art.;a :unae not :r3lru p:!;obabpity cui"vej
,~ '''Yee,11 x " - zo- and.· x o + z a
.~
, _ .: Z -f p -_. z · .p
-.-., ,, .~ .. q-oO. ,; ~.~~ : O~QQqO:·,J)·~~· ~J:,99:i!:':': -:;u9..&9"-$.i7.~,~.:" , ."t oO:') ..'. "_.: Op9~4'~: .;' .' _ '" .'::' .:. .:.- -. ._. " ._ .
. . ·'-0;05" . '.0.0399'- .:. .... -k~(JS'~ ..... 0.7063 .. 2.'05-- :" ""-"0:9396-' :'" F' ·'.· .
'. . . 0.10 :'0:0797' ':'. Lfo '-": ' "O~'72'g7 ~ . -::: 2JO" '. ' '0.9643 ' '. ,: . .. .' ."-:- -':" , '--
,'. 0.15 -: -' .0:1192 - .' L 'IS 0.7499 '- '2.15 '.',-' 0.9684 ' , ' -, . " .: ,
, . .- -'" 0.20 . ,0 .:1585 1020, ' ' 0.7699 2.20' '.: 0.9722 -
, .- 0.25 .' . 0.1974 ,1.25 ' - - -·O.7~3'87· -'-2.25 O'~9756 '. '
0.30 . 0.2358 _rt .30 0.806..1 ' , 2.30 ' 0.9786 .
- 035 . O.i737 1.35 - 0.8230 2.35 0.9812
p.40 .- O~3108 .· IA.Q OJ~_385 ' . 2~40 · 0.9836
0.45 '0.3473 '. - ' 1.45 ' 0.8529 . 2.45 : '-. 0.9857 '
0.50 0.3829' . t~~ :· , '0 .8664 ' 2.50 - 0 ..9876
, - .0'.55 0.41i( 1.55 ri.fn89. :2~55 '., 0.9892
O~·.60 0.4515 · 1.60· 0.8904 2.60 . 0.9907
. 0.65 0.48:43 . 1.6.5 :', -- o.90~i . 2.65 0.9920 '" .
0.70 0.5161 1.70 0.9109 . 2~70 "0.9931 ' .:. -
-. 0.75 0.5467 I. 75 ' - . '0:9 ~99. 2.75. '. 0.9940
0.80 0.57.63 - 1.80 0..9281 2.80 . 0.9,949
' .0.85 . 0.6047 1 ~85 Q:_9357 2.90 '0.9963
0.99 0.6319 ' 1.90 0.9426 3.00 . 0.9973
0.95 - 0.6579 1.95 0.9488 . ·4.00 '0.99994 .
1.00 :0.6827 2.00 0.9545 ' 5.00 . 0.9999994 '
0.06
- 0.04
0.02
o~----~--~~~~--~~~~--~--------
20 22 24 . 28 30 32
Temperature. 0 c
FIGURE 19-5 .
Area showing P of temperature exceeding 30°C in E~ample 19.10.
----
.
~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~rr~~hrt+~~rrTi~Hrr++i~HrrrtTTi~Hrr+Ti~rr++~~t+~~~t+~~~~~
;~----------------
-~ ~ · ~~++~~~~~++~~+f~H-h+~~tf~r'~++~rt~-r~~-rrtt;~rtf1~rttti1Hrrt~~tt~Hrt7~rt.~~rt++~~~~~ ~.
l
-.
.,
I
~ ~~Hh~~~HhHHHHhH~44~~~~~4H~~~~~~~~++++++++rrrr~~rr~~~~~~~HH~~
~~r+~-r~~~~~+;-rr+~-r+;-r++~~~~+;-r~~~~-rr+;-r+~Hr~~rr~;-~~~~;-r+~rr~-rr+;-rr~~r++4~ ' ~
c
C(.
>, j
, I
f
c
r
510
PROBASfLlsrIC APPROACHES TO DES1GN
'7
511
. . . .. .. '.: : 7 '
ri1'<,-",.< ¢ c ; P ' "
B '"
~ . ~. ' ~. .'"
. ' ,
~y scal~g lOO( P /2) from Table 19.3 in both directions from the. ,50%
cumula~ve percentage.
FlG~
Arithmetic probability paper.
512 DESJGN OF THERMAL SYSTE..MS
,.
19013 Ai)DITION AND SUBTRACTION F
PROBABiLITY FUNCnONS' '
A. frequent assi;~eh~ is to ,predi'ct a p~obabilitY' expression that is a fuilc-, '
, ;" t:19D of other probabilisti,c variables. A simple exampfe is to preditt the, '
,'):;:~': ,:". ';,: ', probability ,-fup.~tion forthe pr~fit of an _enterp~e ~here the profit is the _
'. ::~,\,~~,:-,> _" ,':,'_"':'difference between tb~ ,ip.cDP1e,:and,.)e.~~p.ses9,. bo,th-,of+whj.ch 'are ptobabili,s uc ' ,
pw -
r - .,
e -(w-w.,0 )-/2a; \4'
')
•
"
(Tw .J211'
~d
1
Py - e -l\--". 0 )2/2u..'r 2'
CTy .J2'TT
For a difference between y and H' of ZIt as shown in Fig. 19-8,
or in general "
'so
PROBABILISTIC APPR~ACHES TO DESIGN 513
. p_ =
- ';'wUy
"1
V21t
fa
-co .
e -w 'nO"~ ' e -(W +=-il)'/2O: T 2 dW
Next .perform. the following steps: (1) combine . the ' exponents of' e .. (2)
complete the square for W, and (3) move the nonvanable tenns outside the
. integral sign to ot?tain,
(z - 1l)2] . (0-.• 2 +2 a w 2)
f
y ~
- 2 . 2 co . - ') (W +B)-
P: = I exp [ 2(o:v + U,.) -co exp . 2O'y £Tw - . . dW
uwO:v .J27r '
( 19.9)
Let
(z - 6)uw 2
.B = - 2- - - -
2 Uy + Uw ' .">: " -
. : ...
Z = Yl't.'
ue z occurs
-----
..
PROBABILISTIC APPROACT;fcs TO DESIGN 515
)
in some fields 1,2.3,4 ·to assist in . making de!Zision~ when available infoITl.Jation ·
is uncertain or at best pi-obabilistic_ In struct:.ral systems, civil engineers
k110\V that the probabillry of a f~i1tL-e always e~{ists, but the designer must
" assure tI-lat this probabnity.js prohibit-i'vely ·:low:' ·-The· primary' concern of ~ :
".'~,~sig;.~~.- .of t~ml·al systems~,j's~to ~pf6vitte ·-·acieqli~le' c.~pac~~.ty :i.n p.p,,,~;c9~p.!ni.~ ...,..;.
.'rii~~~r ~d a fa~~ure'·:bfJhiS'··.g qal. ' is·:,u~p.~lY~}~Qt ~catas trop.!ll C.o'~_The..\designe.J;Sj,;,.; "~!',
19.1. Two sou'fees of natural ga? shown as A and B in Fig. 1 .9-9~' each have
adequate eapq.city to supply the citj. Sources A and B are each outfitted
with , a compressor, .1 and 2, re.s pectively. In addition~ compressor 3 is
located 'at the junction, and this compr~ssor must operate along. with either or
both ~o~p!essors 1 and 2. The probab,ilides of the compressors' faillTI'g ·are:
. 'compressor (," '0.008; c~mpressor 2. 0.0012; and compressor 3, ..0.,00002 .
.·What js~ the probability of the city bejng witho1ut 'ga'S'? ," ',.' '. ; .,. ~ ,:'
19.2. A ~hain measuring 30 lengths is composed of 10 sjngle links and some links
that are not as strong, so they will be doubled in each length, as in Fig .. ,
19-10. During an, unu.suaIly heavy 'load the probability. of any of the slngle
links failing is 0.0002, and the probabHity of a weaker link failing if it were
used as a single element is 0.012. The ' double link doeSD't divide the load? .
but one link either sustains the load or breaks and transfers the load to its
partner. What is the probability of the chain breaking during the heavy load?
00
Q) '-_lkllto-------./\
Ciry
FIGURE 19-9
Gas-suppJrs-y-,rte-m-ln Prob. 19.1.
~ ~, - ' S .
'x\!' ' 516 DESIGN OF TIffiRMAL SYSTEMS
'.
, "J,.'
,. . ;'.
:"
~
~ :':-
" '
~. -
.. " . . , - : .\ ~
,",.',",'
::~,.j ~ . ~~.
- ; ,. -'." : .
. ";. .
-'i • . _. :. :.
:-. :. . ! . . -.'- -
. .. ':' '.
.' ,".' , ' ....... ~~ ':".: , :.',:"'!","~>,~~,,~,~.:~,,t,', : ~-.~, ~ ", :, ',."-. ,': . '-.- t:,'""'I:'.: ,::":. . :.:;. , ..' ~ ,
- • - ..: ': 1"',' \' • _ '.. ,_ • ~'!.:
...
,"..
19'.3 .. 'A condens~te "iine,' Fig. 19-11a. ~~ty~s lU',steam ~oils whlch at'design" " .. '
, ~onditiop~ have' a ~te~ flow rat~ 'of (L03 ki/s ·'each. 'The' condensate ~ps', ' . . .
on each ofth,esecoiIs can 'dI+IDp'at th~'iate of 0.15 kg/s; so tPat the flow rate " "
from one trap has th~ fonn shown 'in ,Fig. ,19-1 lb'.' What are ,the probabilities'
'of the simultaneous d.llmpi~g 0(0 "tr~p" i ,tI?1P9 2 traps,' ....... 10 traps? {FUrther
refeJ;"ence: "Sizing a 'Condensate Return System ,by ,Monte Carlo S~mulation,"
by"\V~ C."Huang and Y. K. Lee, H~atl1?gJ Piping a:rd"Air Condition.lng, voL,
, 45, no. 7, pp'- 44--46-," July 19~3'., ,"-", : :"":"':'~,~:,",'~<i.,::",,'~~~'::'~~":~~~~'1'¥?:.L:":'.. \;,~\{..··.'.,,77.~fA~~~,-
19..4~ In l~boratory buildings equipped with ftIme hoo'ds, the air conditioning system'
must be designed to treat the mak~up air ,entering the building when th~
fume,hoods operate. In a ce~n Iab0I11:tory building there are)O hoods" and
experience sh~"Ys, that any hood is in operation approximately' ,113 of the time
"and in a ran90m pattern. What' is' the probability ~at 15 or mor~ bo'6'ds' win
be operating at a given time? ."
Ans.:,D.0435
19.5. A refrigerated warehouse has 12 large doors through which prod U. ct is
transported. It is h:npo~nt when designing the refrigeration plant ,·t-o know'
how many
doors ;;ire open at a time in order to provide adequate refrigeration
capacity. The operating pattern at this w.arehouse is that any given door is
opened on the average every 10 minutes. When opened, there is a 0.4 prob-
ability of it staying open 15 s and a 0.6 probability of it being opened for
20, s. What is the probabili~y of '2 or more doors bein~, open at a t~me?
.- ~ '. ~~ '.
Condens~te Time
(0) (b)
FIGl!RE 19-11
(0)Steam traps (b) f10w profile for condensare line in Prob. 19.3.
-t-, b
- a
PROBABll..ISTIC APPROACHES TO DESIGN 517
l"'ABLE 19<-4 . I
DiStribution of monthly eiect:r·c bins ~n P:roQlem 19 ~ 6 .
r*.-1Di1thlY b?111 , N urnber of f./lonth1y t~lll~· 'NUf"ilber of
fionars customers dollars · custom ers
e-t:i6tllilJ1~l~:';""6::';,:- :,:,':c ;-' -: ,;:~:':::'~:: ~'::: :~,,; -'~' '....,.-: . " . . " .. :7 ·"".·'.... , J,.~. ~.
19a6.. The':D'umber' of cu~[omers i.~ each .bf the ranges o{ monthly electric bills is '
~ .shown in Table 19.4. Plot the cumulative distribution arithmetic nonnai 'on
paper and (a) determine whether th.e distribution is normal. and (b). if normal.:
determine' x 0 and the stanc.Iard deviation.
19~ 7 At-a certain tim~ of the day there is a 30% probability tha~ the electric kitchen
a
range in any of the apartments in an 80-unit building will. be turned on. (a)
Denve the continuous distribu,tion equation of
the pro.l?ability density ~ a
"functio'J1' of the total number of rane:es turned on at one time. (b) What is '~the
• ........ ~ J~ , . . ~
REFERENCES
L E. B. Haugen. Probabilistic Approaches to Design, John Wiley, New York. 1968.
2. D. F. Rudd and C. C. Watson, Strategy of Process Engineering. John Wiley, New York ..
. 1968 . .
3. A. H-S. AQg and W. H. Tang. ProbabilitY Concepts In Engineering Planning and Design.
John Wiley, New York, 1915.
4. W. H. King, Probability for Managcrrunt Decisjon.!, lohn Wiley, New York. 1968.
'/.' ..
',,"",,>
~~:: ' I
..~ -.!
. . , .', '
r, "
:,
This "section 'o f the" appendix "presents some 'sample Projects whi~h apply
principles studied in the text, ~. g., economics, equation fitting, simulation,
optimization, or a combination of them. These problems m'ay b~ used as
projects accompanying the study of the text material and running as a part-
time effort all term, Many instructors devise the~ own similar groblems
based on their own engineering experiences'. Some of the problems 'may
carry over from one teIm 'to the next,. with one team of students picking up
the work where the precedipg group left off.
Engineering students become proficient in solving short problems such
as homework problems which require 45 min I but most professional engi-
neering probl~p?s ~e long-tew, requiring weeks or mon~s'for cqrnpletion.
It is therefore appropriate for ' senior-level or graduate-student engineers to
gain some experience with comprehen~ive problems which require discipline
to maintain' progress over a longer period of time., Also, 'at .the beginning of
, aay long-term project there is the pefiod of deliberation ' on how to start the
problem-how to find the handle. Inexperienced engineers spend consider-
able- time spinning their wheels and making false starts before focusing on a
valid solution. Experience with comprehensive projects is the best means of
deveJoping proficiency in thought and' work habits. Written or oral reports
mak~ good targets for completion and have their own benefit 8S welJ.
518
-.
COMPREHENSIVE -PROBLEMS 5~i~9
"i~ .'
' - : .~:'" ". _ • #. _: • •• ;1.'...... J' ! . . ,~: •• _~:.J~-~ .. .. ~~~.;.._:~.~, :.- -;:".- -:".. :, .•. :: .• •• ; - ,'.. ; - .~' :- .,
Condenser
,valve
same as
\vatef'.
-----
..
COMPREHEN,S' ~ VE PROBLEMS
.JD~IS5~f~lrh;;;;;li~~t}~
: , ) ,
- :,- '~.,
~doorrur
>~
'-P€ "
- '" _ .. .' . ::~ '; . ,:'-.'
.. 1 . ,\ i..' ~.' _~; ,
. '. ;''; . \ -~ . :
. :,' 1 :.. ..
, '. ' • " - " ', , ' . p •• : -~& .;~ ~.; '- . - ' . ..~ -
.
"'t\'~:f~:-,: . ,
"
. . .. '
, i.,1
"r .•. . , -, -. :
, ' ........ : 1- .
J. ,', .
F1GuREA-2 ..
Heat-recovery ~ystem.
4. Fin spacing
5. Gly~ol flow rate ': '."
.' The aver~ge outdoor-t~rrjperaturf .is 'jOC" fc:~' 250 ' days .ot·. 24~hr, ~}J~P- " .
..'. . >- 'tiOIL:i-~""/'''''-- . ..,;:,i ......;:. ~. ·.,,~. - . I .. - • . • ·, , · . .' ":'-
, . ".:.-.;. ..:' . ~. The·.'iif~' :is: I 0' .yeai~~' ·.~n~t th~' ,i~~ere:st . ~.te s. 8 pe~cent '. j
. . ' - The- '-ne t sa'v ing to ·be. maxuPized .is .the diff~rence'. between .the: .red ucition .
.'. :-~. in .h~atit1g COst' and the' .ahn:ual cost '(ainq~zed, ' fuSt plus . QP~r~ting . 'cost
.'cost) of the recoyery'.system . · ~t? b.uildin,g "is.'h~ted .electrically, 'so as far " ",,'
.. '.' -as the ventilation aIr is ' coric'emed~ electric-reststance heat must \v.ann :the .
._ '. ':, j-n~omirigou~d6or air· to t~e'b~-H~i~g tem:p'e~~re of 24°C. The · fi~st·'6os· r:t:b· be -, .
: 'a.mortited i.nclud~-s that bf the· coils, rhe.purnp ' ~d mo~or (3:s'stimed constant' _
. .' at. $400)., 'and ~e .iIlterconrte.cting piping (assumed cOQ.srant · 3,( ·$150). No
:·alIQwa..nGe ,faJ c;apital c.ost for the fan' is ,provided' because fans already ·ex-~~t ..
in. the system, and' it,is a,ssuined ,that th€y · w·o\lId · no.~,h.ave . ,to be enlarged to
. " ovet~ome .the additional pre' .
ssu're
.
drop of rbe"'heat-rec,Qvery coils.
-"-.' ..
'. -
( .
The thennal resistance ·of the rubes and flns is 0.0032 (m 2 • K)fW.
Ai:..pressure drop (DPA) in pascals is . '. I.
i>;:"·<'.:~~ri~·bI~"· ;' , . 0:;.... . . ' .... , . :,.', ' , ; ; , ' ...•. ' ."
'.· '.:.·.~..':-:·:~ · The·.fiv·~ v·a riables·for '\Yhi~h .opdmaI '~·a1~e~-:~,·~~~r:, ~d.·ili~~'~g~S ~f . "
, ..: their' values ire',. " '. ', ' ' . . ' . . ' , "-"'.' '.::,,\,' ",' ' '.
pn sp~cing
,NF, 300. 400. SOO. 600 fins/m
, L" rube Je'ngth " " " , ',0.,4, 0.6, _, ~ ..~ 3_4,- 3:6 m,::
of
, W" number' rows of t;ubes 'deep ~ , 2, 4,. 6~ 8, 10,. ,
" 'NR, number of rows 'of rubes high .4, '5" 6'•.. '. to. LIO.06
.... V~g. velodty 'o f ethylc::ne 'glycol' . .' ·.o.4!· '0.8" 'I ~2, 1.6,' 2.0'mls
" .
. . - .
.~
.J .A.3 ,
DESIGN, OF A FIRE.. WATER GRiD
·F ire Control
, ,
Refineries and other cbemicaJ plants that process f1amm~ble substances rpust
provide elaborate measures to prevent .and fight fires. 1 Almost ail such plants
must be eguippe~' 'with a fi~-Ylater distI)butioil system that.is generally
constructed underground to supply hydrants throughout, the plant. Typically, '
the plant is su1?divided into vanous areas, r'emote from,'each ' other so ¢at if "
a fire breaks out in one area.it can be contained in that area. serve the ' To
entir:e plant, the 'fire-wat~r grid should be capable of providing a specified
rate of water fl9w to anyone', area at a time.
' Two challenges fa~e the designer. For a given pressure at the outlet
of the
PU,fI!P ,". .,
".' 1. Select the pipe sizes"'sO' th~t th~ flow' through the gnd 'Yilf supply fue
. hydnin~s that surr~und a plant afea w'ith the 'required rate of water flow
2. Select the 'minimul11 flfst-cost 'combination of pipe sizes that meets the
above requiremen,t
I , '
Most designers of industrial fire-water grids are ,satisfied to achieve .
task 1', and even. this assignment -is a challenging one. Some designers use
------
. ".
2, ' ',' ; 4 '
--'-- ----y-I-;---C- .'.----O~
, Area A
I. Area .fi
_. ,E 'Hyd,~;l~,'
. ',~" -
'
•• I' ~.".
nGu:RE,A-3
'Fi.re-water grid.':
. .' , ' , ' - -
, ' spec,iaHy con$~cted e:1ect;rical' ana19gs', i~, cOfnbin'atlQll ' with a cut-and-~" "
'" . .'IDethdd of.ent~giI9.g: pipe sizes until '~ach ate'a-iru.1ividuaJlY c,all'. be 'hlanketed '
, wjth specified 'w~tei flow. lhe analog must" be :'a ~special 9ne, beca~se "the "
" fluid-flow conductor does 'not
' . . follow,
. 'Ohm's law. ' "
'
, - ,'
. ~ ,. .
':" O'bjective, ' , , ,
, TPe "goal of this p~oje~r ,is 'to select, pjp~' ~I~es ':for a fi~e:':y;~ater grid to' achieye
1-minirnuro. '[ust cost .. whe~ 'the 'following conditio~s are 'sp~cified: .
Although in aC,tua! plaOtS there may be a dozen operating areas "with hYdrantS
'dis~bp.ted along ~e pipe.s, a 's uggested grid for '~his, type, of problem is ,'-
shown in Fig. A":3.. ' ' ..
, "'flOW rate, m 3/s ..L~ 'O.ol Jpres'sme, kPa" ,'" ". "
The installed cost of
,the p~pe is' 30 cents per meter' of length. for each
rrullimeter of diam~ter. ,The trenc'hing cost is $80 per meter, 'llut since it is
independent of the pipe size, it is a constant and dOes'not affect the optimum
pipe-size selection. NegleCt o~rating cost, because one hopes the ·number
of hours of pump .operation, will be negligible. .
. --
DESiGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
-- . _-
......
COJ\IPREHS'-lSi VE PROBL£:YIS 5,27
,The insulation board is 'avD.·ibble ,ii1-50< ' 75< IOO-T (,md., 12.5-,mr[l
thic:rnesses. ,r'o
deve.lop thickne~ses gre~tti!,r ,~~_an, 1.25 , mm? ' one or £\VO
add i~i ona[ layer~ of inswlati~g i?oard are requ}red.'
, '
" ,ne ,expected 'life 'of tbe, plant is' IS, 'years: th~, ra~e 'o f interest is 9
" ,percent,; , and for tax purposes [he facility may be "written, :~ff iIi .10 years
(sugges,t ,straightline ,depreciatlO~). Federal ' i~come tax 50 percent. ' " is
, D~reImi~e ,the ,optimum thic~ness .. '
.It' :
To, det~rmine tbe-: jnflueric~ ' of the po\ver cost and th~ ~verage' ,outdoor ' t~~m~
pe~ature on'
the optimum thickness . .it i~ suggested that the optimizati~~ be
perroITIled for several values in'the complete, range of outdoor tempe'r arures
and ,power costs. The cost associated with the application of an additional
. layer of insulation is likely to inhibit the optiI1)al thj~kness from exceeding'
250 ri1m~ or two full-size layers of insulation.
o 1
114 x 1
Inp == + 13.8
p=
T=
----
.. ...
1OOQakPu 'tr~n'slllis!)j().n ,·jn:e : :"
l 290 l<
Propano
5
330 K
HC:ll , 170·K .·
c.xchungc:r I.
.... \ .
\, '.
1.1
'-
o
0..
;;:I
;>. .
... "0
t..J
'tL ·
a '.
::J
14 121
. He-at
cxchnlYge~ 2.
til
~
\0 ~ '. ." .
F1GURE:A-4
LNG pla~(.
'. -
530 DESIGN OF TIiERMAL SYSTEMS
, . - ,
, .'.. ~ I •
. '-,
-'-':' ::'' ::. .-
~'~'
, Objective
Design for mininlun1 'first cost an air-coo1ed' condenser that rejects 140 kW
. of heat. Sp~cifically, select the heighf h the dimensions' of 'the square coir t
nnd stack b.- 'a'nd the numbe~ of rows of tubes high in the heat-.exchanger
section. '
, Performance'data
Temperat'ure of ambient 3jr, 35°C.
Te,mpetatl)re q,f condensing fluid. 90~C. '
'Choices of number 6f rows of tubes high. 1 to 6.
Chbjces of b dimension. 1.4 to 3.0 m in O.2-mincrements.
-.
--, baa
: ~\ .' " : .' .... ~ ....
FIGUREA-5
Natural~convection ,a.ir-coole'd condenser.
\. ' .
Four rows of tubes high "
FlOURE A-6
Condenser coil.
532 DE.5IGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
~:.A',::C>.:·~ ··'.':·; .,~'; . ; : .:Neglect.the resistance to heat :trimsfer tbro~gh the ·tube.:.' " ..',::.. ;. :,: . . :' .~''<'<>. ~:.'
;;'/'::.i:';:!::';<\ .?>',: :~' : Hea~~transfer coefficient.·of' condehsing fluid,..2.0 ·k W/(m 2 • K)'. :.'." " ':\;" '::~>:""~">~~:
;:.~',:~'.:",.'.",..~~:.~··>:-( .~.~.·Heat-trarisfer coefficient on a'ir side,. O·.042V 0.4 kW/(Iri 2 •.. K),~,,·whej~':/:<:J~::':·:~: ,~
·. ' ..... .'.'V is~~Jace: vd~city'of a:ir~<in.~~~rs: ~~t:~e;cond".,::;- ~: . -;., -.' -!'~"~"i;"':" ": '>~.:, i '.
Pressure dr0P',WQugh the 'cod, IIp;·~·= · 2~. 2V . '. (1 :5 '"!,··(J.7n-):,~.:'.wp~re. ';.:.. ::" :.
,n is the~ number <of -rows 6f tUbes ~ .'... ' . ..
. . . -. - . . . .
. Pressure drop due to friction orthe' air flo'wing thr9ugb "the stack'must
be consIdered; s~gge~t a fricrlOh ',factor of 0.02. '
, c .
. 'Costs
. Stack, including cost of' supports, ·$45
, .
per squar~, meter' of area
Coil, (190)(b J · 2 )( /1 '0.6). dollars'
;Discussio.n
An increase in' ¢~ height h iIp.proves: th~' ~tack -effect and thu·s increa~es the
,} airflow rate but adds to the cost. 'lin increas'e j'n the' tOll 'and stack :dimen$ion
b reduces the press~re drop through the coil q.nd stack bur increases' the co·st.
An increase in ,the number of rows of tuhes jncreases the heat-transfer area
and .outlet temperature of
air t () but increases rh-e pressure drop. An .incre~se
in air v~lotity over th~ COlI, incre~ses the h~at-transfer coefficient on the air
. side'· .but reduces t (>. . '
1 The acrual surface area is' greater thJfi indicated. but the effective arelt, accounts {or the fin
efficiency_ .
-.
I I
-I5-.0no,
.Q
"g- ,t
",: """~":'<;'~"~':"'i'o)}[m>' :..... ::','::.;.' :~:'-"'-::/""~.J~:':.l';"'~' ;' '7p' . . ~,-."','
. '. ' ,.~ , '9JjQ(} ..
t::
......
- ~ . :8.000
- ~
. t ·. 7.000 .
~. ,/' ,-~
e- 9.000 , f '
~"
I
~ '. J
.~ ' 5.,aoo·-·-· -' ~ . '-
~ .
o '-tooo
Cl'
A-8, extracts vapor at two positions ' and injects it ~Isewhere along the tvbe .
.
ip order to. mmntain the quality near 0.7 ·qr 0.8 .apd .thus take advantage of .
~
Objective
Determin~ the. po~itions.of vapor extraction
the flow rates of vapor that ~nd
result in the optimum mean heat-transfer coefficient if the local coefficients .
are as- sho.wn in Fig. A-8 . Sp.ecifically, determine Wl/W, _w2Iw, .,vIL, and'
zlL for the ..maximum' mean coeffi,cient.' 'Assu~e. that the vapor and liquid
move at the same velocity.
DiscusSion',:
. The analysis is complicated by the fact that the ,heat flux changes along
the tube because the coefficjent is not, constant.
. Furthermore', me heat f1\lx ,
;,'1
"--":,........~. ilir
1(' .
Motor I,.
ajr
(:>
that if the heo.t pump does not bring the remperntu:-e. Df the Incoming' air
.... <; °C .( I . . t,;.nlpcfJlUre).
! '~Hr , \ jt!yC tr!c-reSISl~H1
' . '"" Cc -neat
" - use d to
up , j"~ O .)..J
.
L1C suppJ:Y 1
IS
sup pten1en[ (he heat pun1Q.· .
, . O bjective
I'
, .. :~ ,:Deterrl?Jne 1:h~,~9PiiiTI.u.1u'Jlea.t.)",p..l~:~P ;'~1nurnely', ,.ihe.. :s~ze~.~f. . compJ-i:ss.o( .....con~._..:" ':_~
. dens_er~ 'QDd ev·aporator that providt;:'s.a -miIiimuDl total·presept- tvorth-of cosrS "-
(fir,st C-~sr p'll).s p~esenr '\-vorth of po\ver costs). . . :'. ." .. . ,. :'. . . '.
. . '.1
. '. . . . . - ' '~' ..
. U v~lltes of condenser. and evaporator cdil3', 25 .W !(m- - K) based on
air-side area I .
. . ' ~. . . .. ' .
Cost of.coils, $50, per square meter of air:-side area
. 'Compress~r cost,. incl uding. motoL $1 ~O per n1otor kilo\vatt
Po\ver cost,' 3 '~ents pe,r, kilowarrhour .
Ifire~est rate. 1.0 .percent
1
.. '
Assignm~nt
Discussion
If the heat pump· 'can be justified· for heating operation alone, it has the, .
possibility of providing additional s?1vings by operating during the summer.
The temperature of the supply air entering the building is specified as
35°C, ~g some periods.Df rhe heating season it may be desirable for
DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
Air 10 frum
. 0.02
- ..
CO,'v!PREHEl-JSflJE PROBLEMS 5Z7
1)- '
, ' ,
'.VA •
bf condenser, rs::'3-kWIK.:· , .
• ' " .,' .. , . ... ". , . ..' , .J
\ ,
. p .= .~5~Q5 -.1.~66te ,· + O. 28~tc + O.0299!etc kW·
. Yth~re t; == evap'orating te1p.perature.,- DC . ..
. . le.= c.ondensing temperature, °C. "
Evaporator The 'e vaporator is 'a heat exch~ger' \\'pen~ .both sensible 'he~t
0
',·and··mass are trans.f erred from the air to the surf~ce of the' heat exchanger~
. which .is wer be~ause of the dehu~idificat1on: The heat then flows throUQh
• • • • • - • • • • - . • 4..;...
qs
= h A
a a
(13 +
2
14 _
Air.
.,1, . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . ,
FIGURE A-lI
Hea[ and mas! transfer at the evaporator
t, ___ Rehiger.mt
=- ..
• t, coi1.
:'1..)0 DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTE.lv1S
rate
-----
.. ...
.r: . "120 km -----I~J .
HllJ k Pa - . '.J 30 c
0
. -
50 kg/$
. '. ", ,,,,!
~- l OO kPa
. ~,
~'1. . ~,
~~~~ f\" .~''-''
• .:. . " . - ; : : i'--' " . -
, .. -." " . . · ..····l-Ao[or ·-/ .. . . . ". .. .. .
. .~ ' , "
. '. . 11 = 75%
FIGURE A~lZ ' ,
N~ruI?1-g~ pipeline. where :V9~k i$ recovered at terrninaJ position .
.to 109 kPa. 5 Compression to a high pressure permjrs .·.a 'high-PJ"e~s~re 'dr~p
" :throllgh the pipeli.ne 'a nd' also r~.sults in deqse ga~: both reduce the.pipe SIze.
O~ the other hand . .there is additiQual energy require<ffor co.mpression, a.n d
. not aU this energy .is recovered 'a't the tUr'pitie due f9 'ineffic~eneies .of the
~lectric ~otor. compressor~ an.d turbine, as \v~l1 as p.ip~li;ri~ loss~s_
D4;l~ .
Costs
. E~ectric motor and generator 'first cost, $50 per kilowatt output
Compressor first' cost, $125 per kilowatt input (input designated We)
V~u~ . _o t ~lec¢city at compressor end' of pipeline, 3 cepts per kilo-
watthour ' " .
Value of electricity at turbine end of pjpe1ine~A cenIs per: kilowatmour.
. Turbine first cost, $150 per kilowatthour output (output designated
W,)
, . '
.
.
Pipe cost in dolJais per meter lengrh 300D 1.6, where D js ·the pipe. i
-
• ,.
...
DESIGN OF
,I' , t 4 :.
l '
• I
Data
--
":;--...
\
CO;ViPREH5'1SrVE PROfH..E?IS 5~ 1
\-Vater
2S:JC
_ H' = 0.8 ·kg/s.
l."p::': -l.,!:; Id/( k.g .. I()
-., '
'. . _~~" ...:_f ." ": . . ··Satu·;a[~d -<; - ,'.....;~ .... ' '. ' "..........
.. I/~ .. l . liqui~ S~wr.Jred vapor L
Hear
i· , • • ,1
c;(ch~til!:!er
J "'-
Fluid
6 -15!)C
Eyapor.Jtor .- li' ~ 0.57 k .!!.I:
. .s
(p= 3.5 kJ/lkg .. K)
..-.;-.: .
Thronlin"
.c
. v~\lv~
.' .
. FIGURE A-I3
.-R.efrigefarion 'system llsing il m.ixt~re b.f refrigerants .
... -. '- :' :' ; : . .
. " The ~on'denser' i~" ' water-cooled; \vater enters at 25°C wit;h a flow' 'r~te
of -D.S kg/sa .
-,'f ·The. evapo~ato.r 'fluid i~. coolecf1rom' ~ 15 to -25~'C_ Its flow ,~ate is
' . . ...
0.57 kg/s~ and its specific h.ea~ 'is 3.5 kl/(kg " K) .. ·
The refrigerant is
'saturated liquid at point 3' and saturated vapor at
pain.! 1. " __-
-The compressor has ,adj~stable ·capacity. which is regulate~. to provide
the 'spe~ified refrigeration rate in the evaporator.. : .~-
I
effi~iency. Provisions are roade to' ren10ve air cont'i nuously by the use of
su.ch devices · 2.S an dir-:ejector sysrern, shPY-JP in Fig. 1-\- . 4Q 1~11e f unction
of the ejection systeol- is to 'extract , (1 sanlp[e of air and warer v aj.fl"Jf out of ,
the nJ.r.lifl condenser and oIrinl;1te:y i:'J reject t~e Qil in the mixture [0, rhe
atmosphere. ,The remova,: of air is to beacconiplished , \v[rh a IQv,f loss of
steam.' .' ," ", ' " J' "', ,. ,-, .- ' , ', " " :, '. , "
' . .' ... '- '., ' 'lrr·u'.ye·s'Ysterr{S'ho,wn1jn:.:Fig>'A~r4: a'~ r2'r'kgJ~""Crf~Ir~\irip'o?/in;kiur~ ' thaf;'
coritaib's , .5j~ercent nir by,.~·i'iss, fs,, '~xtincted from the" !1lain condenser . ,ariq " ..
the mixture that , is vented to atmosphere should contain 50 percenI aiL by
mass. The .main condenser ope~~ltes \vi,rh a toral pressure of 6'.6 kPa and q .-
Performance
.~
of ''Condensers
~ , . .
"'I
Steam
Ejector
....cc=------.~ ~
------t>.-
StC,-a.m_~~~~I ~.:.~.-----,J..
.! ·./',1
____
p == 10 ,1 kPa '
~~2a~g!S + -Afrercondenser
by m~ss
Condensare Condens~l[e
~ Turbine exhaust
- . ~ , ...
6.6 kPa
Main condenser
F1GURE A-14
Two-stag"e aij' ~lOr.
544 DESIGN OF TH:I!RMAL SYSTEMS
.- .' '
:" _,->Select
, ,',
dle' ~heat-tran$f~r-- ~~as oflh~.' mrerc~nden~eran,cCaft~~~~~d~h~er;
" , ' . - )
, "
fu~' :.::-,:
-: . , " " . - :
'-'-!'.'-,_'flow'rates of motive steam WI and ~2, and .tile iritennediate .pre_S~UIe ,pi so .-' ','.
;"'::~;:;~tha~ ~ th~ ',total" pre5erit,VoI~~p(~1l ,costs' .i~;~' ~!limU01;(~'::~': ,, ;.,,~. '< ' " .'~::' 0 ,. <.>: '"
' Cond,e nset .cost; ~ ·$15q per ,square met~i- of ~eat~f!a11sfe'~' ~ea
Cost of motive steam, 60' -cents' per.-megagntm' " , -
:' Int~'rest"ratey lO·percent. , ,
'" ,Life of facility for eC?ono.mjc' evaluatioD 6 yeats.' y
Discussion
. '
, The opti,mal gesign is likelY', ,to ·.be one w'he~e ' more heat-transfer area is
placed in the intercondenser tha.n in the afiercondenser, since whatever
steam (both f~onl the main condens~r and "from, the Jow-stage ejector) can
. be cO,nde-nsed at
the intercondenser will not have to be pUf!1ped by 'the high-
stage ejector. Often lTI n1ultisrage compressions rne intermediate pressure is
" the geoinerric mean. of the suction .and disch~ge pr~ssures. The economics
C?f this system wil1 shift the optimum intermedi'ate pressure to a value lower
-' .' than,' the geo'm'etric' mean: '," .', ' . ~ .
. ,
'·' ~'A.13
OPTIMIZING A'HOT-OIL LOOP IN- A
PETROCHEMICAL PLANT'
..
~,
, ,
One method of distrlburipg heat in ·refinenes and' petrochemical plants is-' .....
to heat the oil in a centraJ furnace and pump j[ t.o . yarious heat exchangers
where heatirg is ·requiyed. Figure A- J 5 shows a hot,-oil loop that serves
- .
COj-'.~PREHB.fS[,/E
.
PROBLEMS
"
545
.'l ..11ee
--.- ~ . "I er,-:::,.
q""'
_.bhr-. fw.·
lenOI ~ ~ I "1 eLv, anu
-n~, ce,- .~eOOJ ...1.p. crT. t,--0 b·-,,'
t1U n
....l - ., -"I; '1- ' <::'F- i r-. ~""T.•~ J'J'-':\ r,'-
C ~"... .:. .... ,L~. '- ,.!. JG' ~
<", ;;: t' . ,.
!; , .... l.
the totai present worth of costs fot the eoo.Bpmic rj.fe of the faci lity IS a .
m·1·fUffiUD1.
Oil d2.i!a .
" ~'';, .... ~,'.. :.. .- ~ Oit,~h§,rn!caJly,.~~~1~,,~~?-.l;_/3~htC::· ,.' .':': ~,.. , : -.; ........... . '1 -·-·-1. '
Flm.,y
regulator
Combusdofi
chamber
200°C_~_
Furnace
. - -, I·
F1uegas
to sUlck '. Pump
nnd motor
FIGURE A-IS
Hot-oil ':;;p in B petrochemical planl.
DESIGN' Of' TIrER.M.AL SYs:rE1viS
e"
data .
1 .. 1
\.
. ,
'.
1.8
l:.COne)nllC data
rate, 10 """"".,..,..."',.,
" ,
COlvlPREHENSIVE PROBLE:olS
tD
5 7
. . Compressor .
Forecondenser
I" ,
. Evapor.llor Regeneratjve
heJ t ·ex changer
.~
Codling ~--'L-..·_A_fterc...,.on~enser
Expansion wll(er.30°C
__~______?-~~v-+-~~.~oC
V;]Jvc;
.Refrigerant (
FIGURE A-!t!
Milk pasteurizing system using 3 heat pump.
DESIGN
,
OF
. THERMAL SYSTEMS
- ..
COMPREHENS IV E PROB LEI'.iS :S,:g~
Ii)-
3. P. T. Doyle and G. 'J. ,Benkly, "Use Fanless ~ir Coolers~'o Hydrocarbon Prl?cess,.p July
1)'73 PI? .g 1.-86.
0 .
~} • •4.JHRE Handbook Fundamenfols Volume,' chap.Gl P.<:~ericM Society of Heating. RefTig-
crating. apd Air-Conditioning Engineers, AtLant~... '985,
5. CL ::. 7...:a.tll'icki. L. A. Repin •. and v, .,A. EIemao dRerrigc',Cltion by U~ijizing Jh~. ?ressure
'JfT<:IaruraI Gas Pumped ~rougt Pipelines:~' Cholod. Tech.~ no. 6 "1'974. pp. 27-29. 0
6. G. _G . HaseJden and L. Klimek •. :hAn EXBenmenta.}.StlJdy of' the Use 'of-lvfix~d Refrigera~rs
{';
, . ,.,.,_oL ~y T_ h alR' c·..,. " "J t I I A 8'7 ' OO 1\ f(' J' ~ on'.(;8' ··- '
J.-.-..:on-.LS-O;.~ erm : c:rng~,~tlC;Hlo :., .. ., ;'.l,f!J.J..'lK·.,,~.9. .. :_.nQ·,_.~.,,-PR,.~ .. J,-:-o.:;.' ,~LI~lay- une.;t ;;·...,;t., -,\_~ ..
r.·
i,,)
<7".' yo kaireri C.~·, Becd~.ievre/ and D~ Gilbo'tirrH~~ ""'lJrriea [femgera,:;.t for Ethy.tene.~~ '.Hydn}~
"carbon P~Dcess.> 'Yo!. 55~ no.
10~ pp.' 129-1jt.octobe(·j~76. ~ ' --. "
8. D. ~_ "Lascelles and R. S. Jebson. "Some Process Applications of H~at Pumps," lilt. .:Tnsr.
Refrig,- Comm. ill/eel.. Melbourne. 1976. \~ "
I '
..... ..... ~
, ,
APPENDIX"
.' .'
'II'
I :', )
, ' .
- .. ".-', ..
. ' : :' " . '
:s:>: :'OENiRAiiIzED~.
SYSTEM- '"', ~ , '~"~" ,,'" ">~~':~'''.':t",::,,:·,· : ,
" ,'; ,:-.- .
•
i!t~
. ' ~-:..:~ •!..
,), '. ;.~!,~ -," 1" '. ' ,~ .,/
,: . .
., $ -',
SIMUL.ATION
) .
PROGRAM
,.- .
Structure,
" . ~----------------------~~------------------------~
550
-
- .
GE.'=ER::>S... iZED SYSTDi Sl\j l4-XnO~ PROGR.--\..'\l 55 ~'
\ I .
PROGRAl\1 EXAM.? (INPUT, OUTPUT. T A PE6=OrJT.OUT)
0IM:EN SrON V( J. DES( ), R( ). VCORR( ),'VDl J" RUe ), PD( • }
NVAR = . Nw".her ol Equliiiofli '
;"rLR..!~CE:::l . _ Suggest 0.001
lTrvl A>; c: ' Suggest 10 I _
,'.!. . •• : ...... ' ' :" . ' . • : • " .:.DATj... V/.a ..e. '" <0.0.0 ;.:"" Eo . . . . ~'." !:- ~ .. ,~ .~.~'.c> f .. ~;~_..J.,Tt:iqJ.·.'fta1wJ.. ott!!!. t'a.~iahle$......•..,,~:•.~;:,: ,:,!.,;::;,<;;:{~r:: / .. , .':;' 1
7: •• , ; ,
.. .' -DATA D£s!"TdU'r·:· . . 'Tj}J ...,.·.:~~:' \\(14·"1 ·-}:-Cf;qiacJ'er 0(- Less Alphanumerii ·· ~ .:. .. '.
".: CALL SINHJL:(NYA"t~,.JLRNtE., lTMAX. v~ DES.. R. PD;, VCORR;VU. RD) . . ..
STOP . .
END,
Equa!~Qns Subroutine
-.
DESIGN OF THERMAL Sy~S
c
c WIlli .
c
c
c
c
C·
C
C
C
c
c INPUT DATA
C
II
=•
.21
22
"23
C
C WmALIZrNG
ITER":::: 1
C CAll..ING VALUES OF ."-L......... u..JLJ ... ~~---"_ PARTIAL
C DERlV A TIYES Al\t1) VARIABLES
C
30
33 "
c
c PRINTING ,,-.L....L._.. ,,'--' VALUES OF PARTIAL DERrVATIVES
. ,
- ..
GE.'tERAUZED SYSTEM S!;"iULATION PROGRA),: ,:):;:y
c
005<:; r == r,l'-,fVAR
D053 J == 1. NVAR } I
~ == ABS(pD(I))
C RBI/XQVE THE C fRONt THE NEXT THrtEE CARDS 1F PRINTOUT DESIRED
C IF(Z- 0.000000(1) 53, 53, 51
C 51 \!VRITE(6,52) J. ],PD(f) -
C 52 FORMATe' P.oC',I2''''''iI2,',') =", 8°110)
53 , CONTINUE ' -' , ',: _,' ,o~-,,' , -, "
. ...... : ~ :-'.- ... - ,: ,}.f" ,,' COl'rmvrJE" :~-,,<' ,,:~~,: ;,,;,i!,~~'t::,,-~rl" " -' "- , , "- ' ,-," " ": ,, ,
CALL.GAUSSY(pDp 'R" VCORR" NV AR}' .
.~ ,.. .. c', '.COR.REefING TI-fE V ALVES OF TIrE V ARLABLES
'0044 L= l,NVAR
44 VeL) = V(L) - VCORR(L)
-c
,C WRITING OUT RESULTS OFTI-H5 ITERATION
,' , C
'WRITE (6.32) ITER ,
32 'FORMATC'ORESULTS AFTER", I4. ,. ITERATIONS") '.
WR.UE(6,34) , " -_ , ' ' _
34 FORMA T(,,0",4X."V ARIABLE··, 16X,··VALVE".-9X."CHANGE. FROM PREVIOUS")
WRITE (6,36) (I. DESer)• .Y(O, VCORR(1), I = !,l'"'JVAR) " ' "
' ,--.''c 36 FQR1.1A r
(" VC', 12,") == ", A4:" = ",2F2'J.5) , .. " " '
K= 1
40 VAL = ABSCV'CORR(K») - ABS(TLR.I\!CE-*Y(K))
"IF(VAL) 41, 30, 30 '
'41 , " tF(K - NY AR) ,42, 99. 99
' 42 ' K == K + I
GQT040
99 RETlJR.1{
8\11)
• j'.
DESIGN OF THERMAL
c
.c
C
560
RETURN
c
t SL\1ULTANEOUS BY GAUSS ELl1vlINATION
c
c
·C INTO DlAGO~AL rosmoN
2
lMAX=I
4 ·CONTI:l\.1lJE
.. "
.-
~ .. \
• J
-- ..
c TESTil':G ;:=OR JNDEPEi'ruE~CE OF EQUATiOi.\i'S
;- IF(ABS(A~'vjAX) -'b.IE-1S} 10, 10.14
10 \VRlTE (6.12) ,
12 FOR.'vfA T ("0 EQ U A Tl O~S ARE NOT fNDEPE~DENT')
I:~E1:-u K.N
_ EXCHP.NGING ROW L\,IAX AND ROVi ~(
l~ B1EY~r = B(K) '
I3(IQ = B(IMAX)
B(tv1AX) = B7~M?
..·· - · ··:: "ATE.~~1\{KJ) .<.. :. .
, ' DO t 8 .. j= K N· .. ·-· ,.
~.
:. ',- .
"A(KJ)::: A(J.MAX. J)
18~
'I ~ "· 1
-. . v
.APPENDIX . . .. ;-..
.;:~':>,. ·•.·J""'.",
.TI · ... . .. . ... . ,.
" , .-
':" I
... . ,' , - '. ' ,:.: . : ". -
': ,. ,.: -1:,
~.
- . . .. '.
.:," ' .. ..• , ',;
• • • , • • __ • • t ".~. ..
'».. .. .-
.. .... "
'. ~ " .~ ~ ~
" ',
:.,-
..
,'. I
C TH IS' SUBROUT tNE' 'STORES ' THE .' ~pNZERO ' ~LEMENTS' ~ IN.·.· ..- . , '. '
C THE
. PROPER
.
ORDER TO·BE.USEDWITH SUBROUTINE
- ." . XGAUSS ' . '
~ '. ~
c. .-
, ' .
JAf.)A+ 1
.MT=1 , .
. . pO 5 L = 1 ) NVAR __
,5 1 RO~( L):: 0 o.a' • •
.... . .
. ." DO '1 0 L c ,- , MAX , :". '. ., . ... .' • . t..- , ~ ~ ',
--
:
~',;
': '
.
.. . .
JCOL( 1 ,L~ .cO • ' • I .
556 -.
('
V ' ;"IEI,:,J Ei_EIYlENT I S THE FIRST' I'I:ONZERO ELEMENT , F.D
c IN ROW r
'-. - /"'-.
'oJ ' .
. "" ' , r ROtAK I }== MT
. . ,.', ;' ~:' ~" ~<:~:~ ,.,.-:'. .,: ~ :',: " ~" JC.pL~3::·7,~!:~~:-~~;-~.; . ',..;- . ' .,...,. . . .
~",A ('MT) =R
.. ," ... :. ,
· 4,' :"_ :
. MT=jCOL{ 2)~T )
' JCO~(2,I~OW ~ I) } =O
. RETURN
'c ' . .
- C' SEARCH TO FIND PROPER LOCATION ,OF NEW, ELEMEN
,C ' ROW ' I ' ..
.C
,20 LCT == I ROW( r )
' .LCTO~D~P
25 rFCJ .LT. JCOL(1,LC~) GOTO 35
~f(JCOLC2~LCT) .EQ: 0) GOTO 30
. ·: LCTOLD=~CT . '
" .,. : LCT==JQO.~ .(2,,~,kC,T)
, . 'GOTO 2S : "
,' 30 ' JCOLC2,LCTl=MT
'~COL(1 ~MT)~J
ACMT),='R ,
MT=JCOL'( 2,MT)
JCOL (2, JCOL(2, LeT) )=0 : I
-RETURN
35 IFCLCTOLD e~EQ · .. 0) GOTO 40 '
- JCOL(1,MT)==J
. A(MT)~R
JCOL(2,LCTOLD)=MT
MT=JCOL(2,MT) ' . . ,
JCOL(2;JCOL(2)LCTOLD»)=LCT
RETURN
40 JCOL(1)MT);:J
ACMT)=R
I ROW <I ) == MT . .
MT=JCOL(2,MT) , '.
. JCOL('2; I'RQWt: I ) )=L.CT
RETUR~
END' ,
--
, F mERMAL SYSTEMS
.: I 1 - ' ." .
,
:J ION OF SIMULTANEOUS·
. .
LINEAR EQUATIONS B~ . ' }
; \ '; · ~L 1MI NATION .: ". ':: . " ..
:/' i'. SUBROUT I NE STORES ,.' ONL Y '. NONZERO ELEMENTS
,·;::/G.:. LINKED STORAGE::,';··' .. :' , ';:' . ' . ". , . .-:. ; '. .!.~ " ' . . . '.'
WRITE(6~JOO) .
FORMATC '0 EQyAT I ONS",Ar?E ··~OT · I NDEPENDE~T")- ', ,
RETURN " .
-----
.
G
.' ,~' --' ..... ."' ., . ' ". A l' "''"IT)'~ R"" ·'-b " . , .•, .'
. MT=jCOL(2 , MT) . .
,
.~ .. ". '
~ JCO~(21I~OW~I)=O
RETURN
.C -
' C- SEARCH TO FI.ND PROPER LOCATION OF NEW, ELEMENT ' IN - f
·RETURN
35 IFCLCTOLD O~EQ'D 0) GOTO 40'-
- JCOL(1,MT)=J
, ACMT)=R
JCOL(2)LCTOLD)~Mr
MT=JCOL(2,MT) , "
JCOL(2,JCOL(2)LCTDLD))=LCT
RETURN
40 JCOL(1,MT)=J
ACMT)==R
IROW( I )==MT '
MT=JCOl(2,MT) t '.
'JCOL(2~IRQW(I»)=~CT
RETUR~
END ',' ,
DESIGN OF THERMAL SYSTEMS
I )
c
c
XC)
I ) ::::
(1 1 )::::
-c
c-
c
C AC)
I ), N),X ) -
K= 1 ,N
c J
c leI I r ITr
c
I::::~,N
(1 , I
) 5
I»
5
10
lOO -I
--
..
':;---
APPENDIX ill 55;
c
EXCHANGING ROW IMAX AND RO~ , K
c
l O ETEf"1P=:,B( K)
BCK ) =B CIMAXJ "
B f I MA X)=BTEfr1P " . , _..... ,,,":7"" - .( , ~':' .... ~ , - - ::.: - '". ~ '. ", •
.IROW{K)=IRDW(IMAX)
IROW( IMAX)= I TEMP
c'' - . - .
- ..
, 560 DESIGN OF TI!ERM.AL SYSTEMS
• 1""
:,' · .. · ,· '·.':. ,::-···JcOL. r2 ·',· LC'T)=LI· .,·,~' . . ': ' - . " .:..... \ ~-
_. • • : _,' ••' • • • -: • \ • • ~ _:.. ~
• .. ,_ .'.~. :; •• ' •• ; ' -. .' ,t ,
• ' . , '. . • : ":~.;:. ' . " ',' : .~' '~:' I:'-, ' : -
. " '~
, , : ', " ' , ,'O J ' , " • '
, ;:" --
~ - . .' - . -' , .: ...
.. : . '. -'.' :- ":~- .
.':::':',": :' <: ,. ' ....' .
~' ' .. :'-. ,." "
.QOTO .1 5'
..C
. ,C ELEM:ENT '1 7 K .IS··NOW ZERO, ADD L.DCATION ,TO LIST
. C . OF. EMPTY SPACES ' . . ..
c • II .',
40 L¢T=IROW(I)
.. ~COL( 1 , LCT)=O·
A'(LCT)=Q .'
IROW(I);::JCOL(2>~CT)
.... J .COL (2, LeT) ==MT
MT==.LCT
45 CONTINUE
50 CONTINUE
e ..
C BACK SUBSTITUTION
C
DO . 6'0 I;:: 1 ) N ' ,
. PA,R T=B{N.+1-·r )/ACIROW(N+1-I»)
. LCT=JCOL(2,' IRDW(N+1- I))
55 IF (~CT ~EQ. b) ~DTO 60
.' PARTFPA~T-A(LCT)*X(JCOL(1 ,LCT»)/AC1RDW(N+1-I)
LqT'?~COL LeT)' .. /..' . (2, . ,
. GOTO' 55
. . 6 .0.····X(N-t:,1-1 )=PART '" ",.
•
•:
, I •
~ -.".. , . I . ~
" 'RETURN
END ' .
: " ..
, ... . I.