Science of the Total Environment 657 (2019) 1432–1440

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Soil sedimentation and quality within the roadside ditches of an

agricultural watershed
Matthew T. Streeter a,⁎, Keith E. Schilling a, Martin St. Clair b, Zachary Demanett a
a
Iowa Geological Survey, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
b
Department of Chemistry, Coe College, Cedar Rapids, IA, USA

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Roadside ditches are an integral compo-

nent to agricultural watersheds.
• Sedimentation in ditches averaged
22 cm.
• Sediments were higher in silt and or-
ganic matter compared to subsoil.
• Elevated levels of Ca were identified
near roads, likely caused by deicers.
• C/N ratios indicate that ditches have a
significant potential to process
nutrients.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Roadside ditches are an integral component to the N6.3 million km of roadsides in the U.S. and act as
Received 18 October 2018 drainageways for millions of hectares of watershed runoff. Our study of six roadside ditches in Lime Creek water-
Received in revised form 6 December 2018 shed characterized soil nutrients and heavy metal patterns as well as quantified the physical and hydrological
Accepted 8 December 2018
properties of ditch soils. At all ditch sites, we identified significant sedimentation of silt-sized particles, total ni-
Available online 11 December 2018
trogen, and soil carbon in shallow roadside ditch soils. A post-settlement surface soil horizon significantly higher
Editor: Damia Barcelo in silt content was observed compared to the underlying subsoil and parent material. Although accumulation of
several heavy metals was measured in ditch soils, significant variability was not observed within the ditch envi-
Keywords: ronment. Most of the heavy metal concentrations were found to be either similar to or lower than state-wide av-
Roadside ditches erages. Higher levels of calcium near the roads were likely due to annual use of road deicers. Overall, we
Soil sedimentation estimated that 42 Mg/ha of total carbon and 5 Mg/ha of total nitrogen are being stored in agricultural ditch
Soil carbon soils, which is similar to that of surrounding agricultural land in terms of total carbon storage, but much higher
Heavy metals than estimates of total nitrogen storage. Our study of six roadside ditches in an eastern Iowa watershed docu-
Nutrients
mented the soil chemistry, morphology, and sediment accumulation that occurred since ditch construction. Fur-
Iowa
ther research is needed to develop a better understanding of how the soil and water conditions in the ditches
related to the watershed areas that feed them.
© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
⁎ Corresponding author at: 340C Trowbridge Hall, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA
52242, USA. Agricultural land use and impervious surfaces such as roads increase
E-mail address: matthew-streeter@uiowa.edu (M.T. Streeter). rates of overland water flow (runoff) and contribute to extensive

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.113
0048-9697/© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 M.T. Streeter et al. / Science of the Total Environment 657 (2019) 1432–1440
erosion, transport, and sedimentation of large quantities of soil particles
(Jones and Schilling, 2011) and nonpoint source pollutant export (Field,
1975; Schilling et al., 2008). Excessive runoff and sedimentation has led
to the degradation of land and water bodies throughout the U.S. includ-
ing states with high urban populations and large agricultural areas like
California (Kayhanian et al., 2012; Kayhanian et al., 2007) and agricul-
tural states such as Iowa (Hernandez-Santana et al., 2013). Many Mid-
western states (including Iowa (INRS, 2013), Minnesota (MNRS,
2014), and Illinois (INLRS, 2014)) have adopted nutrient reduction
strategies to reduce downstream impacts and predictive models such
as the Iowa Daily Erosion Project (Cruse et al., 2006) are used to predict
and quantify severe soil degradation occurring in local watersheds.
Roadside ditches are an integral, large-scale, component of rural ag-
ricultural landscapes. These linear, man-made drainageways have al-
tered the natural topography and serve to concentrate surface water
runoff to streams from catchments and roads that drain into them
(Wemple et al., 2017). Furthermore, soils of roadside ditches are an in-
tegral component of rural environmental sustainability and support ex-
tensive perennially managed land areas that line N6.3 million km of
public roads in the U.S. (Forman, 2003). The health and stability of the
soils that develop in these man-made ditches may have significant envi-
ronmental impacts related to processing and containment of road-
related and agricultural runoff containing large quantities of pollutants
and nutrient rich sediment (Ahmed et al., 2015). However, there is a
lack of research focused specifically on soil conditions in roadside
ditches, as more research has been focused on the water conveyance ca-
pacity and hydrology of these systems (Ahmed et al., 2015; Buchanan
et al., 2013; Kayhanian et al., 2007; Wemple et al., 2017).
Agricultural research in perennially grassed waterways, which have
a similar purpose of water conveyance, shows the potential of roadside
ditches for improved water and soil management. Grass waterways
have been shown to reduce runoff volume and retain sediments and ag-
rochemicals from adjacent cropped fields (Fiener and Auerswald, 2003;
Hjelmfelt and Wang, 1997). Likewise perennially managed filter strips
of native grasses located within agriculturally managed fields have
been shown to effectively remove soil sediment (Helmers et al., 2012),
reduce runoff (Hernandez-Santana et al., 2013), remove nutrients
(Zhou et al., 2014), and retain pesticides (Arora et al., 2010). However,
similar environmental benefits have not been well documented in road-
side ditches despite their proximity adjacent to agricultural fields and
similar design to agricultural grassed waterways. This is likely because,
unlike agricultural waterways, roadside ditches were not specifically
designed for treatment of agricultural runoff, but rather just convey-
ance. A recent study in New York determined that approximately one-
third of a 38 km2 watershed drained directly to a roadside ditch and
these ditches created “efficient conduits” for nutrient and sediment de-
livery to streams (Buchanan et al., 2013). Abida and Sabourin (2006)
concluded that road and agricultural pollutant removal may occur in
roadside ditches due to sedimentation of soil particles and infiltration
of dissolved nutrients/pollutants. In effect, roadside ditches may act
similarly to perennially managed filter strips because they filter and set-
tle soil sediments and infiltrate water (Barrett et al., 1998), but further
research is needed to evaluate their buffering potential.
Soils that form within roadside ditches may be among the most sig-
nificantly altered soils in man-made environments. Specifically, soil car-
bon (Davidson and Ackerman, 1993; Guo and Gifford, 2002) and
nitrogen (Havlin et al., 1990) levels could be quite low in areas where
the native surface has been completely removed during road construc-
tion. Furthermore, construction of roads and ditches may have acceler-
ated sediment erosion (Furniss et al., 1991) increased bulk density, and
reduced soil infiltration rates due to altered soil particle size (Ahmed
et al., 2015), ultimately altering the runoff characteristics of the water-
shed. However, very little information exists that documents how the
physical properties of roadside ditch soils differ from the native soil en-
vironment. Following road construction, the altered roadside environ-
ment may also have experienced a significant buildup of heavy metals
1433
(Alloway, 1995) and other ions such as road-salt Ca and Cl
(Ramakrishna and Viraraghavan, 2005) in near-surface soils.
Water quality conditions and nutrient processing in roadside ditches
were recently documented in a small eastern Iowa watershed (Schilling
et al., 2018). Shallow groundwater levels and quality were characterized
at six roadside ditch sites and nitrate-nitrogen (nitrate) reductions mea-
sured in the roadside ditches were found to be comparable to wetlands
(Schilling et al., 2018). However, since the study focused primarily on
groundwater quality, only limited information (i.e., average texture
and nutrient content) was presented on the properties of ditch soils.
In this study, we expand the analysis of roadside ditch soils in the east-
ern Iowa watershed to include detailed physical and chemical charac-
terization. Specifically, our objectives were to 1) characterize the soil
nutrients and heavy metals present in ditches within the 66 km2 Lime
Creek watershed; 2) provide a basic morphological description of the
roadside ditch soils and quantify their physical and hydrological proper-
ties; and 3) evaluate the long-term sustainability of the agricultural
ditches in the area with respect to erosion, sedimentation, and soil car-
bon and assess the ability of the soils to buffer the impacts of agricultural
runoff.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
Lime Creek watershed is located in Buchanan County in eastern Iowa
(Fig. 1). Mean annual temperature in the region is approximately 8 °C
and mean annual precipitation is approximately 900 mm (Iowa State
University Department of Agronomy, 2017). Lime Creek is located
within the Iowan Surface landform region, a region characterized by a
rolling landscape of weathered pre-Illinoian glacial till and loess
(Prior, 1991; Ruhe et al., 1968). Precipitation and runoff events have
re-shaped and dissected the intensively tilled post-settlement land-
scape (Cruse et al., 2006). Land use in the watershed consists of approx-
imately 79% row crops (corn and soybeans), 12% grass, 7% trees, and 2%
roads or other man-made surfaces. Agricultural soils in the watershed
are dominated by Kenyon, Floyd, and Clyde (Typic Hapludoll, Aquic
Pachic Hapludoll, and Typic Endoaquoll, respectively). In proportion,
these soils represented 12, 13, and 16% of the drainage basins area
along with Readlyn (Aquic Hapludoll; 23%) and Olin (Typic Hapludoll;
10%) (Soil Survey Staff, 2016). These soils are typified by deep organic
rich surface horizons (A horizons) and underlain by a zone of soil devel-
opment lacking organic enrichment (B horizon) and further underlain
by reworked glacial till (C horizons). The most notable variation be-
tween these soils is the depth to saturation (water table depth). Soil tex-
ture is loamy, but variable across the region depending on the exact
parent material and quantity of erosion and deposition (Soil Survey
Staff, 2013). In late summer, at each ditch location, a survey of the veg-
etation was conducted. All species of vegetation were identified and
canopy cover was assessed. 102 unique species were identified averag-
ing 40 unique species at each of the 6 ditches. These species included
both introduced and native cool-season grasses and forbs.
2.2. Site selection
The selection of roadside ditch sites for investigation in Lime Creek
watershed was based on two factors. First, an initial split was made be-
tween ditches lining either paved or gravel roads. Second, within these
two groups, ditches were selected that received surface water runoff di-
rectly from catchment areas that drained directly to a ditch. Potential
ditches were included if they were a minimum of 100 m in length
from a visible water entrance point (e.g. grassed waterway) to a visible
exit point (e.g. a culvert or stream). A Geographic Information System
(GIS) flow accumulation chart (FAC) was used to identify precise loca-
tions where significant water would enter and exit a ditch (Iowa Flood
Center, 2017). The FAC utilized a 3 m Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
1434 M.T. Streeter et al. / Science of the Total Environment 657 (2019) 1432–1440

Fig. 1. Location map of study area.

in order to account for man-made constructions (i.e. culverts, roads,
bridges, etc.). GIS spatial analyst tools were used to determine the spa-
tial extent of the upstream drainage basin and identify where significant
water flow exited the ditch. Based on this assessment, three roadside
ditch sites with the largest contributing drainage area were selected
from the paved and gravel populations.
At the six ditch locations, a soil sampling site was located approxi-
mately 10 m downstream of the water entrance point and 10 m
upstream of the water exit points (Fig. 1). An additional sampling site
was located between the two end-points.
2.3. Field methodology
A Soil core sample was collected at the lowest point of the ditch at
each site using a 10 cm hand auger. Soil core samples were collected
in conjunction with monitoring well installation for a shallow
 M.T. Streeter et al. / Science of the Total Environment 657 (2019) 1432–1440 1435

groundwater study occurring at these same sites (Schilling et al., 2018).

Therefore, depth of soil sampling ranged from 1.4 to 2.2 m to set the
monitoring wells below the water table. Soil core samples were de-
scribed according to Schoeneberger et al. (2012) at the time of sam-
pling. Soil description included detailed horizonation and boundary
distinction, identification of soil colors, structure, moist consistence,
quantity and presence of effervescence, and quantity and presence of
redoximorphic features.
In addition to the soil core sample at the center of the ditch, samples
were also collected and composited from the top 10 cm of soil at three
locations (near the road, bottom of the ditch, and near the field) at
each upstream, midstream, and downstream transect locations for
heavy metals analysis. Soil infiltration rates were measured at the bot-
tom of the ditch in triplicate using a double ring infiltrometer (5 and
10 cm inside and outside diameter, respectively). Bulk density samples,
5 cm deep and 5 cm in diameter, were collected in duplicate at each site
at two depths (5–10 and 15–20 cm) using a slide hammer and waste
Fig. 2. Box plots of SOM, TC, and TN (multiplied ten times) by Master Horizon.
barrel.

2.4. Analytical methodology
Bulk density samples were returned to the lab and bulk density was
determined according to Klute (1986). The remaining soil samples were
air-dried and flail ground to pass through a 2 mm sieve. Total carbon
(TC) and total nitrogen (TN) were determined by elemental analysis
via chromatography following dry combustion. Soil nitrate was mea-
sured by segmental flow analysis. Furthermore, soil organic matter
(SOM) was determined by weight loss on ignition (Walkley and Black,
1934) as described by Schulte (1995). Phosphorus (P) was determined
by strong Bray extraction according to Brown (1998). Exchangeable Ca
and Na were determined by neutral ammonium acetate (Simard, 1993).
Heavy metal concentrations were determined for each surface soil sam-
ple by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) (Thermo Scientific, 2015). Soil texture
was determined by X-ray absorption using a Sedigraph® manufactured
by Micromeritics Instrument Corporation (Olivier et al., 1971).
3. Results
3.1. Soil nutrients
TN and nitrate were measured in the ditch soils in order to assess the
accumulation of agricultural nutrients and identify the potential for nu-
trient leaching via C/N ratios (Table 1). TN was found to be tenfold
higher in A horizons than B or C horizons (0.2% compared to 0.02%)
(Fig. 2). Likewise, nitrate was significantly higher in the A horizon
(Fig. 3), averaging 3.6 mg/kg in the A horizons compared to 1.6 and
1.5 mg/kg in B and C horizons, respectively (Table 1). C/N ratios were
calculated and averaged 14, 14, and 18 for A, B, and C horizons, respec-
tively. Ranges in C/N ratios were much less in the A horizon (6 to 20)
compared to the B (3 to 51) or C (4 to 38) horizons (Fig. 4). Exchange-
able Ca was also found to be significantly higher (N50%, p b 0.0001) in
the A horizon (Fig. 3) compared to other horizons. P concentrations
were lower in the A horizon compared to both the B and C horizons.
However, these differences were not statistically significant. Average P
concentrations were 14, 35, and 23 for the A, B, and C horizons, respect-
fully (Table 1). Exchangeable Na was not identified throughout the pro-
file within our study site.
3.2. Heavy metals
At each ditch transect, nine surface samples were collected for heavy
metal analysis (3-near the field, 3-bottom of the ditch, and 3-near the
road) (Table 2). Significantly higher levels of Ca, Sc, Ni, and Pb were
found near the road while Fe, Ti, Zr, V, Cr, and Rb were significantly
higher near the fields. Most notably, Ca was found at nearly six times
greater levels near the road compared to levels near the field
(92,482 mg/kg compared to 16,084 mg/kg). However, no difference
was found when comparing Ca levels between paved and gravel
roads. While ditch levels of Ca were much higher than typical Iowa
background levels (Table 2), this difference was not significant. When
comparisons were made by road type (paved and gravel), Fe, K, Zn,
Rb, and As were all found to be higher in ditches along paved roads.
When heavy metal levels are compared to typical state-wide baseline
levels (Table 2), five heavy metals including Fe, K, Mn, Ni, and Th were
found to be outside of the range of background levels. Of these five
metals, Ni was the only one found to be higher than background levels.

Table 1
Mean soil characteristics organized by horizon and stocks per meter of road.

Analyte Horizon Stocks

A B C kg/m of road

Mean depth (cm) 22 ± 13 107 ± 58 – –

Silt % 39 ± 16a 25 ± 9b 24 ± 13b –
Clay % 12 ± 13a 27 ± 12b 22 ± 14b –
TC % 1.40 ± 0.80a 0.25 ± 0.25b 0.25 ± 0.25b 8
SOM % 3.0 ± 2.8a 0.5 ± 0.3b 0.5 ± 0.3b 16
TN % 0.20 ± 0.12a 0.02 ± 0.02b 0.02 ± 0.02b 1
Nitrate (mg/kg) 3.6 ± 3.3a 1.6 ± 0.8b 1.5 ± 1.3b 0.2
Ca (mg/kg) 3915 ± 698a 2707 ± 589b 2345 ± 936b 207
P (mg/kg) 14 ± 5 35 ± 5 23 ± 2 1
Na (mg/kg) 0 0 0 0
C/N ratio 14 ± 3 14 ± 11 18 ± 12 –
Fig. 3. Box plots of exchangeable nitrate (multiplied 1000 times) and Ca by Master
Letters indicate significance (p b 0.0001). Horizon.
1436 M.T. Streeter et al. / Science of the Total Environment 657 (2019) 1432–1440

Fig. 4. Box plot of C/N ratio by Master Horizon.

Fig. 5. Box plots of silt and clay % by Master Horizon.

3.3. Soil morphology and ditch sedimentation
Morphological analysis at the time of sampling identified extensive
sedimentation in most ditches. Surface (A) horizons had developed to
varying depths ranging from 10 to 53 cm with a mean depth of 22 cm
and were most often underlain by either Bw or Bg subsoil horizons.
Boundaries between the A and B horizons were predominately abrupt.
A horizons were significantly higher in silt content (39%) compared to
B (25%) and C (24%) horizons whereas B and C horizons were signifi-
cantly higher in clay (27% and 22%, respectively) compared to A horizons
(12%) (p b 0.0001) (Table 1). Silt content ranged most significantly in the
A horizons where a 27% range was identified (Fig. 5). However, the larg-
est range in clay content (22%) was identified in the C horizon (Fig. 5).
SOM and TC were also significantly higher (p b 0.0001) in A horizons
compared to B and C horizons (3 and 1.4% compared to 0.5 and 0.25%, re-
spectively for each) (Table 1). Each ranged the greatest in the A horizon
(approximately 2 and 3%, respectively) (Fig. 2).
A comparison of soil sediment quantity was made between samples
that were collected at the point where water entered the ditch (up-
stream) and the point where water began to exit the ditch (down-
stream). Sedimentation depths ranged from 11 to 37 cm with a mean
of 27 ± 10 at the upstream and 10–47 cm with a mean of 31 ± 16 at
the downstream locations (Fig. 6). The average sedimentation was
22 cm for the entire study site. Mean bulk density of the soil surface
was 1.2 ± 0.2 g/cm3 and mean infiltration was 2 ± 1 cm/h. No signifi-
cant differences were found in bulk density values or infiltration rates
from upper to lower sampling locations. Based on the thickness and
bulk density measurements, we estimated that approximately 264 kg
of sediment was deposited per linear meter of ditch in the Lime Creek
watershed since ditch construction. Although the exact ages of the
ditches could not be confirmed, conversations with local county engi-
neers confirmed that the ditches were in excess of 30 years old.
4. Discussion
4.1. Soil nutrients
Effective methods for quantifying TN storage potential have been de-
veloped by making comparisons between SOM and TN concentrations
via C/N ratios (Dise et al., 1998). Similar to Schilling et al. (2007) and
Schipper et al. (2004), we were able to effectively identify nutrient
leaching potential in the ditches by using C/N ratios rather than TN

Table 2
Mean soil heavy metal concentrations (mg/kg) organized by location in ditch and road type. Site levels that fell outside of the standard deviation for Iowa background levels are
highlighted.

Locaon in ditch Road type Background level comparison

Analyte Field Boom Road Gravel Paved Study area State
Ca 16084 ± 6623a 26810 ± 11711a 92482 ± 49081b 54549 ± 54525 38529 ± 35706 45125 ± 44192 9618 ± 9448
Fe 13974 ± 2467a 15462 ± 3786a 11479 ± 2223b 12182 ± 3703a 14658 ± 2583b 13638 ± 3264 25072 ± 5491
K 10152 ± 685 10256 ± 893 10058 ± 611 9906 ± 726a 10330 ± 691b 10155 ± 722 16385 ± 2033
Ti 2881 ± 358a 2811 ± 410a 1957 ± 594b 2378 ± 667 2669 ± 570 2549 ± 616 2910 ± 473
S 312 ± 56 419 ± 169 453 ± 61 382 ± 63 419 ± 139 405 ± 113
Mn 294 ± 95 360 ± 130 350 ± 66 334 ± 114 336 ± 96 334 ± 101 744 ± 242
Zr 210 ± 38a 196 ± 29a 148 ± 40b 177 ± 48 190 ± 42 184 ± 43
Sr 101 ± 9 105 ± 11 121 ± 15 112 ± 12 107 ± 16 108 ± 14 131 ± 28
Sc 20 ± 8a 30 ± 12a 100 ± 59b 64 ± 64 48 ± 41 54 ± 51 7±1
V 65 ± 12a 66 ± 10a 48 ± 10b 55 ± 14 62 ± 12 59 ± 13 91 ± 19
Ni 39 ± 11a 49 ± 15b 54 ± 8b 47 ± 10 47 ± 15 47 ± 12 24 ± 7
Cr 54 ± 9a 53 ± 8a 38 ± 10b 46 ± 14 50 ± 9 48 ± 11 33 ± 13
Zn 47 ± 9 50 ± 9 45 ± 6 44 ± 6a 49 ± 9b 47 ± 8 69 ± 20
Rb 51 ± 10a 48 ± 8ab 41 ± 9b 42 ± 7a 50 ± 10b 46 ± 9
Cu 22 ± 5 22 ± 4 23 ± 5 22 ± 4 23 ± 5 22 ± 4 18 ± 6
Pb 12 ± 2a 14 ± 2b 14 ± 2b 13 ± 2 13 ± 3 13 ± 2 20 ± 44
Th 7±2 6±2 6±2 6±1 6±2 6±1 11 ± 2
As 6 ± 1ab 6 ± 2a 5 ± 1b 5 ± 1a 6 ± 1b 5±1 1 ± 11
Letters indicate significance (p b 0.0001).
 M.T. Streeter et al. / Science of the Total Environment 657 (2019) 1432–1440
Fig. 6. Depiction of mean sedimentation from upper to lower ends of ditch transects.
concentrations alone. In the roadside ditches, we found that TN levels
decreased tenfold from the A to B horizon. However, since C levels de-
creased similarly, C/N ratios were consistent throughout the profile
(14–18) (Table 1), as TN levels were highly correlated to levels of TC
in the soil. This degree of correlation may be significant to evaluating
the ability of the ditches to process and treat agricultural nutrient runoff.
Lower C/N ratios typically imply an increase in TN mineralization
(Livesley et al., 2016; Sanchez et al., 2004) whereas higher C/N ratios
imply rapid immobilization of soil N by microbes (Bengtsson et al.,
2003; Groffman et al., 2006). In the case of our ditch soils, even though
SOM levels changed significantly throughout the profile, each horizon
maintained a C/N ratio that was high enough to promote TN mineraliza-
tion, but still low enough to promote a healthy soil environment for
flora [between 10 and 20 (Bengtsson et al., 2003)]. Hence, despite accu-
mulation of TN in the soil profile from sedimentation, the roadside
ditches do not appear to be a major source of nitrate leaching.
In a groundwater monitoring study of the same Lime Creek ditches,
Schilling et al. (2018) reported that the average water table in the
ditches was b0.5 m and often b0.2 m in the wet seasons. The presence
of a high water table in the ditches combined with the accumulation
of SOM, TC and TN in the ditch soils, suggests that the ditches may be
biogeochemical “hotspots” (McClain et al., 2003) for nutrient process-
ing. Indeed, Schilling et al. (2018) reported that the Lime Creek ditches
were reducing groundwater nitrate concentrations an average 60% from
upstream to downstream locations. The potential for significant reduc-
tion in nutrient loads may be crucial motivation for maintaining a
healthy ecosystem in often-neglected roadside ditches. In a region
where intense row cropping and subsurface drainage often exceeds
50% of the land area (Jaynes and James, 2007), these linear hotspots
are likely to be locations for agricultural nutrient cycling and an impor-
tant factor to consider in nutrient reduction strategies.
Exchangeable Ca and elemental Ca (heavy metal Ca) were both mea-
sured at our study site. Exchangeable Ca is a secondary plant nutrient,
essential for cell wall development (Mullen, 2003). While elemental
Ca may be abundant in soil, it can often be bound by carbonates or sec-
ondary minerals as well as being used as part of the structural lattice of
the soil itself and SOM. However, exchangeable Ca is held on the cation
exchange sites of the soil and is available to plants via a process of ion
exchange and is an essential component for soil health (Mullen,
2003). Average exchangeable Ca was 3915 mg/kg in the A horizons.
This value was N50% greater than the underlying horizons. However,
Ca consistently occupied between 80 and 90% of the available exchange
sites in each horizon. These data suggest that the elevated levels of ex-
changeable Ca in the surface horizons are not unique to the land use,
but rather may be a result of soil parent material, texture, and SOM
levels, which predominately define the cation exchange capacity
(Chapman, 1965).
P levels in the soil were determined by strong Bray extraction ac-
cording to Brown (1998). The strong Bray test measures readily avail-
able P (for plant uptake) in addition to a part of the active reserve in
the soil. P levels, while not significant statistically, were much lower in
the A horizons of our study site compared to the B and C horizons. In
most native systems, geochemical processes determine a large portion
of the P distribution in soil, but in the short-term, biological processes
may have a greater impact since most of the plant-available P is derived
from SOM (Ballard, 1980; Cross and Schlesinger, 1995). Interestingly, at
our study site, P was actually lower in the A horizon which had
1437
approximately six times greater SOM than the underlying horizons.
These data help signify the discontinuity between the overlying A hori-
zon sediments and the underlying native subsoil.
4.2. Heavy metals
Heavy metal identification and abundance can be an essential com-
ponent for soil characterization in areas that are heavily manipulated by
humans. While road construction and highly urban environments have
been shown to cause a significant increase in heavy metal and ion con-
centrations (Alloway, 1995; Ramakrishna and Viraraghavan, 2005),
heavy metals in agricultural soils have not been well characterized.
The majority of agricultural soil characterization has been on accumula-
tion of soil nutrients (Cambardella et al., 1994). In agricultural areas,
roadside ditches provide a boundary between human manipulation of
one environment (roadways and vehicle traffic) with another (agricul-
tural cropping and tillage). In our study, we found that concentrations of
some heavy metals (Fe, K, Zn, Rb, and As) were significantly higher in
the ditches of paved roads compared to gravel roads (Table 2). The var-
iability identified between road types is likely due to the differences in
traffic volume, which is the primary justification for paving roads in
Iowa (IDM, 2018) as well as the composition of the gravel applied to
the unpaved roads. However, when we compared these same metals
with location in the ditch, regardless of road type, all of them were
found in higher concentrations on the field side of the ditch compared
to the road side of the ditch. This conflicts with the conventional
wisdom that roadways and vehicle traffic influence the concentrations
of the metals which lead to the expectation that heavy metal concentra-
tions decrease with increased distance from the road. In fact, 6 of the 10
metals (Fe, Ti, Zr, V, Cr, and Rb) that had significant contrast between
field and road locations in the ditch had higher concentrations near
the field. The remaining 4 metals (Ca, Sc, Ni, and Pb), while significantly
different based on location in the ditch, were similar when comparing
by road type.
Ca was one of the metals of most interest for this study because of its
relationship to plant nutrition as well as its use as a road deicer when
applied as CaCl2 (Ramakrishna and Viraraghavan, 2005). While the Cl
component of road deicers is highly mobile (Stefan et al., 2008), the
Ca cation largely remains in the soil and is in part responsible for soil ag-
gregation of clays thereby improving soil drainage (Amrhein et al.,
1992). Furthermore, the presence of Ca within the soil may increase mo-
bilization of other heavy metals sorbed to soil particles, ultimately af-
fecting the ability of the soil to buffer the impacts of heavy metal
contamination (Bäckström et al., 2004). At our study site, Ca was nearly
six times greater near the road compared to near the field (Table 2). This
is likely due to the annual use of deicing agents. Similarly, Ca levels at
our study site were nearly five times greater than the state background
levels, which were predominately measured in agricultural land use en-
vironments (Rowden, 2010) (Table 2). While the standard deviation for
the study area was quite large, it is notable that the average concentra-
tion of Ca near the road was nearly ten times greater than the state back-
ground levels.
Although specific background data is unavailable for our site, similar
to the information on Ca background levels, data does exist that iden-
tifies background levels for the state of Iowa of several heavy metals
which we measured (Table 2) (Rowden, 2010). When comparing the
means and standard deviations of both data sets, we found that Fe, K,
1438 M.T. Streeter et al. / Science of the Total Environment 657 (2019) 1432–1440
Mn, Ni, and Th levels at our ditch sites were outside of the state-wide av-
erage. Still, it should be noted that standard deviations for both datasets
were quite large. Overall, there is very little information available about
safe levels of heavy metals in soils as most information is related to
heavy metal toxicity in food (e.g. Choi (2011)). However, some research
has indicated that the levels found within our study site exceed ranges
considered unfit for human health concerns (Filippelli et al., 2012;
Filippelli et al., 2015; Morrison et al., 2013). It is evident that our unique
dataset of heavy metal concentrations in Iowa roadside ditches is not
conclusive about sources and patterns of heavy metals in soils. Still,
the dataset provides a valuable baseline to formulate research questions
for further study.
4.3. Soil morphology and ditch sedimentation
In this study we characterized physical and chemical aspects of de-
posited soils in six representative roadside ditch transects in an eastern
Iowa watershed and compared shallow soil deposits to native sub-soil.
Based on in-field soil descriptions made during drilling, we concluded
that all six ditches of interest were experiencing deposition of soil par-
ticles rather than erosion. This conclusion was based on the abruptness
of the transition between the organic-rich A horizon and the sub-soil in
a location where no form of tillage or human turbation had occurred
since the ditches were formed. Furthermore, soil texture was drastically
different between the two layers at all sites. In the classic work by Kleiss
(1970), systematic investigation of hillslopes in Iowa was used to iden-
tify particle size variations in A horizons which were due primarily to
sedimentological sorting. Kleiss (1970) found that soil profiles can be
used to show where soil properties are primarily inherited from sedi-
mentation of surficial soils. In our study of Iowa roadside ditches, ditch
sedimentation was clearly identified through particle size variations.
Silt content of the A horizon averaged 14% higher than that of the B ho-
rizon, whereas clay content was 15% higher in B horizons compared to A
horizons. Silt content did, however vary much more in the A horizon
compared to the other horizons. This is likely related to the velocity of
water runoff compared to the settling times of the eroding soils
(Stokes, 1851). Where runoff velocity was much slower, clay particles
would settle in more significant quantities. The velocity of the runoff
water could be influenced by many parameters including slope of the
catchment and ditch, vegetation in the ditch, and severity of rainfall
events.
Further evidence of soil sedimentation may be seen by the charac-
terization of TC and SOM throughout the soil profile. Both TC and SOM
patterns were very similar, showing a six fold decrease from the A to
B horizons (Table 1). By far, the largest range in TC and SOM levels
was identified within the A horizon (Fig. 2). Even still, the significant de-
crease in carbon levels from A to B horizons is consistent with an A ho-
rizon that is primarily composed of depositional materials that eroded
from surrounding hillslopes (Kleiss, 1970). Boix-Fayos et al. (2009) re-
ported that depositional carbon in surface soils in catchments of agricul-
tural land comprised up to 78% of the total carbon pool. Likewise, Boix-
Fayos et al. (2009) calculated a 40% increase in overall carbon levels in
the catchment compared to 23 years prior. These studies are consistent
with our results showing that the roadside ditches in Lime Creek water-
shed are acting as a significant carbon sink for the watershed.
The vegetation analysis that was conducted along with this study
identified a broad and diverse population of plants growing within the
ditches (Schilling et al., 2018). 102 unique species were identified aver-
aging 40 unique species at each of the 6 ditches. Most ditches were
dominated by introduced cool-season grasses including smooth
brome (Bromus inermis) and reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea)
as well as native cool-season grasses including various sedges (Carex
spp.). Varying forbs were also identified at all of the sites. This rich pop-
ulation of native and introduced grasses and forbs may help to explain
the range of carbon levels that were identified within the A horizons
since each will sequester carbon at different rates (Post and Kwon,
2000). Still, Streeter et al. (2017) identified a significant range of carbon
levels within row crop land in a similar eastern Iowa watershed. Causal-
ity of the distribution of TC and SOM within the A horizon can likely be
attributed to a combination of catchment management, inherent soil
properties, and ditch vegetation, but further study is required to confirm
the importance of these factors.
Overall, we found that an average of approximately 22 cm of soil
sedimentation occurred in all of the ditches. We further characterized
bulk density and infiltration rates of the soil sedimentation at each sam-
pling location. Consistent with Kleiss (1970), both bulk density and in-
filtration were quite uniform throughout the surface soils of the study
area averaging 1.2 g/cm3 and 2 cm/h, respectively. Utilizing the average
depth of sediment and average bulk density, it was determined that ap-
proximately 264 kg of soil sediments have accumulated per linear meter
of ditch, or over 500 kg of soil deposition for every meter of road length.
If we consider soil TC and nutrient concentrations, estimates of storage
within the sedimentation portion of the ditch soil can be made
(Table 1). It is interesting to note that approximately 8 kg of TC, 1 kg
of TN, over 200 kg of Ca, and 1 kg of P are being sequestered per
meter of road. This equates to approximately 42 Mg/ha of TC storage
and over 5 Mg/ha of TN storage in road ditches. These estimates of TC
storage are similar to storage quantities found in agricultural land in
the same region of Iowa, while the estimates of TN storage are much
higher. Streeter et al. (2017) identified TC and TN storage at 45 and
3 Mg/ha, respectively, while Al-Kaisi et al. (2005) identified 55 and
3 Mg/ha, respectively for the same nutrients.
The significant amount of sediment and nutrient storage in roadside
ditches shows the effectiveness of these systems to sequester nonpoint
source pollutants in agricultural watersheds. However, the ability of
ditches to capture pollutants should work together with improved agri-
cultural land management from contributing watersheds to reduce the
total amount of water, sediment and nutrients delivered to the ditches.
From a sustainability perspective, working with farmers to improve ag-
ricultural management that reduces watershed soil erosion and, ulti-
mately, ditch sedimentation would be a preferred approach. There are
several agricultural best management practices that have been shown
to reduce soil erosion including contouring, strip-cropping, cover crop
utilization, and more (Service, 1972). Furthermore, research has con-
firmed the success of many in-field practices to reduce soil erosion
and runoff exported from agricultural lands, including no-till farming
(90% reduction in sediment-bound P), cover crops (29%), sedimentation
basins (85%), fertilizer reductions (17%), and land use change (75%)
(INRS, 2013). Cover crops have been specifically highlighted for both ni-
trate and P reductions while building soil quality (Gómez et al., 2009).
5. Conclusions
Roadside ditches are an integral component to the N6.3 million km of
roadsides in the U.S. and act as drainageways for millions of hectares of
watershed runoff. While much information already exists about the
contribution of soil sediments to streams from soil erosion (Reid and
Dunne, 1984), very little work has been done to evaluate soil properties
and nutrient storage in roadside ditches. Our study of six roadside
ditches in Lime Creek watershed characterized the soil nutrients and
heavy metal patterns, quantified the physical and hydrological proper-
ties of ditch soils, and evaluated their long-term sustainability.
At all ditch sites, we identified significant sedimentation of silt-sized
particles, TN and soil carbon in shallow roadside ditch soils. A post-
settlement A horizon significantly higher in silt content was observed
compared to the underlying B and C horizons. Although accumulation
of several heavy metals was measured in ditch soils, significant variabil-
ity was not observed within the ditch environment. Most of the heavy
metal concentrations were found to be either similar to or lower than
state-wide averages. Higher levels of Ca near the roads were likely due
to annual use of road deicers. Overall, we estimated that 42 Mg/ha of
TC and 5 Mg/ha of TN are being stored in agricultural ditch soils,
 M.T. Streeter et al. / Science of the Total Environment 657 (2019) 1432–1440
which is similar to that of surrounding agricultural land in terms of TC
storage, but much higher than estimates of TN storage.
Study results indicate that roadside ditches are capturing and se-
questering sediments and nutrients delivered to them from their
agricultural watersheds. Along with previous work documenting sub-
surface nutrient processing of groundwater (Schilling et al., 2018), evi-
dence from Lime Creek suggests that roadside ditches are capable of
providing substantial environmental benefits in agricultural regions. Al-
though more work is needed to expand the assessment and quantifica-
tion of sediment capture and nutrient processing to a larger population
of ditches across a range of watersheds, it is clear that roadside ditches
offer opportunities for enhancing the reduction of nonpoint point pollu-
tion export at a watershed scale.
Acknowledgements
Funding for this project was provided by the Iowa Nutrient Research
Center under grant number C7-82775-26.
References
Abida, H., Sabourin, J., 2006. Grass swale-perforated pipe systems for stormwater man-
agement. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 132, 55–63.
Ahmed, F., Gulliver, J.S., Nieber, J., 2015. Field infiltration measurements in grassed road-
side drainage ditches: spatial and temporal variability. J. Hydrol. 530, 604–611.
Al-Kaisi, M.M., Yin, X., Licht, M.A., 2005. Soil carbon and nitrogen changes as influenced by
tillage and cropping systems in some Iowa soils. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 105,
635–647.
Alloway, B., 1995. Heavy Metals in Soils. Springer Science & Business Media.
Amrhein, C., Strong, J.E., Mosher, P.A., 1992. Effect of deicing salts on metal and organic
matter mobilization in roadside soils. Environ. Sci. Technol. 26, 703–709.
Arora, K., Mickelson, S.K., Helmers, M.J., Baker, J.L., 2010. Review of pesticide retention
processes occurring in buffer strips receiving agricultural runoff. J. Am. Water Resour.
Assoc. 46, 618–647.
Bäckström, M., Karlsson, S., Bäckman, L., Folkeson, L., Lind, B., 2004. Mobilisation of heavy
metals by deicing salts in a roadside environment. Water Res. 38, 720–732.
Ballard, R., 1980. Phosphorus nutrition and fertilization of forest trees. The Role of Phos-
phorus in Agriculture, pp. 763–804.
Barrett, M.E., Walsh, P.M., Malina Jr., J.F., Charbeneau, R.J., 1998. Performance of vegetative
controls for treating highway runoff. J. Environ. Eng. 124, 1121–1128.
Bengtsson, G., Bengtson, P., Månsson, K.F., 2003. Gross nitrogen mineralization-,
immobilization-, and nitrification rates as a function of soil C/N ratio and microbial
activity. Soil Biol. Biochem. 35, 143–154.
Boix-Fayos, C., de Vente, J., Albaladejo, J., Martínez-Mena, M., 2009. Soil carbon erosion
and stock as affected by land use changes at the catchment scale in Mediterranean
ecosystems. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 133, 75–85.
Brown, J.R., 1998. Recommended Chemical Soil Test Procedures for the North Central Re-
gion. Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Missouri, Columbia.
Buchanan, B., Falbo, K., Schneider, R., Easton, Z., Walter, M., 2013. Hydrological impact of
roadside ditches in an agricultural watershed in Central New York: implications for
non-point source pollutant transport. Hydrol. Process. 27, 2422–2437.
Cambardella, C., Moorman, T., Parkin, T., Karlen, D., Novak, J., Turco, R., et al., 1994. Field-
scale variability of soil properties in central Iowa soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58,
1501–1511.
Chapman, H., 1965. Cation-exchange capacity 1. Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2. Chemical
and Microbiological Properties, pp. 891–901.
Choi, Y., 2011. International/National Standards for Heavy Metals in Food. Government
Laboratory, Australia.
Cross, A.F., Schlesinger, W.H., 1995. A literature review and evaluation of the. Hedley frac-
tionation: applications to the biogeochemical cycle of soil phosphorus in natural eco-
systems. Geoderma 64, 197–214.
Cruse, R., Flanagan, D., Frankenberger, J., Gelder, B., Herzmann, D., James, D., et al., 2006.
Daily estimates of rainfall, water runoff, and soil erosion in Iowa. J. Soil Water
Conserv. 61, 191–199.
Davidson, E.A., Ackerman, I.L., 1993. Changes in soil carbon inventories following cultiva-
tion of previously untilled soils. Biogeochemistry 20, 161–193.
Dise, N., Matzner, E., Forsius, M., 1998. Evaluation of organic horizon C:N ratio as an indi-
cator of nitrate leaching in conifer forests across Europe. Environ. Pollut. 102,
453–456.
Field, R., 1975. Coping with urban runoff in the United States. Water Res. 9, 499–505.
Fiener, P., Auerswald, K., 2003. Effectiveness of grassed waterways in reducing runoff and
sediment delivery from agricultural watersheds. J. Environ. Qual. 32, 927–936.
Filippelli, G.M., Morrison, D., Cicchella, D., 2012. Urban geochemistry and human health.
Elements 8, 439–444.
Filippelli, G.M., Risch, M., Laidlaw, M.A., Nichols, D.E., Crewe, J., 2015. Geochemical legacies
and the future health of cities: a tale of two neurotoxins in urban soils. Elementa Sci.
Anthropocene 3, 000059.
Forman, R.T., 2003. Road Ecology: Science and Solutions. Island Press.
1439
Furniss, M., Roelofs, T., Yee, C., 1991. Road Construction and Maintenance. vol. 19.
American Fisheries Society Special Publication, pp. 297–323.
Gómez, J.A., Guzmán, M.G., Giráldez, J.V., Fereres, E., 2009. The influence of cover crops
and tillage on water and sediment yield, and on nutrient, and organic matter losses
in an olive orchard on a sandy loam soil. Soil Tillage Res. 106, 137–144.
Groffman, P.M., Altabet, M.A., Böhlke, J., Butterbach-Bahl, K., David, M.B., Firestone, M.K.,
et al., 2006. Methods for measuring denitrification: diverse approaches to a difficult
problem. Ecol. Appl. 16, 2091–2122.
Guo, L.B., Gifford, R., 2002. Soil carbon stocks and land use change: a meta analysis. Glob.
Chang. Biol. 8, 345–360.
Havlin, J., Kissel, D., Maddux, L., Claassen, M., Long, J., 1990. Crop rotation and tillage ef-
fects on soil organic carbon and nitrogen. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 54, 448–452.
Helmers, M.J., Zhou, X., Asbjornsen, H., Kolka, R., Tomer, M.D., Cruse, R.M., 2012. Sediment
removal by prairie filter strips in row-cropped ephemeral watersheds. J. Environ.
Qual. 41, 1531–1539.
Hernandez-Santana, V., Zhou, X., Helmers, M.J., Asbjornsen, H., Kolka, R., Tomer, M., 2013.
Native prairie filter strips reduce runoff from hillslopes under annual row-crop sys-
tems in Iowa, USA. J. Hydrol. 477, 94–103.
Hjelmfelt, A., Wang, M., 1997. Using modeling to investigate impacts of grass waterway
on water quality. Environmental and Coastal Hydraulics: Protecting the Aquatic Hab-
itat. ASCE, pp. 1420–1425.
IDM, 2018. Traffic Safety and Information Series - FAQ 23.
INLRS, 2014. Illinois Nutrient Loss Reduction Strategy. Illinois Environmental Protection
Agency.
INRS, 2013. A Science and Technology-based Framework to Assess and Reduce Nutrients
to Iowa Waters and the Gulf of Mexico. Iowa Department of Agriculture and Land
Stewardship, Iowa Department of Natural Resources, and Iowa State University Col-
lege of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Ames, IA.
Iowa Flood Center. 2017 (2017).
Iowa State University Department of Agronomy, 2017. Iowa Environmental Mesonet.
2015. Iowa State University Department of Agronomy, Ames, IA.
Jaynes, D., James, D., 2007. The Extent of Farm Drainage in the United States. US Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
Jones, C.S., Schilling, K.E., 2011. From agricultural intensification to conservation: sediment
transport in the Raccoon River, Iowa, 1916–2009. J. Environ. Qual. 40, 1911–1923.
Kayhanian, M., Suverkropp, C., Ruby, A., Tsay, K., 2007. Characterization and prediction of
highway runoff constituent event mean concentration. J. Environ. Manag. 85, 279–295.
Kayhanian, M., Fruchtman, B.D., Gulliver, J.S., Montanaro, C., Ranieri, E., Wuertz, S., 2012.
Review of highway runoff characteristics: comparative analysis and universal impli-
cations. Water Res. 46, 6609–6624.
Kleiss, H.J., 1970. Hillslope sedimentation and soil formation in northeastern Iowa 1. Soil
Sci. Soc. Am. J. 34, 287–290.
Klute, A., 1986. Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 1. Physical and Mineralogical Methods.
American Society of Agronomy, Inc.
Livesley, S., Ossola, A., Threlfall, C., Hahs, A., Williams, N., 2016. Soil carbon and carbon/ni-
trogen ratio change under tree canopy, tall grass, and turf grass areas of urban green
space. J. Environ. Qual. 45, 215–223.
McClain, M.E., Boyer, E.W., Dent, C.L., Gergel, S.E., Grimm, N.B., Groffman, P.M., et al., 2003.
Biogeochemical hot spots and hot moments at the interface of terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems. Ecosystems 6, 301–312.
MNRS, 2014. Minnesota Nutrient Reduction Strategy. State of Minnesota.
Morrison, D., Lin, Q., Wiehe, S., Liu, G., Rosenman, M., Fuller, T., et al., 2013. Spatial rela-
tionships between lead sources and children's blood lead levels in the urban center
of Indianapolis (USA). Environ. Geochem. Health 35, 171–183.
Mullen, R.E., 2003. Crop Science: Principles and Practice.
Olivier, J., Hickin, G., Orr, C., 1971. Rapid, automatic particle size analysis in the subsieve
range. Powder Technol. 4, 257–263.
Post, W.M., Kwon, K.C., 2000. Soil carbon sequestration and land-use change: processes
and potential. Glob. Chang. Biol. 6, 317–327.
Prior, J.C., 1991. Landforms of Iowa. University of Iowa Press.
Ramakrishna, D.M., Viraraghavan, T., 2005. Environmental impact of chemical deicers–a
review. Water Air Soil Pollut. 166, 49–63.
Reid, L.M., Dunne, T., 1984. Sediment production from forest road surfaces. Water Resour.
Res. 20, 1753–1761.
Rowden, R.D., 2010. The Iowa State-wide Trace Element Soil Sampling Project: Design
and Implementation. Iowa Geol. Water Surv., p. 65 (10-1).
Ruhe, R.V., Dietz, W., Fenton, T., Hall, G., 1968. Iowan Drift Problem, Northeastern Iowa.
Iowa Geological Survey.
Sanchez, J.E., Harwood, R.R., Willson, T.C., Kizilkaya, K., Smeenk, J., Parker, E., et al., 2004.
Managing soil carbon and nitrogen for productivity and environmental quality.
Agron. J. 96, 769–775.
Schilling, K.E., Tomer, M.D., Zhang, Y.K., Weisbrod, T., Jacobson, P., Cambardella, C.A., 2007.
Hydrogeologic controls on nitrate transport in a small agricultural catchment, Iowa.
J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci. 112.
Schilling, K.E., Jha, M.K., Zhang, Y.K., Gassman, P.W., Wolter, C.F., 2008. Impact of land use
and land cover change on the water balance of a large agricultural watershed: histor-
ical effects and future directions. Water Resour. Res. 44.
Schilling, K.E., Streeter, M.T., Clair, M.S., Meissen, J., 2018. Subsurface nutrient processing
capacity in agricultural roadside ditches. Sci. Total Environ. 637, 470–479.
Schipper, L., Percival, H., Sparling, G., 2004. An approach for estimating when soils will
reach maximum nitrogen storage. Soil Use Manag. 20, 281–286.
Schoeneberger, P.J., Wysocki, D.A., Benham, E.C., Soil Survey Staff, 2012. Field Book for De-
scribing and Sampling Soils, Version 3.0. Government Printing Office.
Schulte, E., 1995. Recommended soil organic matter tests. Recommended Soil Test-
ing Procedures for the North Eastern USA. Northeastern Regional Publication,
pp. 52–60.
1440 M.T. Streeter et al. / Science of the Total Environment 657 (2019) 1432–1440
Service SC, 1972. National Engineering Handbook. US Department of Agriculture
Washington, DC.
Simard, R., 1993. Ammonium acetate-extractable elements. Soil Sampling and Methods of
Analysis vol. 1, pp. 39–42.
Soil Survey Staff NRCS, US Department of Agriculture, 2013. Official Soil Series Descrip-
tions, 2014.
Soil Survey Staff NRCS, US Department of Agriculture, 2016. Web Soil Survey, 2015.
Stefan, H.G., Novotny, E., Sander, A., Mohseni, O., 2008. Study of Environmental Effects of
De-icing Salt on Water Quality in the Twin Cities Metropolitan Area, Minnesota.
Stokes, G.G., 1851. On the Effect of the Internal Friction of Fluids on the Motion of Pendu-
lums. vol. 9. Pitt Press Cambridge.
Streeter, M.T., Schilling, K.E., Wolter, C.F., 2017. Sediment delivery and nutrient export as
indicators of soil sustainability in an Iowa agricultural watershed. J. Soils Sediments
1–11.
Thermo Scientific, 2015. Thermo Niton XL3t Handheld XRF Analyzer.
Walkley, A., Black, I.A., 1934. An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining
soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration
method. Soil Sci. 37, 29–38.
Wemple, B.C., Clark, G.E., Ross, D.S., Rizzo, D.M., 2017. Identifying the spatial pattern and
importance of hydro-geomorphic drainage impairments on unpaved roads in the
northeastern USA. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 42, 1652–1665.
Zhou, X., Helmers, M.J., Asbjornsen, H., Kolka, R., Tomer, M.D., Cruse, R.M., 2014. Nutrient
removal by prairie filter strips in agricultural landscapes. J. Soil Water Conserv. 69,
54–64.