Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1 Understanding
Sociology
M O D U L E
1 What Is Sociology? 5
M O D U L E
2 The Development of
Sociology 9
M O D U L E
3 Major Theoretical
Perspectives 14
M O D U L E
“I WAS MADE IN AMERICA. MY many waiting buses at the highway. Merchants hoping to part
Jingle These Christmas boxers were them from a portion of their daily earnings—$4 to $5—fight
made in Bangladesh. for their attention. Vehicles push through the crowd. A minivan
I had an all-American childhood knocks over a girl in her midtwenties and then runs over her foot.
in rural Ohio. My all-American blue She curses, is helped to her feet, and limps onto a waiting bus.
jeans were made in Cambodia. The buildings behind the fence are shaded in Bahamian pas-
I wore flip-flops every day for a tels and very well kept. The shrubs have been recently shaped,
year when I worked as a SCUBA div- and the grass trimmed. In the bright Honduran sun, they seem as
ing instructor in Key West. They were pleasant as a factory can get.
made in China. The lady at Delta Apparel, based in Georgia, giggled at me
One day while staring at a pile on the phone when I told her my plans. She was happy to tell me
of clothes on the floor, I noticed the that their Honduran factory was located in the city of Villanueva
tag of my favorite T-shirt: ‘Made in just south of San Pedro Sula. She even
Honduras.’ wished me good luck.
I read the tag. My mind wan- Now that I’m in Honduras, the com-
dered. A quest was born. Where am I wearing? This isn’t pany doesn’t think it’s very funny.
Where am I wearing? It seems so much a question related to I stand among the chaos over-
like a simple question with a sim- whelmed. A thousand sets of eyes
ple answer. It’s not. geography and clothes, but about stare at me; perhaps they recognize
The question inspired the the people who make our clothes my T-shirt. The irony that this is Tattoo’s
quest that took me around the tropical paradise wore off long ago—
globe. It cost me a lot of things, not and the texture of their lives.
somewhere between the confrontation
the least of which was my consumer with the big-bellied guards at the fac-
innocence. Before the quest, I could tory gate who had guns shoved down
put on a piece of clothing without reading its tag and thinking their pants like little boys playing cowboy and the conversation
about Arifa in Bangladesh or Dewan in China, about their children, with the tight-lipped company representative who failed to reveal
their hopes and dreams, and the challenges they face. much of anything about my T-shirt or the people who assem-
Where am I wearing? This isn’t so much a question related to bled it. There was no way I was getting onto the factory floor. All
geography and clothes, but about the people who make our clothes I learned was that eight humans of indiscriminate age and sex
and the texture of their lives. This quest is about the way we live stitched my shirt together in less than five minutes—not exactly
and the way they live; because when it comes to clothing, others information that required traveling all the way to Honduras to
make it, and we have it made. And there’s a big, big difference. . . . obtain.”
Workers flood the narrow alley beside the Delta Apparel Fac-
tory in San Pedro Sula, Honduras. They rush to catch one of the (Timmerman 2009:xiii–xiv, 14)
I
n his book Where Am I Wearing? A Global Tour to the and for society as a whole. For example, sociologists have con-
Countries, Factories, and People that Make Our Clothes, sidered how college students have taken sociology with them,
journalist Kelsey Timmerman recounts his travels to the organizing to confront the sportswear companies that underpay
countries where his jeans, T-shirts, and flip-flops—the uni- the overseas workers who create their team uniforms and T-shirts
form of today’s young adult—were made. From Honduras to (Esbenshade 2008; Silverstein 2010).
Bangladesh, from Cambodia to the United States, he tracked down As a field of study, sociology is extremely broad. You
the factories and befriended the seamstresses who labored there. will see throughout this book the range of topics sociologists
Timmerman found that garment workers lived in what would be investigate—from suicide to TV viewing habits, from Amish
considered substandard conditions in the United States. He argues society to global economic patterns, from peer pressure to
that global apparel companies should take responsibility for con- genetic engineering. Sociology looks at how others influence our
ditions at their suppliers’ factories (Fairtrade Foundation 2010). behavior; how major social institutions like the government, reli-
Timmerman’s book focuses on an unequal global economy, gion, and the economy affect us; and how we ourselves affect
a central topic in sociology. His investigation, like that of many other individuals, groups, and organizations.
other journalists, is informed by sociological research that docu- How did sociology develop? How does it differ from other
ments inequality. Social inequality has a pervasive influence on social sciences? These four modules will explore the nature of
human interactions and institutions. sociology as both a field of inquiry and an exercise of the “socio-
Although it might be interesting to know how one indi- logical imagination.” We’ll look at the discipline as a science and
vidual, like Kelsey Timmerman or a foreign factory worker, is consider its relationship to other social sciences. We’ll meet four
affected by social inequality, sociologists consider how entire pioneering thinkers and examine the theoretical perspectives that
groups of people and society itself are affected. Sociologists grew out of their work. We’ll note some of the practical applica-
are concerned with what people do as members of a group or in tions for sociological theory and research. Finally, we’ll see how
interaction with one another, and what that means for individuals sociology helps us to develop a sociological imagination.
4 ■ CHAPTER 1 Understanding Sociology
M O D U L E
1 What Is Sociology?
The range of sociological issues is very broad. For example, sociologists who belong to the Animals and Society section of the ASA may study the animal rights movement; those who
belong to the Sexualities section may study global sex workers or the gay, bisexual, and transgendered movements. Economic sociologists may investigate globalization or consumerism,
among many other topics.
Source: American Sociological Association 2010b.
Think about It
Which of these topics do you think would interest you the most? Why?
knowledge, while sometimes accurate, is not always reliable, theory is a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions,
because it rests on commonly held beliefs rather than on sys- or behavior. An effective theory may have both explanatory and pre-
tematic analysis of facts. It was once considered common sense dictive power. That is, it can help us to see the relationships among
to accept that the earth was flat—a view rightly questioned by seemingly isolated phenomena, as well as to understand how one
Pythagoras and Aristotle. Incorrect commonsense notions are not type of change in an environment leads to other changes.
just a part of the distant past; they remain with us today. The World Health Organization (2006) estimates that some
Contrary to the common notion that women tend to be chatty 900,000 people commit suicide every year. More than a hun-
compared to men, for instance, researchers have found little differ- dred years ago, a sociologist tried to look at suicide data sci-
ence between the sexes in terms of their talkativeness. Over a five- entifically. Émile Durkheim ([1897] 1951) developed a highly
year period they placed unobtrusive microphones on 396 college original theory about the relationship between suicide and social
students in various fields, at campuses in Mexico as well as the factors. Durkheim was primarily concerned not with the person-
United States. They found that both men and women spoke about alities of individual suicide victims but rather with suicide rates
16,000 words per day (Mehl et al. 2007). and how they varied from country to country. As a result, when
Similarly, common sense tells us that in the United States he looked at the number of reported suicides in France, England,
today, military marriages are more likely to end in separation or and Denmark in 1869, he also noted the total population of each
divorce than in the past due to the strain of long deployments in country in order to determine the rate of suicide in each nation.
Iraq and Afghanistan. Yet a study released in 2007 shows no sig- He found that whereas England had only 67 reported suicides
nificant increase in the divorce rate among U.S. soldiers over the per million inhabitants, France had 135 per million and Den-
past decade. In fact, the rate of marital dissolution among mem- mark had 277 per million. The question then became “Why did
bers of the military is comparable to that of nonmilitary families. Denmark have a comparatively high rate of reported suicide?”
Interestingly, this is not the first study to disprove the widely held Durkheim went much deeper into his investigation of sui-
notion that military service strains the marital bond. Two genera- cide rates. The result was his landmark work Suicide, published
tions earlier, during the Vietnam era, researchers came to the same in 1897. Durkheim refused to accept unproved explanations
conclusion (Call and Teachman 1991; Karney and Crown 2007). regarding suicide, including the beliefs that inherited tenden-
Like other social scientists, sociologists do not accept some- cies or cosmic forces caused such deaths. Instead, he focused on
thing as a fact because “everyone knows it.” Instead, each piece social factors, such as the cohesiveness or lack of cohesiveness
of information must be tested and recorded, then analyzed in rela- of religious, social, and occupational groups.
tion to other data. Sociologists rely on scientific studies in order Durkheim’s research suggested that suicide, although it
to describe and understand a social environment. At times, the is a solitary act, is related to group life. He found that people
findings of sociologists may seem like common sense, because without religious affiliations had a higher suicide rate than those
they deal with familiar facets of everyday life. The difference who were affiliated; the unmarried had much higher rates than
is that such findings have been tested by researchers. Common married people; and soldiers had a higher rate than civilians. In
sense now tells us that the earth is round, but this particular com- addition, there seemed to be higher rates of suicide in times of
monsense notion is based on centuries of scientific work that peace than in times of war and revolution, and in times of eco-
began with the breakthroughs made by Pythagoras and Aristotle. nomic instability and recession rather than in times of prosperity.
Durkheim concluded that the suicide rates of a society reflected
the extent to which people were or were not integrated into the
What Is Sociological Theory? group life of the society.
Émile Durkheim, like many other social scientists, devel-
Why do people commit suicide? One traditional common- oped a theory to explain how individual behavior can be under-
sense answer is that people inherit the desire to kill themselves. stood within a social context. He pointed out the influence of
Another view is that sunspots drive people to take their lives. groups and societal forces on what had always been viewed as
These explanations may not seem especially convincing to con- a highly personal act. Clearly, Durkheim offered a more scien-
temporary researchers, but they represent beliefs tific explanation for the causes of suicide than that of inherited
widely held as recently as 1900. tendencies or sunspots. His theory has predictive power, since
Sociologists are not particularly inter- it suggests that suicide rates will rise or fall in conjunction with
ested in why any one individual commits certain social and economic changes.
suicide; they are more concerned with Of course, a theory—even the best of
identifying the social forces that theories—is not a final statement about human
systematically cause some people behavior. Durkheim’s theory of suicide is
to take their own lives. In order no exception. Sociologists continue to
to undertake this research, soci- examine factors that con-
ologists develop a theory that offers tribute to differences in
Las Vegas has a
a general explanation of suicidal behavior. suicide rates around the
suicide rate that is twice
We can think of theories as attempts to the national average. Sociologists world and to a particular
explain events, forces, materials, ideas, or behav- suspect that the rapidly expanding city society’s rate of suicide.
ior in a comprehensive manner. In sociology, a lacks a sense of community cohesiveness. They have observed that
in Las Vegas, for example, the chances of dying by suicide are residents. Although gambling—or more accurately, losing while
strikingly high—twice as high as in the United States as a whole. gambling—may seem a likely precipitating factor in suicides
Noting Durkheim’s emphasis on the relationship between suicide there, careful study of the data has allowed researchers to dismiss
and social isolation, researchers have suggested that Las Vegas’s that explanation. What happens in Vegas may stay in Vegas, but
rapid growth and constant influx of tourists have undermined the sense of community cohesiveness that the rest of the country
the community’s sense of permanence, even among longtime enjoys may be lacking (Wray et al. 2008).
M O D U L E
1 Recap and Review
M O D U L E
anomie, people are so confused and unable to cope with the new or she would seek to learn how the fraternity members relate to
social environment that they may resort to suicide. other members of higher or lower status. While investigating
Durkheim was concerned about the dangers that alienation, these questions, the researcher would take into account people’s
loneliness, and isolation might pose for modern industrial societies. emotions, thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes (L. Coser 1977).
He shared Comte’s belief that sociology should provide direction for We also owe credit to Weber for a key conceptual tool: the
social change. As a result, he advocated the creation of new social ideal type. An ideal type is a construct or model for evaluating spe-
groups—mediators between the individual’s family and the state— cific cases. In his works, Weber identified various characteristics
that would provide a sense of belonging for members of huge, of bureaucracy as an ideal type (discussed in detail in Module 19).
impersonal societies. Unions would be an example of such groups. In presenting this model of bureaucracy, Weber was not describ-
Like many other sociologists, Durkheim did not limit his ing any particular organization, nor was he using the term ideal
interests to one aspect of social behavior. Later in this book we in a way that suggested a positive evaluation. Instead, his purpose
will consider his thinking on crime and punishment, religion, was to provide a useful standard for measuring how bureaucratic an
and the workplace. Few sociologists have had such a dramatic actual organization is (Gerth and Mills 1958). Later in this book,
impact on so many different areas within the discipline. we will use the concept of ideal type to study the family, religion,
authority, and economic systems, as well as to analyze bureaucracy.
Although their professional careers coincided, Émile Durk-
Max Weber heim and Max Weber never met and probably were unaware of each
other’s existence, let alone ideas. Such was not true of the work of
Another important early theorist was Max Weber (pronounced Karl Marx. Durkheim’s thinking about the impact of the division of
vay-ber). Born in Germany, Weber (1864–1920) studied legal and labor in industrial societies was related to Marx’s writings, while
economic history, but gradually developed an interest in sociology. Weber’s concern for a value-free, objective sociology was a direct
Eventually, he became a professor at various German universi- response to Marx’s deeply held convictions. Thus, it is not surpris-
ties. Weber taught his students that they should employ verstehen ing that Karl Marx is viewed as a major figure in the development
(pronounced fair-shtay-en), the German word for “understanding” of sociology, as well as several other social sciences (Figure 2-1).
or “insight,” in their intellectual work. He pointed out that we cannot
analyze our social behavior by the same type of objective criteria we
use to measure weight or temperature. To fully comprehend behav-
ior, we must learn the subjective meanings people attach to their
Karl Marx
actions—how they themselves view and explain their behavior. Karl Marx (1818–1883) shared with Durkheim and Weber a dual
For example, suppose that a sociologist was studying the interest in abstract philosophical issues and the concrete reality of
social ranking of individuals in a fraternity. Weber would expect everyday life. Unlike them, however, Marx was so critical of exist-
the researcher to employ verstehen to determine the signifi- ing institutions that a conventional academic career was impos-
cance of the fraternity’s social hierarchy for its members. The sible. He spent most of his life in exile from his native Germany.
researcher might examine the effects of athleticism or grades Marx’s personal life was a difficult struggle. When a paper
or social skills or seniority on standing within the fraternity. He he had written was suppressed, he fled to France. In Paris, he met
Friedrich Engels (1820–1895), with whom he formed a lifelong principles to study social problems such as those experienced by
friendship. The two lived at a time when European and North Blacks in the United States. To separate opinion from fact, he
American economic life was increasingly dominated by the fac- advocated basic research on the lives of Blacks. Through his in-
tory rather than the farm. depth studies of urban life, both White and Black, in cities such
While in London in 1847, Marx and Engels attended secret as Philadelphia and Atlanta, DuBois ([1899] 1995) made a major
meetings of an illegal coalition of labor unions known as the contribution to sociology.
Communist League. The following year they prepared a platform Like Durkheim and Weber, DuBois saw the importance of
called The Communist Manifesto, in which they argued that the religion to society. However, he tended to focus on religion at
masses of people with no resources other than their labor (whom the community level and the role of the church in the lives of its
they referred to as the proletariat) should unite to fight for the members ([1903] 2003). DuBois had little patience with theo-
overthrow of capitalist societies. In the words of Marx and Engels: rists such as Herbert Spencer, who seemed content with the sta-
The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class
tus quo. He believed that the granting of full political rights to
struggles. . . . The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. Blacks was essential to their social and economic progress.
They have a world to win. working men of all countries unite! Because many of his ideas challenged the status quo, DuBois
(L. Feuer 1989:7, 41) did not find a receptive audience within either the government or
the academic world. As a result, he became increasingly involved
After completing The Communist Manifesto, Marx returned with organizations whose members questioned the established
to Germany, only to be expelled. He then moved to England, social order. In 1909 he helped to found the National Association
where he continued to write books and essays. Marx lived there for the Advancement of Colored People, better known today as
in extreme poverty; he pawned most of his possessions, and the NAACP (Wortham 2008).
several of his children died of malnutrition and disease. Marx DuBois’s insights have been lasting. In 1897 he coined the
clearly was an outsider in British society, a fact that may well term double consciousness to refer to the division of an individ-
have influenced his view of Western cultures. ual’s identity into two or more social realities. He used the term
In Marx’s analysis, society was fundamentally divided be- to describe the experience of being Black in White America.
tween two classes that clashed in pursuit of their own interests. Today, an African American holds the most powerful office in the
When he examined the industrial societies of his time, such nation, President of the United States. Yet for millions of African
as Germany, England, and the United States, he saw the fac- Americans, the reality of being Black in the United States typi-
tory as the center of conflict between the exploiters (the own- cally is not one of power ([1903] 1961).
ers of the means of production) and the exploited (the workers).
Marx viewed these relationships in systematic terms; that is, he
believed that a system of economic, social, and political rela- Twentieth-Century
tionships maintained the power and dominance of the owners
over the workers. Consequently, Marx and Engels argued that Developments
the working class should overthrow the existing class system. Sociology today builds on the firm foundation developed by
Marx’s influence on contemporary thinking has been dramatic. Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, Karl Marx, and W. E. B. DuBois.
His writings inspired those who would later lead communist rev- However, the field certainly has not remained stagnant over the
olutions in Russia, China, Cuba, Vietnam, and elsewhere. past hundred years. While Europeans have continued to make
Even apart from the political revolutions that his work fos- contributions to the discipline, sociologists from throughout the
tered, Marx’s significance is profound. Marx emphasized the world and especially the United States have advanced sociologi-
group identifications and associations that influence an individ- cal theory and research. Their new insights have helped us to
ual’s place in society. This area of study is the major focus of better understand the workings of society.
contemporary sociology. Throughout this textbook, we will con-
sider how membership in a particular gender classification, age Charles Horton Cooley
group, racial group, or economic class affects a person’s attitudes Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) was typical of the sociolo-
and behavior. In an important sense, we can trace this way of gists who came to prominence in the early 1900s. Born in Ann
understanding society back to the pioneering work of Karl Marx. Arbor, Michigan, Cooley received his graduate training in eco-
nomics but later became a sociology professor at the University
W. E. B. DuBois of Michigan. Like other early sociologists, he had become inter-
ested in this new discipline while pursuing a related area of study.
Marx’s work encouraged sociologists to view society through the Cooley shared the desire of Durkheim, Weber, and Marx to
eyes of those segments of the population that rarely influence deci- learn more about society. But to do so effectively, he preferred to
sion making. In the United States, some early Black sociologists, use the sociological perspective to look first at smaller units—
including W. E. B. DuBois (1868–1963), conducted research that intimate, face-to-face groups such as families, gangs, and friend-
they hoped would assist in the struggle for a racially egalitarian ship networks. He saw these groups as the seedbeds of society,
society. DuBois (pronounced doo-boyss) believed that knowledge in the sense that they shape people’s ideals, beliefs, values, and
was essential in combating prejudice and achieving tolerance and social nature. Cooley’s work increased our understanding of
justice. Sociologists, he contended, needed to draw on scientific groups of relatively small size.
opportunity to advance. In his emphasis on cultural and social Comte, Durkheim, Weber, Marx, DuBois, Cooley, Addams, and
capital, Bourdieu’s work extends the insights of early social many others speaking through the pages of current research.
thinkers such as Marx and Weber (Bourdieu and Passerson Sociology has also broadened beyond the intellectual confines of
1990; Field 2008). North America and Europe. Contributions to the discipline now
Today sociology reflects the diverse contributions of earlier come from sociologists studying and researching human behav-
theorists. As sociologists approach such topics as divorce, drug ior in other parts of the world. In describing the work of these
addiction, and religious cults, they can draw on the theoretical sociologists, it is helpful to examine a number of influential the-
insights of the discipline’s pioneers. A careful reader can hear oretical perspectives, also known as approaches or views.
M O D U L E
2 Recap and Review
M O D U L E
Conflict Perspective
Where functionalists see stability and consensus, conflict soci-
Cows (zebu), considered sacred in India, wander freely through this city,
respected by all who encounter them. The sanctity of the cow is functional
ologists see a social world in continual struggle. The conflict
in India, where plowing, milking, and fertilizing are far more important to perspective assumes that social behavior is best understood in
subsistence farmers than a diet that includes beef. terms of tension between groups over power or the allocation
court, but the clothes they wear off court on league business.
Interactionist Perspective The code requires “business casual attire” when players are rep-
Workers interacting on the job, encounters in public places resenting the league. Indoor sunglasses, chains, and sleeveless
like bus stops and parks, behavior in small groups—all these shirts are specifically banned (Crowe and Herman 2005:A23).
aspects of microsociology catch the attention of interactionists. While the functionalist and conflict approaches were ini-
Whereas functionalist and conflict theorists both analyze large- tiated in Europe, interactionism developed first in the United
scale, societywide patterns of behavior, theorists who take the States. George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) is widely regarded as
interactionist perspective generalize about everyday forms of the founder of the interactionist perspective. Mead taught at the
social interaction in order to explain society as a whole. Today, University of Chicago from 1893 until his death. As his teachings
given rising concern over the cost and availability of gas, inter- have become better known, sociologists have expressed greater
actionists have begun to study a form of commuter behavior interest in the interactionist perspective. Many have moved away
called “slugging.” To avoid driving to work, commuters gather at from what may have been an excessive preoccupation with the
certain preappointed places to seek rides from complete strang- macro (large-scale) level of social behavior and have redirected
ers. When a driver pulls into the parking area or vacant lot and their attention toward behavior that occurs in the micro (small-
announces his destination, the first slug in line who is headed scale) level.
for that destination jumps in. Rules of etiquette have emerged Erving Goffman (1922–1982) popularized a particular type
to smooth the social interaction between driver and passenger. of interactionist method known as the dramaturgical approach,
Neither the driver nor the passenger may eat or smoke; the slug in which people are seen as theatrical performers. The dramatur-
may not adjust the windows or radio or talk on a cell phone. The gist compares everyday life to the setting of the theater and stage.
presence of the slugs, who get a free ride, may allow the driver Just as actors project certain images, all of us seek to present par-
to use special lanes reserved for high-occupancy vehicles (Slug- ticular features of our personalities while we hide other features.
Lines.com 2008). Thus, in a class, we may feel the need to project a serious image;
Interactionism (also referred to as symbolic interactionism) at a party, we may want to look relaxed and friendly.
is a sociological framework in which human beings are viewed
as living in a world of meaningful objects. Those “objects” may
include material things, actions, other people, relationships, and
even symbols. Interactionists see symbols as an especially impor-
The Sociological Approach
tant part of human communication (thus the term symbolic interac- Which perspective should a sociologist use in studying human
tionism). Symbols have a shared social meaning that is understood behavior? Functionalist? Conflict? Interactionist? Feminist? In
by all members of a society. In the United States, for example, a fact, sociologists make use of all the perspectives summarized
salute symbolizes respect, while a clenched fist signifies defiance. in Table 3-1 (page 18), since each offers unique insights into the
Another culture might use different gestures to convey a feeling of same issue. We gain the broadest understanding of our society,
respect or defiance. These types of symbolic interaction are clas- then, by drawing on all the major perspectives, noting where they
sified as forms of nonverbal communication, which can include overlap and where they diverge.
many other gestures, facial expressions, and postures (Masuda Although no one approach is correct by itself, and sociolo-
et al. 2008). gists draw on all of them for various purposes, many sociologists
Symbols in the form of tattoos took on special importance tend to favor one particular perspective over others. A sociolo-
in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. Tattoo parlors in lower gist’s theoretical orientation influences his or her approach to a
Manhattan were overwhelmed with requests from various groups research problem in important ways—including the choice of
for designs that carried symbolic significance for them. New what to study, how to study it, and what questions to pose (or not
York City firefighters asked for tattoos with the names of their to pose). See the Research Today box (page 18) for an example of
fallen comrades; police officers requested designs incorporat- how a researcher would study sports from different perspectives.
ing their distinctive NYPD shield; recovery workers at Ground Whatever the purpose of sociologists’ work, their research
Zero sought tattoos that incorporated the image of the giant steel will always be guided by their theoretical viewpoints. For exam-
cross, the remnant of a massive crossbeam in a World Trade ple, sociologist Elijah Anderson (1990) embraces both the inter-
Center building. Through symbols such as these tattoos, peo- actionist perspective and the groundbreaking work of W. E. B.
ple communicate their values and beliefs to those around them DuBois. For 14 years Anderson conducted fieldwork in Phila-
(Scharnberg 2002). delphia, where he studied the interactions of Black and White
Another manipulation of symbols can be seen in dress residents who lived in adjoining neighborhoods. In particular,
codes. Schools frown on students who wear clothes display- he was interested in their public behavior, including their eye
ing messages that appear to endorse violence or drug and alco- contact—or lack of it—as they passed one another on the street.
hol consumption. Businesses stipulate the attire employees are Anderson’s research tells us much about the everyday social
allowed to wear on the job in order to impress their customers interactions of Blacks and Whites in the United States, but it
or clients. In 2005, the National Basketball Association (NBA) does not explain the larger issues behind those interactions. Like
adopted a new dress code for the athletes who play professional theories, research results illuminate one part of the stage, leaving
basketball—one that involved, not the uniforms they wear on other parts in relative darkness.
View of Society Stable, well integrated Characterized by tension and struggle Active in influencing and affecting
between groups everyday social interaction
Level of Analysis Macro Macro Micro, as a way of understanding the
Emphasized larger macro phenomena
Key Concepts Manifest functions Inequality Symbols
Latent functions Capitalism Nonverbal communication
Dysfunctions Stratification Face-to-face interaction
View of the Individual People are socialized to perform People are shaped by power, coercion, People manipulate symbols and
societal functions and authority create their social worlds through
interaction
View of the Social Order Maintained through cooperation and Maintained through force and Maintained by shared understanding
consensus coercion of everyday behavior
View of Social Change Predictable, reinforcing Change takes place all the time Reflected in people’s social
and may have positive consequences positions and their communications
with others
Example Public punishments reinforce the Laws reinforce the positions of those People respect laws or disobey
social order in power them based on their own past
experience
Proponents Émile Durkheim Karl Marx George Herbert Mead
Talcott Parsons W. E. B. DuBois Charles Horton Cooley
Robert Merton Ida Wells-Barnett Erving Goffman
Research Today
Looking at Sports from Four Theoretical Perspectives
We watch sports. Talk sports. Spend money hard work, while failure should be
on sports. Some of us live and breathe sports. Despite their differences, blamed on the individual alone (rather
Because sports occupy much of our time and than on injustices in the larger social
directly or indirectly consume and generate a functionalists, conflict system). Sports also serve as an “opiate”
great deal of money, it should not be surpris- theorists, feminists, and that encourages people to seek a “fix” or
ing that sports have sociological components temporary “high” rather than focus on
that can be analyzed from the various theo-
interactionists would all personal problems and social issues.
retical perspectives. agree that there is much ■ Communities divert scarce resources to
alists emphasize the contribution it makes to Blacks and Latinos, who toil as athletes but
overall social stability. Functionalists regard are less visible in supervisory positions as
sports as an almost religious institution that Cup matches and the Olympics) and coaches, managers, and owners.
uses ritual and ceremony to reinforce the promote an overall feeling of unity ■ Team logos and mascots (like the
common values of a society: and social solidarity. Washington Redskins) disparage
■ Sports socialize young people into such American Indians.
values as competition and patriotism. Conflict View
■ Sports help to maintain people’s physical Conflict theorists argue that the social order Feminist View
well-being. is based on coercion and exploitation. They Feminist theorists consider how watching or
■ Sports serve as a safety valve for both emphasize that sports reflect and even exac- participating in sports reinforces the roles that
participants and spectators, who are erbate many of the divisions of society: men and women play in the larger society:
allowed to shed tension and aggressive ■ Sports are a form of big business in which ■ Although sports generally promote fitness
energy in a socially acceptable way. profits are more important than the and health, they may also have an adverse
■ Sports bring together members of a health and safety of the workers (athletes). effect on participants’ health. Men are
community (who support local athletes ■ Sports perpetuate the false idea that more likely to resort to illegal steroid
and teams) or even a nation (during World success can be achieved simply through use (among bodybuilders and baseball
players, for example); women, to excessive parental expectations for participation and harmoniously and may even abandon
dieting (among gymnasts and figure (sometimes unrealistically) for success. previous stereotypes and prejudices.
skaters, for example). ■ Participation in sports provides friendship ■ Relationships in the sports world are
■ Gender expectations encourage female networks that can permeate everyday life. defined by people’s social positions as
athletes to be passive and gentle, qualities ■ Despite class, racial, and religious players, coaches, and referees—as well as
that do not support the emphasis on differences, teammates may work together by the high or low status that individuals
competitiveness in sports. As a result, hold as a result of their performances and
orts
women find it difficult to enter sports reputations.
uch as
traditionally dominated by men, such Despite their differences, functionalists,
Indy or NASCAR. conflict theorists, feminists, and interaction-
■ Although professional women athletes’
letes’ ists would all agree that there is much more to
ally
earnings are increasing, they typically sports than exercise or recreation. They would
trail those of male athletes. also agree that sports and other popular forms
of culture are worthy subjects of serious study
Interactionist View by sociologists.
In studying the social order, interactionists
nists
der-
are especially interested in shared under-
standings of everyday behavior. Interac- erac- L E T ’ S D I S C U S S
tionists examine sports on the micro level 1. Have you experienced or witnessed
by focusing on how day-to-day social behav- discrimination in sports based on
ior is shaped by the distinctive norms, s, values, gender or race? If so, how did you
and demands of the world of sports: react? Has the representation of Blacks
■ Sports often heighten parent–child
d or women on teams been controversial
involvement; they may lead to on your campus? In what ways?
2. Which perspective do you think is most
Professional golfer Cristie Kerr won useful in looking at the sociology of
more than $1.5 million in 2009, sports? Why?
making her the 2nd most successful
woman on the pro golf tour that year. Sources: Acosta and Carpenter 2001; Eitzen 2009; ESPN
Among men, her winnings would 2009; Fine 1987; A. Sharp et al. 2008; K. Young 2004;
have put her in only 55th place. Zirin 2008.
M O D U L E
3 Recap and Review
M O D U L E
Thinking Globally
Whatever their theoretical perspective or research techniques,
sociologists recognize that social behavior must be viewed in
a global context. Globalization is the worldwide integration of
government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial
markets through trade and the exchange of ideas. Although pub-
lic discussion of globalization is relatively recent, intellectuals
have been pondering both its negative and positive social conse-
quences for a long time. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels warned
in The Communist Manifesto (written in 1848) of a world market
that would lead to production in distant lands, sweeping away
existing working relationships.
Today, developments outside a country are as likely to influ-
ence people’s lives as changes at home. For example, though
A Latino family visits a community medical center in Lakewood, Colorado. Increasingly, much of the world was already in recession by September
applied sociologists are becoming interested in the existing assets a community
2001, the terrorist attacks on New York and Washington, D.C.,
has to offer, from health clinics to fresh produce markets and social service
organizations. caused an immediate economic decline, not just in the United
States, but throughout the world. One example of the massive
global impact was the downturn in international tourism, which
When Durkheim studied suicide rates, he was not primarily inter- lasted for at least two years. The effects have been felt by peo-
ested in discovering a way to eliminate suicide. In this sense, his ple far removed from the United States, including African game
research was an example of basic rather than applied sociology. wardens and Asian taxi drivers. Some observers see globalization
and its effects as the natural result of advances in communications
Developing a Sociological technology, particularly the Internet and satellite transmission of
the mass media. Others view it more critically, as a process that
Imagination allows multinational corporations to expand unchecked. We exam-
In this book, we will be illustrating the sociological imagination in ine the impact of globalization on our daily lives and on societies
several different ways—by showing theory in practice and in current throughout the world in the Sociology in the Global Community
research; by thinking globally; by exploring the significance of social box (page 22) and throughout this book (Fiss and Hirsch 2005).
inequality; by speaking across race, gender,
and religious boundaries; and by highlight-
ing social policy throughout the world.
Theory in Practice
We will illustrate how the major sociolog-
ical perspectives can be helpful in under-
standing today’s issues, from capital
punishment to the AIDS crisis. Sociolo-
gists do not necessarily declare, “Here I am
using functionalism,” but their research
and approaches do tend to draw on one
or more theoretical frameworks, as will
become clear in the pages to follow.
Research Today
Sociologists actively investigate a variety
of issues and social behavior. We have
already seen that research can shed light
on the social factors that affect suicide
rates. Sociological research often plays a Today, both the positive and negative aspects of globalization are receiving increased scrutiny from sociologists.
The Significance of Social Inequality Some sociologists, in seeking to understand the effects of
inequality, have made the case for social justice. W. E. B. DuBois
Who holds power? Who doesn’t? Who has prestige? Who lacks
([1940] 1968:418) noted that the greatest power in the land is
it? Perhaps the major theme of analysis in sociology today is
not “thought or ethics, but wealth.” As we have seen, the contri-
social inequality, a condition in which members of society have
butions of Karl Marx, Jane Addams, and Ida Wells-Barnett also
differing amounts of wealth, prestige, or power. For example, the
stressed this sentiment for the overarching significance of social
disparity between what coffee bean pickers in developing nations
inequality and, in responce, social justice. Joe Feagin (2001)
are paid and the price you pay for a cup of coffee underscores
echoed it in a presidential address to the American Sociological
global inequality (see the box above). Kelsey Timmerman’s re-
Association. Throughout, this book will highlight the work of so-
search among foreign garment workers uncovered some other
ciologists on social inequality.
aspects of global inequality. And the impact of Hurricane Katrina
on residents of the Gulf Coast drew attention to social inequal-
ity in the United States. Predictably, the people who were hit the Speaking across Race, Gender,
hardest by the massive storm were the poor, who had the greatest and Religious Boundaries
difficulty evacuating before the storm and have had the most dif- Sociologists include both men and women, who come from a
ficulty recovering from it. variety of ethnic, national, and religious origins. In their work,
sociologists seek to draw conclusions that speak to all people— some cases, we will examine a specific issue facing national
not just the affluent or powerful. Doing so is not always easy. governments. For example, government funding of child care
Insights into how a corporation can increase its profits tend to centers will be discussed in Module 15, Agents of Socializa-
attract more attention and financial support than do, say, the tion; global immigration in Module 33, Race and Ethnicity in
merits of a needle exchange program for low-income inner-city the United States; and religion in the schools in Module 46, Reli-
residents. Yet today more than ever, sociology seeks to better gious Organizations. These Social Policy sections will demon-
understand the experiences of all people. strate how fundamental sociological concepts can enhance our
Sociologists have noted, for example, that the huge tsunami critical thinking skills and help us to better understand current
that hit South Asia in 2004 affected men and women differently. public policy debates taking place around the world.
When the waves hit, mothers and grandmothers were at home In addition, sociology has been used to evaluate the success
with the children; men were outside working, where they were of programs or the impact of changes brought about by policy-
more likely to become aware of the impending disaster. More- makers and political activists. For example, Module 28, Poverty
over, most of the men knew how to swim, a survival skill that and Social Mobility, includes a discussion of research on the
women in these traditional societies usually do not learn. As a effectiveness of welfare reform experiments. Such discussions
result, many more men than women survived the catastrophe— underscore the many practical applications of sociological the-
about 10 men for every woman. In one Indonesian village typical ory and research.
of the disaster area, 97 of 1,300 people survived; only 4 were Sociologists expect the next quarter of a century to be per-
women. The impact of this gender imbalance will be felt for haps the most exciting and critical period in the history of the
some time, given women’s primary role as caregivers for chil- discipline. That is because of a growing recognition—both in the
dren and the elderly (BBC News 2005). United States and around the world—that current social prob-
lems must be addressed before their magnitude overwhelms
human societies. We can expect sociologists to play an increas-
Social Policy throughout the World ing role in government by researching and developing public
One important way we can use a sociological imagination is to policy alternatives. It seems only natural for this textbook to
enhance our understanding of current social issues throughout focus on the connection between the work of sociologists and the
the world. Approximately one-third of the modules in this book difficult questions confronting policymakers and people in the
include a discussion of a contemporary social policy issue. In United States and around the world.
M O D U L E
4 Recap and Review
some students choose (where it is available) to pursue a bachelor’s FIGURE A-2 Occupations of Graduating
degree in social work (BSW). This degree prepares graduates for
direct service positions, such as caseworker or group worker.
Sociology Majors
Many students continue their sociological training beyond Other, including
the bachelor’s degree. More than 250 universities in the United public relations
11.1%
States have graduate programs in sociology that offer PhD and/
or master’s degrees. These programs differ greatly in their areas Research
of specialization, course requirements, costs, and the research 5.7%
Social services
and teaching opportunities available to graduate students. About 26.5%
71 percent of the graduates are women (American Sociological Education
8.1%
Association 2005, 2010a).
Higher education is an important source of employment for
Services Administrative,
sociologists with graduate degrees. About 83 percent of recent clerical support
8.3%
PhD recipients in sociology seek employment in colleges and 15.8%
universities. These sociologists teach not only majors who are
committed to the discipline but also students hoping to become
doctors, nurses, lawyers, police officers, and so forth (American Sales, marketing
10.1%
Sociological Association 2005).
Management
Sociologists who teach in colleges and universities may use 14.4%
their knowledge and training to influence public policy. For
example, sociologist Andrew Cherlin (2003) has commented
on the debate over proposed federal funding to promote mar-
riage among welfare recipients. Citing the results of two of his
studies, Cherlin questioned the potential effectiveness of such
a policy in strengthening low-income families. Because many
single mothers choose to marry someone other than the father
of their children—sometimes for good reason—their children Note: Based on a national survey conducted in early 2007 of 1,800 sociology majors who
often grow up in stepfamilies. Cherlin’s research shows that graduated in 2005.
children who are raised in stepfamilies are no better off than Source: Spalter-Roth and Van Vooren 2008a, p. 3.
Mastering
This Chapter
key terms
Anomie The loss of direction felt in a society when social control of Functionalist perspective A sociological approach that emphasizes the way
individual behavior has become ineffective. (page 10) in which the parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability. (15)
Applied sociology The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific Globalization The worldwide integration of government policies,
intent of yielding practical applications for human behavior and cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and
organizations. (20) the exchange of ideas. (21)
Basic sociology Sociological inquiry conducted with the objective of Ideal type A construct or model for evaluating specific cases. (11)
gaining a more profound knowledge of the fundamental aspects of Interactionist perspective A sociological approach that generalizes about
social phenomena. Also known as pure sociology. (20) everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a
Clinical sociology The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific whole. (17)
intent of altering social relationships or restructuring social institutions. (20) Latent function An unconscious or unintended function that may reflect
Conflict perspective A sociological approach that assumes that social hidden purposes. (15)
behavior is best understood in terms of tension between groups over Macrosociology Sociological investigation that concentrates on large-scale
power or the allocation of resources, including housing, money, access phenomena or entire civilizations. (13)
to services, and political representation. (15)
Manifest function An open, stated, and conscious function. (15)
Cultural capital Noneconomic goods, such as family background and
education, which are reflected in a knowledge of language and the Microsociology Sociological investigation that stresses the study of small
arts. (13) groups, often through experimental means. (13)
Double consciousness The division of an individual’s identity into two or Natural science The study of the physical features of nature and the ways
more social realities. (12) in which they interact and change. (6)
Dramaturgical approach A view of social interaction in which people are Nonverbal communication The sending of messages through the use of
seen as theatrical performers. (17) gestures, facial expressions, and postures. (17)
Dysfunction An element or process of a society that may disrupt the social Science The body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic
system or reduce its stability. (15) observation. (5)
Feminist view A sociological approach that views inequity in gender as Social capital The collective benefit of social networks, which are built on
central to all behavior and organization. (16) reciprocal trust. (13)
Social inequality A condition in which members of society have differing Sociology The scientific study of social behavior and human groups. (5)
amounts of wealth, prestige, or power. (22) Theory In sociology, a set of statements that seeks to explain problems,
Social science The study of the social features of humans and the ways in actions, or behavior. (8)
which they interact and change. (6) Verstehen The German word for “understanding” or “insight”; used to
Sociological imagination An awareness of the relationship between an stress the need for sociologists to take into account the subjective
individual and the wider society, both today and in the past. (5) meanings people attach to their actions. (17)
self-quiz
Read each question carefully and then select the best answer.
1. Sociology is 6. Which sociologist made a major contribution to society through his
a. very narrow in scope. in-depth studies of urban life, including both Blacks and Whites?
b. concerned with what one individual does or does not do. a. W. E. B. DuBois
c. the systematic study of social behavior and human groups. b. Robert Merton
d. an awareness of the relationship between an individual and the c. Auguste Comte
wider society. d. Charles Horton Cooley
2. Which of the following thinkers introduced the concept of the 7. In the late 19th century, before the term feminist view was even
sociological imagination? coined, the ideas behind this major theoretical approach appeared in
a. Émile Durkheim the writings of
b. Max Weber a. Karl Marx.
c. Karl Marx b. Ida Wells-Barnett.
d. C. Wright Mills c. Charles Horton Cooley.
3. Émile Durkheim’s research on suicide suggested that d. Pierre Bourdieu.
a. people with religious affiliations had a higher suicide rate than 8. Thinking of society as a living organism in which each part of the
those who were unaffiliated. organism contributes to its survival is a reflection of which theoretical
b. suicide rates seemed to be higher in times of peace than in times perspective?
of war and revolution. a. the functionalist perspective
c. civilians were more likely to take their lives than soldiers. b. the conflict perspective
d. suicide is a solitary act, unrelated to group life. c. the feminist perspective
4. Max Weber taught his students that they should employ which of the d. the interactionist perspective
following in their intellectual work? 9. Karl Marx’s view of the struggle between social classes inspired the
a. anomie contemporary
b. verstehen a. functionalist perspective.
c. the sociological imagination b. conflict perspective.
d. microsociology c. interactionist perspective.
5. Robert Merton’s contributions to sociology include d. dramaturgical approach.
a. successfully combining theory and research. 10. Erving Goffman’s dramaturgical approach, which postulates that
b. producing a theory that is one of the most frequently cited people present certain aspects of their personalities while obscuring
explanations of deviant behavior. other aspects, is a derivative of what major theoretical perspective?
c. an attempt to bring macro-level and micro-level analyses a. the functionalist perspective
together. b. the conflict perspective
d. all of the above c. the feminist perspective
d. the interactionist perspective
11. While the findings of sociologists may at times seem like common sense, they differ because they rest on ______________________ analysis of facts.
12. Within sociology, a(n) ______________________ is a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior.
13. In ____________________ ____________________ ’s hierarchy of the sciences, sociology was the “queen,” and its practitioners were “scientist-priests.”
14. In Society in America, originally published in 1837, English scholar ______________________ ______________________ examined religion, politics,
child rearing, and immigration in the young nation.
15. ______________________ ______________________ adapted Charles Darwin’s evolutionary view of the “survival of the fittest” by arguing that it is
“natural” that some people are rich while others are poor.
16. Sociologist Max Weber coined the term ______________________ ______________________ in referring to a construct or model that serves as a
measuring rod against which actual cases can be evaluated.
17. In The Communist Manifesto, ______________________ ______________________ and ______________________ ______________________ argued
that the masses of people who have no resources other than their labor (the proletariat) should unite to fight for the overthrow of capitalist societies.
18. ______________________ ______________________, an early female sociologist, cofounded the famous Chicago settlement house called Hull House
and also tried to establish a juvenile court system.
19. The university’s role in certifying academic competence and excellence is an example of a(n) ______________________ function.
20. The ______________________ ______________________ draws on the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in that it often views women’s
subordination as inherent in capitalist societies.
17 Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels; 18 Jane Addams; 19 manifest; 20 feminist view
1 (c); 2 (d); 3 (b); 4 (b); 5 (d); 6 (a); 7 (b); 8 (a); 9 (b); 10 (d); 11 systematic; 12 theory; 13 Auguste Comte; 14 Harriet Martineau; 15 Herbert Spencer; 16 ideal type;
Answers