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Objectives
When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand multidimensionality and time dependence of heat transfer,
and the conditions under which a heat transfer problem can be
approximated as being one-dimensional,
• Obtain the differential equation of heat conduction in various
coordinate systems, and simplify it for steady one-dimensional case,
• Identify the thermal conditions on surfaces, and express them
mathematically as boundary and initial conditions,
• Solve one-dimensional heat conduction problems and obtain the
temperature distributions within a medium and the heat flux,
• Analyze one-dimensional heat conduction in solids that involve heat
generation, and
• Evaluate heat conduction in solids with temperature-dependent
thermal conductivity.
Introduction
• Although heat transfer and temperature are
closely related, they are of a different nature.
• Temperature has only magnitude
it is a scalar quantity.
• Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude
it is a vector quantity.
• We work with a coordinate system and indicate
direction with plus or minus signs.
Introduction ─ Continue
• The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the
temperature difference.
• The larger the temperature difference, the larger the
rate of heat transfer.
• Three prime coordinate systems:
– rectangular (T(x, y, z, t)) ,
– cylindrical (T(r, f, z, t)),
– spherical (T(r, f, q, t)).
Introduction ─ Continue
Classification of conduction heat transfer problems:
• steady versus transient heat transfer,
• multidimensional heat transfer,
• heat generation.
Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer
• Steady implies no change with time at any point
within the medium
DEelement
Qx Qx Dx Egen,element
Dt
(2-6)
DEelement
Qx Qx Dx Egen,element (2-6)
Dt
• The change in the energy content and the rate of heat
generation can be expressed as
Eelement Et Dt Et mc Tt Dt Tt cADx Tt Dt Tt (2-7)
D
Egen,element egenVelement egen ADx (2-8)
DEelement
Qx Qy Qz Qx Dx Qy Dy Qz Dz Egen,element (2-36)
Dt
Repeating the mathematical approach used for the one-
dimensional heat conduction the three-dimensional heat
conduction equation is determined to be
Two-dimensional
2T 2T 2T egen 1 T
Constant conductivity: 2 2 (2-39)
x 2
y z k t
Three-dimensional
2T 2T 2T egen
2 2 0 (2-40)
1) Steady-state: x 2
y z k
2T 2T 2T 1 T
2) Transient, no heat generation: 2 2 (2-41)
x 2
y z t
2T 2T 2T
3) Steady-state, no heat generation: 2 2 2 0 (2-42)
x y z
Cylindrical Coordinates
1 T 1 T T T T
rk 2 k k egen c
r r r r f f z z t
(2-43)
Spherical Coordinates
1 2 T 1 T 1 T T
kr 2 2 k 2 k sin q egen c
r r r r sin q f f r sin q q q t
2
(2-44)
Boundary and Initial Conditions
• Specified Temperature Boundary Condition
• Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
• Convection Boundary Condition
• Radiation Boundary Condition
• Interface Boundary Conditions
• Generalized Boundary Conditions
Specified Temperature Boundary
Condition
For one-dimensional heat transfer
through a plane wall of thickness L,
for example, the specified
temperature boundary conditions
can be expressed as
T(0, t) = T1
T(L, t) = T2 (2-46)
k
T (0, t )
0 or
T (0, t )
0 2
T L , t
0
x x x
(2-49) (2-50)
Convection Boundary Condition
T (0, t )
k h1 T1 T (0, t ) (2-51a)
x
and
T ( L, t )
k h2 T ( L, t ) T 2 (2-51b)
x
Radiation Boundary Condition
T (0, t )
k 1 Tsurr
4
T (0, t ) 4
(2-52a)
x
,1
and
T ( L, t )
k 2 T ( L, t )4 Tsurr
4
,2
(2-52b)
x
Interface Boundary Conditions
At the interface the requirements are:
(1) two bodies in contact must have the same
temperature at the area of contact,
(2) an interface (which is a
surface) cannot store any
energy, and thus the heat flux
on the two sides of an
interface must be the same.
TA(x0, t) = TB(x0, t) (2-53)
and
TA ( x0 , t ) T ( x , t )
k A kB B 0 (2-54)
x x
Generalized Boundary Conditions
In general a surface may involve convection, radiation,
and specified heat flux simultaneously. The boundary
condition in such cases is again obtained from a surface
energy balance, expressed as
Heat transfer Heat transfer
to the surface
in all modes
= from the surface
In all modes
0
or
dEwall
Qin Qout 0 (3-1)
dt
The rate of heat transfer through the
wall must be constant ( Qcond ,wall constant ).
• Then Fourier’s law of heat conduction for the wall
can be expressed as
dT
Qcond ,wall kA (W) (3-2)
dx
• Remembering that the rate of conduction heat transfer
and the wall area A are constant it follows
dT/dx=constant
1
Rconv ( C/W) (3-8)
hAs
Thermal Resistance Concept-
Radiation Resistance
• The rate of radiation heat transfer between a surface and
the surrounding
Ts Tsurr
Qrad As T T s
4 4
surr hrad As (Ts Tsurr )
Rrad
(W)
(3-9)
1
Rrad (K/W) (3-10)
hrad As
hrad
Qrad
As (Ts Tsurr )
Ts2 Tsurr
2
T
s surr
T (W/m 2
K)
(3-11)
Thermal Resistance Concept-
Radiation and Convection Resistance
• A surface exposed to the surrounding might involves
convection and radiation simultaneously.
• The convection and radiation resistances are parallel
to each other.
• When Tsurr≈T∞, the radiation
effect can properly be
accounted for by replacing h
in the convection resistance
relation by
hcombined = hconv+hrad (W/m2K)
(3-12)
Thermal Resistance Network
• consider steady one-dimensional heat transfer
through a plane wall that is exposed to convection on
both sides.
• Under steady conditions we have
Rate of Rate of Rate of
heat convection = heat conduction = heat convection
into the wall through the wall from the wall
or
Q h1 A T ,1 T1
T1 T2
kA h2 A T2 T ,2
L
(3-13)
Rearranging and adding
T ,1 T1 Q Rconv ,1
T1 T2 Q Rwall
T2 T ,2 Q Rconv ,2
T,1 T,2 Q( Rconv,1 Rwall Rconv,2 ) Q Rtotal
T,1 T,2
Q (W) (3-15)
Rtotal
where
1 L 1
Rtotal Rconv ,1 Rwall Rconv ,2 ( C/W)
h1 A kA h2 A
(3-16)
• It is sometimes convenient to express heat transfer
through a medium in an analogous manner to
Newton’s law of cooling as
where
R1 R2
Rtotal R12 R3 Rconv R3 Rconv (3-33)
R1 R2
L1 L2 L3 1
R1 ; R2 ; R3 ; Rconv (3-34)
k1 A1 k2 A2 k3 A3 hA3
Heat Conduction in Cylinders
Consider the long cylindrical layer
Assumptions:
– the two surfaces of the cylindrical
layer are maintained at constant
temperatures T1 and T2,
– no heat generation,
– constant thermal conductivity,
– one-dimensional heat conduction.
Fourier’s law of heat conduction
dT
Qcond ,cyl kA (W) (3-35)
dr
dT
Qcond ,cyl kA (W) (3-35)
dr
Separating the variables and integrating from r=r1,
where T(r1)=T1, to r=r2, where T(r2)=T2
r2 T2
Qcond ,cyl
r r A dr T T kdT (3-36)
1 1
where
Rtotal Rconv ,1 Rcyl Rconv ,2
1 ln r2 / r1 1
2p r1L h1 2p Lk 2p r2 L h2 (3-43)
Multilayered
Cylinders
• Steady heat transfer through
multilayered cylindrical or
spherical shells can be handled just like multilayered plane.
• The steady heat transfer rate through a three-layered
composite cylinder of length L with convection on both
sides is expressed by Eq. 3-32 where:
Rtotal Rconv ,1 Rcyl ,1 Rcyl ,3 Rcyl ,3 Rconv ,2 (3-46)
1 ln r2 / r1 ln r3 / r2 ln r4 / r3 1
2p r1L h1 2p Lk1 2p Lk 2 2p Lk3 2p r2 L h2
Critical Radius of Insulation
• Adding more insulation to a wall or to the attic
always decreases heat transfer.
• Adding insulation to a cylindrical pipe or a spherical
shell, however, is a different matter.
• Adding insulation increases the conduction resistance
of the insulation layer but decreases the convection
resistance of the surface because of the increase in the
outer surface area for convection.
• The heat transfer from the pipe may increase or
decrease, depending on which effect dominates.
• A cylindrical pipe of outer radius r1
whose outer surface temperature T1 is
maintained constant.
• The pipe is covered with an insulator
(k and r2).
• Convection heat transfer at T∞ and h.
• The rate of heat transfer from the insulated pipe to the
surrounding air can be expressed as
T1 T T1 T
Q
Rins Rconv ln r2 / r1 1 (3-37)
2p Lk h 2p r2 L
• The variation of the heat transfer rate with the outer
radius of the insulation r2 is shown
in the figure.
• The value of r2 at which Q
reaches a maximum is
determined by
dQ
0
dr2
• Performing the differentiation
and solving for r2 yields
k
rcr ,cylinder (m) (3-50)
h
• Thus, insulating the pipe may actually increase the
rate of heat transfer instead of decreasing it.
Heat Transfer from Finned Surfaces
or
Q fin finQ fin ,max fin hAfin (Tb T )
(3-69)
Fin Efficiency
• For constant cross section of very long fins: