6.

0 Watershed Characteristics
ƒ the hydrologic response of a watershed is a reflection of the characteristics
associated with that watershed
ƒ typical watershed characteristics include:
• drainage area
• watershed shape
• drainage patterns
• land use/types
• land and channel properties
• land surface slopes
• channel slopes
• infiltration capacity of soils
• storage structures (lakes, reservoirs, etc.)
ƒ as hydrologists, we need an accurate representation of these characteristics if we
are to properly model the rainfall-runoff processes associated with that watershed

Chapter 06 - 1/44
6.1 Watershed Area
ƒ the watershed area is simply the total contributing drainage area of the watershed
ƒ traditionally, the extent of a drainage basin is determined through inspection of a
topographic map seeking the topographic divide defining the basin limits

topographic
divide

watershed outlet
Chapter 06 - 2/44
6.2 Drainage Patterns
ƒ watersheds are typically characterized by one main drainage channel and a series
of tributaries that ultimately drain into the main channel
ƒ the concept of stream order was developed in order to quantify the drainage
network
ƒ the smallest tributaries of the watershed are classified as Order 1
ƒ the segment where 2 first-order streams meet is classified as Order 2
ƒ order 3 stream segments exist where two Order 2 streams meet
ƒ this classifying continues until the main channel at the watershed outlet has been
classified

The Mississippi River is Order 12

at its mouth

Chapter 06 - 3/44
6.3 Overland Flow Length
ƒ when characterizing a watershed, an important overland flow length involves the
distance from the drainage divide to the upstream end of a first-order drainage
channel
ƒ the distance represents the distance traveled by any precipitation excess along the
estimated path of flow
ƒ if numerous possible flow paths exist, one common approach is to determine the
average
overland flow
length

Chapter 06 - 4/44
6.4 Channel Slope
ƒ the slope (gradient) of the basin and its channel drainage system strongly influence
its hydrologic response
ƒ most channel systems exhibit the characteristic of decreasing slope as you
progress downstream towards the outlet
ƒ we can define the main channel as the channel and any undeveloped flow path having
the longest travel time to the outlet
ƒ for the watershed shown below, we can assume that the path starting at point A of
the divide has the longest travel time

C
B
A

D
Chapter 06 - 5/44
ƒ if we examine the longitudinal profile of the main channel, it might look as follows

A
gross slope

C
D

ƒ the gross slope of the main channel is determined from the elevation of the
watershed outlet (D) and the elevation of the watershed divide (A)
• in practice, the gross slope is of little use for characterizing the drainage
characteristics of the basin
• the gross slope is used in several empirical equations within the hydrologic
literature

Chapter 06 - 6/44
ƒ an alternative approach involves the 85/10 method
ƒ the 85/10 method helps negate the effects of the steep upper reaches of the main
channel
ƒ the method involves computing the slope using the elevations associated with the
points located 10% and 85% along the main channel length.
ƒ in practice, the heights of any falls and rapids located along the channel should be
removed from the calculations A

representative B
slope
C
P85

P10

Chapter 06 - 7/44
ƒ another alternative approach is the equivalent slope method
ƒ the drainage path is divided into reaches of approximate equal length
ƒ the equivalent slope (SE) is computed as a weighted average of the incremental
slopes using
2
 
 
S E = 100 n 
n This method results in a slope that
 
( )
corresponds to the same travel
 ∑ Si
− 0.5
 time as the actual channel profile
 i =1 

A
where n is the number of reaches
Si is the slope of reach I
B

equivalent slope
C

Chapter 06 - 8/44
6.5 Land Use/Land Cover
ƒ land use can have a significant effect on the response of a watershed
ƒ land cover and land use practices influence the losses due to interception and
depression storage and ultimately control the rate of overland flow
ƒ in Ontario, four land categories are commonly adopted
• crop
• areas under cultivation
• pasture
• grassed, unimproved land
• woodland
• wooded areas including bush
• urban
• areas undergoing human development (village, town, city)
• depending on the application, proposed future urban develop as specified in
Official Plans might be appropriate

Chapter 06 - 9/44
6.6 The Streamflow Hydrograph
ƒ at any given location, streamflow can be represented by a hydrograph
ƒ a hydrograph is a continuous display of the streamflow (m3/s) as a function of time

discharge

time

ƒ the streamflow hydrograph reflects the various hydrologic processes associated

with the rainfall-runoff response of the watershed
• direct surface runoff
• interflow
• baseflow
• channel precipitation
Chapter 06 - 10/44
ƒ let’s examine a typical channel cross section and visualize the four basic pathways in
which precipitation ultimately contributes to streamflow

sur
fac channel
e ru
nof precipitation
f

inte
rflow

baseflow

Chapter 06 - 11/44
6.7 Hydrograph Analysis
ƒ the shape of the hydrograph reflects the bulk influences of

• basin characteristics
• the size of the watershed
• the shape of the watershed
• the slope of the basin and its main channel
• the distribution of the land cover and soil types
• the location and size of storage reservoirs and or lakes

• rainfall characteristics
• the size and duration of the precipitation event
• the areal distribution of the rainfall
• the temporal distribution of the rainfall (hyetograph)

Chapter 06 - 12/44
6.8 Components of a Hydrograph
6.8.1 Base Flow
ƒ in general, most catchments generate base flow
ƒ base flow represents the streamflow originating from groundwater
ƒ the significance of the baseflow contribution will depend on the size of the
watershed and its underlying geologic conditions
ƒ the hydrograph shown below illustrates the streamflow observed from a
hypothetical basin
• the baseflow is gradually being depleted but day to day changes are small

discharge

time

Chapter 06 - 13/44
6.8.2 Direct Runoff
ƒ now, let’s examine a hydrograph for the same watershed resulting from a
precipitation event
ƒ the resulting streamflow hydrograph will typically exhibit:
• a rising limb
• a crest segment and
• a recession limb Direct Runoff (DR)

Baseflow
discharge

time

Chapter 06 - 14/44
6.8.3 Interflow
ƒ interflow is that portion of subsurface flow that migrates at shallow depth and
ultimately discharges directly into the drainage channel
ƒ the interflow component of streamflow typically increases as the storm progresses
ƒ the magnitude of the interflow component is dependent on the topography and the
underlying geology

Surface Runoff

Interflow
discharge
Baseflow

time

Chapter 06 - 15/44
6.8.4 Channel Precipitation
ƒ during all rainfall events, some portion of the precipitation falls directly on the
channel
ƒ this component of the streamflow hydrograph starts with the beginning of the
rainfall and ends with the cessation of the storm
ƒ in practice, this amount is a minor consideration

Surface Runoff
Channel precipitation
Interflow
discharge
Baseflow

time

Chapter 06 - 16/44
6.9 Baseflow Separation
ƒ as indicated previously, the baseflow component of a hydrograph is composed of
groundwater discharge
ƒ the groundwater hydrograph may or may not exhibit a response during the actual
rainfall event
ƒ numerous techniques for baseflow separation have been presented in the hydrologic
literature and all are to some degree, arbitrary and highly subjective.
ƒ some techniques separate the hydrograph into direct and groundwater runoff, while
others infer surface runoff, interflow and baseflow components
ƒ in many cases, groundwater discharge (qt) can be described by

− kt
qt = q 0 e
where q0 is the initial groundwater discharge
k is the recession constant. The numerical value of k depends on the
time interval ∆t, typically chosen to be 1 day.

Chapter 06 - 17/44
ƒ in practice, a series of recession events are identified for the basin
ƒ a master depletion curve can be established from the observed recessions

0.35 Drainage Event

0.30 August 06, 1994

0.25 September 16, 1994

Discharge (m /s)

October 02, 1994

3

0.20
April 24, 1995
0.15
May 01, 1995
0.10 June 05, 1995

0.05

0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Time (hours)

Chapter 06 - 18/44
ƒ if the observed recessions follow an exponential first-order decay, the relationship
will plot as a straight line on semi-logarthmic paper
ƒ a curve fit through the data provides an estimate of the master drainage curve.
curve

Drainage Event

August 06, 1994

5

3
September 16, 1994
2 October 02, 1994
April 24, 1995
Discharge (m /s)

0.10
3

May 01, 1995

5
June 05, 1995
3
2

0.01

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Time (hours)

Chapter 06 - 19/44
ƒ we can also plot discharge (qo) against the discharge 24 hours later (qt)
ƒ the relationship typically exhibits a curve, indicating a gradual change in the value of k.
Discharge 24 hours later (m /s) 0.30
3

0.20

k = 0.75

0.10

k = 0.89

0.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40
3
Discharge (m /s)

Chapter 06 - 20/44
ƒ it is customary to project the recession curves backwards under the total runoff
hydrograph and use that line to infer the separation of direct runoff and baseflow
ƒ how the recession curve is utilized depends on the method used (some methods ignore
the physics associated with streamflow recessions)

direct runoff
Discharge
(m3/s)
baseflow

Time (hr)

Chapter 06 - 21/44
ƒ the simplest base flow separation technique is to construct a horizontal line starting
where the surface runoff is assumed to begin

direct runoff
Discharge
(m3/s)
baseflow

Time (hr)

Chapter 06 - 22/44
ƒ an alternative approach is to project the initial recession curve downward to a point
directly beneath the hydrograph peak (Point C)
ƒ from this point, a straight line is drawn to the hydrograph at a point N days after the
peak

N days

N = bA 0.2

Discharge
(m3/s)
direct runoff

C
baseflow

Time (hr)

Chapter 06 - 23/44
ƒ the previous approach can be extended by making use of the baseflow recession curve
ƒ we can project the recession curve backwards under the hydrograph to some point D,
chosen somewhat arbitrarily below the inflection point of the hydrograph
ƒ connecting points C and D allow us to separate the baseflow component

direct runoff
inflection
point
Discharge
(m3/s) D

C
baseflow

Time (hr)

Chapter 06 - 24/44
ƒ and finally, a fourth method involves connecting the points representing the beginning
of direct runoff (A) with the first point on the baseflow recession curve (B)

direct runoff It should be obvious that each of the

previous separation techniques are
arbitrary and subjective.
In any event, the baseflow contribution
may or may not be significant, depending
on the watershed

Discharge
(m3/s) D
A
B
C
baseflow

Time (hr)

Chapter 06 - 25/44
6.10 Basin Effects
ƒ the configuration of the watershed helps to shape the hydrograph
ƒ the figures below help illustrate the influence of basin shape on the resulting
hydrograph

Chapter 06 - 26/44
ƒ the figures below help illustrate the influence of basin slope on the resulting
hydrograph

flat steep

Chapter 06 - 27/44
ƒ the figures below help illustrate the influence of urbanization on the resulting
hydrograph

mostly highly
rural urbanized

Chapter 06 - 28/44
 4.00

Urban Runoff
Wetland Hydrograph

3.00
Discharge (m /s)
3

2.00

1.00

0.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00

Time (hours)

Chapter 06 - 29/44
ƒ storm coverage also influences the resulting hydrograph

Chapter 06 - 30/44
6.11 Hydrograph Properties
ƒ as shown previously, hydrographs can exhibit numerous shapes
ƒ we can characterize/quantify the shape of a hydrograph using several properties

Intensity Effective rainfall

(mm/hr) hyetograph

D crest segment

inflection point

Discharge falling limb

(m3/s)

rising limb

Time (hr) Chapter 06 - 31/44

ƒ if we remove the baseflow component from the hydrograph, we are left with a
hydrograph associated with the direct runoff or direct runoff hydrograph (DRH)
ƒ direct runoff may contain interflow and channel precipitation contributions

Intensity Effective rainfall

(mm/hr) hyetograph

D hydrograph peak

Discharge
(m3/s)

Time (hr) Chapter 06 - 32/44

ƒ our first hydrograph property corresponds to the time base (tb) of the DRH. The
time base is simply the elapsed time from the beginning to the end of the surface
runoff

Intensity Effective rainfall

(mm/hr) hyetograph

Discharge
(m3/s)

time base (tb)

Time (hr) Chapter 06 - 33/44

ƒ the time of rise (TR) is the elapsed time from the start of the rainfall excess to
the peak of the direct runoff hydrograph

Intensity Effective rainfall

(mm/hr) hyetograph

time of rise
(TR)

Discharge
(m3/s)

Time (hr) Chapter 06 - 34/44

ƒ the basin lag time is a measure of the relative timing of the rainfall and the
corresponding runoff within the watershed
ƒ the lag parameter is influenced by
• the shape of the basin
• the slope of the main drainage channel
• the roughness of the channel and
• the storm pattern itself
ƒ several definitions exist within the hydrologic literature and in professional
practice:
• the time interval between the centre of mass of the effective rainfall
to the centre of mass of the runoff. Evaluating the centre of mass
associated with the DRH is somewhat cumbersome and a simpler
definition of lag time is commonly used:
• the time interval from the centre of mass of the effective rainfall
(rainfall excess) to the peak of the hydrograph (L)

Chapter 06 - 35/44
 Intensity Effective rainfall hyetograph
(mm/hr)
Lag time
(L)

Discharge
(m3/s)

Time (hr)

Chapter 06 - 36/44
ƒ remember back to our discussion of continuity and the parking lot example
• we assumed a uniform, steady rainfall event occurring over the parking
lot
• initially, the region of the parking lot nearest the outlet contributed to
the runoff (as reflected in the rising limb of the hydrograph)
• as time went by, more and more of the parking lot contributed to the
observed runoff
• eventually, runoff from all points of the parking lot arrive (or
concentrate) at the parking lot outlet
• the hydrograph then displayed a period of equilibrium runoff as a
plateau
• let’s re-examine the parking lot scenario
ƒ a very important characteristic of watershed runoff is the time of
concentration (tc)
ƒ theoretically, we can define the time of concentration as the time required
for 100% of the parking lot to contribute to runoff under a uniform rainfall

Chapter 06 - 37/44
 Intensity
(mm/hr)

B C

Discharge recession
(m3/s)

A D
Time (hr)

Chapter 06 - 38/44
ƒ with our parking lot example, point B on the hydrograph represents the moment
when 100% of the parking lot is contributing to the outlet discharge
ƒ the time when equilibrium runoff is generated by the uniform rainfall is
representative of the time of concentration (tc) of this parking lot
ƒ in natural watersheds:
• few storms durations ever exceed the basin time of concentration
• the time of concentration will vary due to antecedent moisture contents,
flow depths and seasonal changes in the land/vegetation cover
ƒ in practice, an alternative approaches include equating the time of
concentration with
• the excess-rainfall release time – the time required for the last, most
remote drop of excess rainfall to pass by the outlet, indicating the
cessation of direct runoff
• the wave travel time;
time the travel time required for direct runoff
originating at the most remote point in the basin to reach the watershed
outlet

Chapter 06 - 39/44
ƒ more formally,
the Uplands
Method
attempts to
calculate the
travel times for
overland flow
within the
watershed.
ƒ velocities for
the Uplands
Method are
available for a
variety of land
cover types and
land slopes

Chapter 06 - 40/44
ƒ in terms of a hydrograph, the time of concentration is commonly defined as the time
from the end of excess rainfall to the point of inflection along the recession limb of
the hydrograph

Intensity time of
(mm/hr) concentration
(tC)

point of inflection
(the assumed end
Discharge of direct runoff)
(m3/s)

Time (hr) Chapter 06 - 41/44

6.12 Measuring Streamflow
ƒ streamflow records are typically obtained through the continuous operation of
gauging stations.
ƒ a gauging station is a field-site installation housing instrumentation capable of
generating a continuous record of stage.
• the stage of a river or stream can be defined as the height of the free water
surface above some specified datum.
• at any gauge site, the record of stream stage is converted into a record of
stream discharge through the development of a stage-discharge relationship or
rating curve.
• the development of a stage-discharge
relationship at any particular site is made
through a series of discharge
measurements taken over a range in stage.
ƒ a flow meter or current meter is a device
used to estimate the velocity of flowing water.

Chapter 06 - 42/44
ƒ the traditional approach to current metering involves discretizing the stream cross
section into a series of vertical segments or panels

1 2 3 4

q i = vi Ai
(v0.2 d + v0.8 d )
= yi ∆xi
2
ƒ the mean velocity corresponding to any particular vertical segment is obtained from
a series of velocity measurements and using one of several known relationships
associated with the velocity profile under open channel flow
ƒ the flow rate associated with the entire cross section is obtained by summing the
incremental flow rates for all panels
Chapter 06 - 43/44
ƒ commonly used methods for determining the mean velocity include:
ƒ the one-point method.
• in the one-point method, a single observation of velocity made at 0.6 of
the flow depth is used to approximate the mean velocity in the vertical
segment. The 0.6 depth method has been shown to provide reliable
results and is suitable whenever the depth is between 0.09 and 0.46
metres.
• the two-point method
• the two-point method involves obtaining two velocity observations, one at
0.2 of the depth and 0.8 of the depth. The average of the two
observations is taken to represent the mean velocity in the segment. The
two point method is the approach generally recommended by the U.S.
Geological Survey for flow depths greater than 0.76 metre
ƒ there is also a three-point method (with observations of velocity are taken at 0.2,
0.6 and 0.8 of the flow depth), a five-point method (with observations made at 0.2,
0.6 and 0.8 of the depth and as close as possible to the surface and streambed as
practical. Finally, a series of velocity measurements at locations well-distributed
throughout the cross section can be obtained and the mean velocity associated with
the section found through integration of the velocity profile.
Chapter 06 - 44/44
ƒ through repeated flow measurements over a range of flow depths, a rating curve
can be developed for that location
ƒ a rating curve displays the relationship between stage and discharge as shown
below for a typical river section

river stage
(m)

discharge (m3/s)

Chapter 06 - 45/44