AASHTO Vehicle Definitions

Axle The common axis of rotation of one or more wheels whether power-driven or freely
rotating, and whether in one or more segments, and regardless of the number of wheels
carried thereon.

Axle Group An assemblage of two or more consecutive axles considered together in determining their
combined load effect on a bridge or pavement structure.

Automobile Any vehicles or combination designed and used exclusively for the transport of assembled
Transporter highway vehicles.

Bus A motor vehicle designed primarily for the transportation of persons rather than property
and having a passenger-carrying capacity of 10 or more persons, other than a taxicab
constructed and designed for transporting persons for commercial purposes.

Cargo The items or freight to be moved; including items placed on or in a vehicle, towed by a
vehicle, or a vehicle itself.

Connecting An arrangement of parts interconnecting two or more consecutive axles to the frame of a
Mechanism vehicle in such a manner as to equalize the load between axles.

Dromedary Unit A load carrying compartment on a truck-tractor located between the cab and the fifth wheel.

Gross Weight The weight of a vehicle and/or combination of vehicles plus the weight of any load thereon.

Height The total vertical dimension of a vehicle above the ground surface including any load and
load-holding device thereon.

Length The total longitudinal dimension of a single vehicle, a trailer, or a semi trailer. Length of a
trailer or semi trailer is measured from the front of the cargo-carrying unit to its rear,
exclusive of all overhang, safety or energy efficiency devices, including air conditioning
units, air compressors, flexible fender extensions, splash and spray suppressant devices,
bolsters, mechanical fastening devices, and hydraulic lift gates.

Load A weight or quantity of anything resting upon something else regarded as its support.

Motor Vehicle A vehicle which is self-propelled or propelled by electric power obtained from overhead
trolley wires, but not operating upon rails.

Operator Every person who drives or is in actual physical control of a motor vehicle upon a highway
 or who is exercising control over or steering a vehicle being towed by a motor vehicle.

Owner A person, other than a lien-holder, having the property in or title to a vehicle, including a
person entitled to the use and possession of a vehicle subject to a security interest in another
person, but excluding a lessee under a lease not intended as security.

Pavement The combination of subbase, base course, and surface course placed on an earth subgrade to
Structure support the traffic load and distribute it to the roadbed.

Quadrum Axle Any four consecutive axles whose extreme centers are not more than 192 inches (16 ft or 4.9
m) apart and are individually attached to or articulated from, or both, a common attachment
to the vehicle including a connecting mechanism designed to equalize the load between the
axles.

Regular The movement over highways of vehicles, vehicle combinations, and loads thereon, subject
Operation to the recommended limitations contained in this guide governing maximum weights and
dimensions for motor vehicles and loads thereon.

Scale Tolerance An allowable variation in the static weight of an axle load in accordance with, but not
exceeding the precision of the scale involved.

Semi trailer Every single vehicle without motive power designed for carrying property and so designed
in conjunction and used with a motor vehicle that some part of its own weight and that of its
load rests or is carried by another vehicle and having one or more load-carrying axles.

Single Axle An assembly of two or more wheels whose centers are in one transverse vertical plane or
may be included between two parallel transverse planes 40 inches (3.3 ft or 1.0 m) apart
extending across the full width of the vehicle.

Special Permit A written authorization to move or operate on a highway a vehicle or vehicles with or
without a load of size and/or weight exceeding the limits prescribed for vehicles in regular
operation.

Special Permit An individual, firm, partnership, corporation, or association making application for a special
Applicant permit to transport a vehicle, vehicles, and/or load which is oversize or overweight and
under whose authority and responsibility such vehicle or load is transported.

Steering Axle The axle or axles of a motor vehicle or combination of vehicles by which the same is guided
or steered.

Stinger-Steered A truck-tractor semi trailer combination where the fifth wheel is located on a drop frame
Automobile behind and below the drive axle of the power unit. In this configuration, vehicles are carried
Transporter behind or both behind and above the cab of the power unit, as well as on the semi trailer.
Tandem Axle Any two axles whose centers are more than 40 inches (3.3 ft or 1.0 m) but not more than 96
inches (8 ft or 2.4 m) apart and are individually attached to or articulated from, or both, a
common attachment to the vehicle including a connecting mechanism designed to equalize
the load between axles.

Tire, Pneumatic A tire of rubber or other resilient material which depends upon compressed air for support of
a load.

Trailer Every single vehicle without motive power designed for carrying property wholly on its own
structure, drawn by a motor vehicle which carries no part of the weight and load of the
trailer on its own wheels and having two or more load carrying axles.

Traveled Way The portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of shoulders and
auxiliary lanes.

Tridum Axle Any three consecutive axles whose extreme centers are not more than 144 inches (12 ft or
3.7 m) apart, and are individually attached to or articulated from, or both, a common
attachment to the vehicle including a connecting mechanism designed to equalize the load
between axles.

Triple Saddle A combination of four truck-tractors where the front axle of second truck-tractor is mounted
Mount on the fifth wheel of the lead truck-tractor, the front axle of the third truck-tractor is
mounted on the fifth wheel of the second truck-tractor, and the front axle of the fourth truck-
tractor is mounted on the fifth wheel of the third truck-tractor; and with the rear wheels of
the second, third, and fourth truck-tractors trailing on the ground behind the operating motor
unit.

Truck A single unit motor vehicle used primarily for the transportation of property.

Truck Tractor A motor vehicle used primarily for drawing other vehicles and not so constructed as to carry
a load other than a part of the weight of the vehicle and load so drawn.

Turning Path The path of a designated point on a vehicle making a specified turn.

Turning Track The radial distance between the turning paths of the outside of the outer front tire and the
Width outside of the rear tire which is nearest the center of the turn.

Variable Load Axles which can be regulated by the driver of the vehicle. These axles are controlled by
Suspension Axles hydraulic and air suspension systems, mechanically, or by a combination of these methods.

Vehicle A device in, upon, or by which any person or property may be transported or drawn upon a
highway, except devices moved by human power or used exclusively upon stationary rails
or tracks.
Vehicle An assembly of two or more vehicles coupled together for travel upon a highway.
Combination

Width The total outside transverse dimension of a vehicle including any load or load-holding
devices thereon, but excluding approved safety devices and tire bulge due to load.

Additional Tire Information

Figure 1 shows the following tire terminology:

1. Section Width. Width of the tire at its widest point (outer sidewall to inner sidewall) including
“growth” due to inflation.
2. Minimum Dual Spacing. Minimum distance from the center of one tire assembly to another on
a dual tire axle. Minimum spacing precludes tire rubbing, excessive heat generation,
and stone damage (those caught between tires). This spacing has implications in pavement
analyses since the center-to-center tire spacing must be modeled. Figure 2 shows typical center-
to-center tire spacing.
3. Nominal Rim Diameter. Used, along with Section Width, to describe tire sizes.
 Figure 1. Tire
terminology.
 Figure 2. Typical dual tire spacing.

Tire Size Example

If a bias ply truck tire has a designated tire size of 12.00 – 24, then the section width is
approximately 12 in. and the nominal rim diameter is 24 in. For truck tires, the design rim
width is about 2.5 to 5.0 in. less than the section width(difference depends on tire size).

Bias and Radial Ply Tires

Tires are classified based on their internal construction as well as their external features. The
two major classifications, bias and radial, refer to the orientation of their internal plies (or chords,
Figure 3).
 Figure 3. Bias and
radial ply tires.

Bias tire plies (cords) are laid diagonally during manufacture, while radial tire plies are laid
radially during manufacture which results in a more flexible tire wall. These different
construction methods result in different tire performance, which leads to the following
advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages of Radial Tires Compared to Bias Tires:

 Reduced fuel consumption. About 20 percent of truck fuel consumption is due to rolling
resistance. Thus, a 5 percent reduction in rolling resistance will produce a 1 percent fuel saving
(Fitch, 1984[1]). It is reasonable to expect a reduction in rolling resistance of about 30 to 40
percent, thus a 6 to 8 percent fuel savings.
 Softer ride. Because of their ply layout, radial tire sidewalls flex more than bias-ply tires, which
generally results in a larger, more stable ground contact area and softer ride.
 Less vibration. Due to radial tire construction, tires have less tendency to have tire lug-induced
vibrations.
 Extended tire life. As bias ply tires rotate and deflect, the bias (or crossed) plies interact and
generate heat (Michelin, 1986[2]) which accelerates tire aging. Therefore, radial-ply tires may last
as much as 30 percent longer than bias-ply tires doing comparable work.

Disadvantages of Radial Tires Compared to Bias Tires:

 Poor transport handling characteristics. Tire sway increases as speed increases. This is
probably due to low lateral stiffness that produces poor handling.
 Less forgiving of abuse. Overload or under-inflation will cause sidewall bulge that is more
susceptible to sidewall damage and puncture.

 Radials track more consistently in a wheeltrack. This is particularly true if the wheeltrack has
an existing depression or rut. These tracking differences are attributable to the ply layout (the
 bias (cross) plies have greater tendency to “crawl” out of a wheeltrack depression than a radial
ply constructed tire). The net effect is that radial tires, due to ply layout, likely contribute to some
of the wheeltrack rutting on Interstate highways.

Footnotes (↵ returns to text)

1. Motor Truck Engineering Handbook. James W. Fitch, Publisher. Anacortes, WA.↵

2. Michelin Truck, Industrial and Off-the-Road Tire Data Book, 1985-86. Michelin Tire
Corporation. Greenville, SC.↵

Design Life
Pavements are typically designed for a specified “design life”. Design life (or “design period”) is
the time from original construction to a terminal condition for a pavement structure. A terminal
condition refers to a state where the pavement needs reconstruction.

Structural design is carried out so that the pavement structure is sufficient to withstand the traffic
loading encountered over the pavement’s design life. It is recognized that intermittent
maintenance and rehabilitation efforts may be needed to preserve a pavement’s
surface quality and ensure that the structure lasts through the design life.

Elastic Modulus
Elastic modulus is sometimes called Young’s modulus after Thomas Young who published the
concept back in 1807. An elastic modulus (E) can be determined for any solid material and
represents a constant ratio of stress and strain (a stiffness):

A material is elastic if it is able to return to its original shape or size immediately after being
stretched or squeezed. Almost all materials are elastic to some degree as long as the applied load
does not cause it to deform permanently. Thus, the “flexibility” of any object or structure
depends on its elastic modulus and geometric shape.

The modulus of elasticity for a material is basically the slope of its stress-strain plot within the
elastic range (as shown in Figure 1). Figure 2 shows a stress versus strain curve for steel. The
initial straight-line portion of the curve is the elastic range for the steel. If the material is loaded
to any value of stress in this part of the curve, it will return to its original shape. Thus, the
modulus of elasticity is the slope of this part of the curve and is equal to about 207,000 MPa
(30,000,000 psi) for steel. It is important to remember that a measure of a material’s modulus
of elasticity is not a measure of strength. Strength is the stress needed to break or rupture a
material (as illustrated in Figure 1), whereas elasticity is a measure of how well a material
returns to its original shape and size.

Figure 1. Stress-
strain plot showing the elastic range
 Figure 2. Example
stress-strain plot for steel

Nomenclature and Symbols

The nomenclature and symbols from the 1993 AASHTO Guide is generally used in referring to
pavement moduli. For example:

 EAC = asphalt concrete elastic modulus

 E BS = base course resilient modulus

 ESB = subbase course resilient modulus

 MR (or ESG) = roadbed soil (subgrade) resilient modulus (used interchangeably)

Stress Sensitivity of Moduli

Changes in stress can have a large impact on resilient modulus. “Typical” relationships are
shown in Figures 3 and 4.
 Figure 3. Resilient modulus
vs. bulk stress for unstabilized coarse grained materials.

Figure 4. Resilient
modulus vs. deviator stress for unstabilized fine grained materials.
Typical Values
Table 2 shows typical values of modulus of elasticity for various materials.

Table 2. Typical Modulus of Elasticity Values for Various Materials

Material Elastic Modulus

MPa psi

Diamond 1,200,000 170,000,000

Steel 200,000 30,000,000

Aluminum 70,000 10,000,000

Wood 7,000 - 14,000 1,000,000 - 2,000,000

Crushed Stone 150-300 20,000 - 40,000

Silty Soils 35 - 150 5,000 - 20,000

Clay Soils 35 - 100 5,000 - 15,000

Rubber 7 1,000

Environment
A pavement must be able to function within the environment in which it is built. The
environment can vary greatly across the globe at any one time and it can also vary greatly across
time at any one place. Environmental variations can have a significant impact on pavement
materials and the underlying subgrade, which in turn can drastically affect pavement
performance. The key environmental parameters of concern are typically temperature, moisture,
and frost action.

Temperature
Temperature acts on pavements in two principal ways. First, temperature extremes can
affect asphalt binder rheology. Second, temperature variations can cause pavement to expand and
contract.

Temperature Extremes
Asphalt binder rheology (deformation and flow characteristics) varies with temperature.
Therefore, estimated temperature extremes and their effects are a primary consideration when
selecting an appropriate asphalt binder. Older asphalt binder grading systems did not directly
account for temperature effects and thus various empirical systems and thumb-rules were
developed. The Superpave PG binder grading system corrects this deficiency by grading asphalt
binder based on its performance in relation to temperature.

Expansion and Contraction

Pavements, like all other materials, will expand as they rise in temperature and contract as the
fall in temperature. Small amounts of expansion and contraction are typically accommodated
without excessive damage, however extreme temperature variations can lead to catastrophic
failures. Flexible pavements in colder areas on the mainland can suffer transverse cracks as a
result of excessive contraction in cold weather.
 Figure 1: Figure 2:
Cracks From Excessive Pavement Contraction Cracks From Excessive Pavement Contraction

Moisture
Moisture (in the form of accumulated water or rainfall) can affect pavement design and
construction as well as basic driving conditions. Specific issues with moisture are:

 Design. Certain types of soils can be highly expansive when wet. Structural design must account
for this expansiveness.
 Construction.
o The subgrade should be compacted at an optimal moisture content. Excessive rainfall can
raise subgrade moisture content well beyond this value and make it virtually impossible
to compact.
o HMA should not be placed in wet conditions because excessive water may damage the
hot, fresh HMA by cooling it too quickly or getting into the mix and causing later
stripping problems.
 Driving Conditions. Rainfall reduces skid resistance and can cause hydroplaning in severely
rutted areas.

Frost Action
Frost action, which can be quite detrimental to pavements because of its effect on the underlying
subgrade, can be divided into “frost heave” and “thaw weakening”. “Frost heave” is an upward
movement of the subgrade resulting from the expansion of accumulated soil moisture as it
freezes, while “thaw weakening” is a weakened subgrade condition resulting from soil saturation
as ice within the soil melts.
Frost Heave
Frost heaving of soil is caused by crystallization of ice within the larger soil voids and usually a
subsequent extension of this ice to form continuous ice lenses, layers, veins, or other ice masses.
As depicted in Figure 3, An ice lens grows and thickens in the direction of heat transfer until the
water supply is depleted or until freezing conditions at the freezing interface no longer support
further crystallization. As the ice lens grows, the overlying soil and pavement will “heave” up
potentially resulting in a rough, cracked pavement (see Figure 4).

Frost heave occurs primarily in soils containing fine particles (often termed “frost susceptible”
soils), while clean sands and gravels (small amounts of fine particles) are non-frost susceptible
(NFS). Thus, the degree of frost susceptibility is mainly a function of the percentage of fine
particles within the soil. Many agencies classify materials as being frost susceptible if 10 percent
or more passes a No. 200 sieve or 3 percent or more passes a No. 635 sieve.

Figure 3 : Formation of
Ice Lenses in a Pavement Structure
 Figure 4: Frost Heave

Pavement Note: the Casagrande Criterion

In 1932, Dr. Arthur Casagrande proposed the following widely known rule-of-thumb criterion
for identifying potentially frost susceptible soils:

“Under natural freezing conditions and with sufficient water supply one should expect
considerable ice segregation in non-uniform soils containing more than 3% of grains smaller
than 0.02 mm, and in very uniform soils containing more than 10 percent smaller than 0.02 mm.
No ice segregation was observed in soils containing less than 1 percent of grains smaller than
0.02 mm, even if the groundwater level is as high as the frost line.”

Note: 0.02 mm = No. 635 sieve

Application of the Casagrande criterion requires a hydrometer test of a soil suspension (in water)
to determine the distribution of particles passing the #200 sieve and to compute the percentage of
particles finer than 0.02 mm.

Thaw Weakening
Thawing weakening occurs when the ice contained within the subgrade melts. As the ice melts
and turns to liquid it cannot drain out of the soil fast enough and thus the subgrade becomes
substantially weaker (less stiff) and loses bearing capacity. Therefore, loading that would not
normally damage a given pavement may cause significant damage during spring thaw.

Thawing can proceed from the top downward, or from the bottom upward, or both. How this
occurs depends mainly on the pavement surface temperature. During a sudden spring thaw,
melting will proceed almost entirely from the surface downward. This type of thawing leads to
extremely poor drainage conditions. The frozen soil beneath the thawed layer can trap the water
released by the melting ice lenses so that lateral and surface drainage are the only paths the water
can take.
Mitigating Frost Action
Frost action mitigating generally involves structural design considerations as well as other
techniques applied to the base and subgrade to limit its effects. The basic methods used can be
broadly categorized into the following techniques:

Frost Heave
 Limit the depth of frost into the subgrade soils. This is typically accomplished by specifying the
depth of pavement to be some minimum percentage of the frost depth. By extending the
pavement section well into the frost depth, the depth of frost-susceptible subgrade under the
pavement (between the bottom of the pavement structure and frost depth) is reduced. The
assumption is that a reduced depth of soil under frost action will cause correspondingly less
damage.
 Removing and replacing frost-susceptible subgrade. Ideally the subgrade will be removed at least
down to the typical frost depth. Removing frost-susceptible soils removes frost action.
 Providing a capillary break. By breaking the capillary flow path, frost action will be less severe
because frost heaving requires substantially more water than is naturally available in the soil
pores.

Thaw Weakening
 Design the pavement structure based on reduced subgrade support. This method simply increases
the pavement thickness to account for the damage and loss of support caused by frost action.
 Restrict pavement loading during thaw conditions. Permanent pavement damage can be limited
by limiting pavement loading while the subgrade support is weak. Typically, a load reduction in
the range of 40 to 50 percent should accommodate a wide range of pavement conditions.

Equivalent Single Axle Load

Although it is not too difficult to determine a wheel or an axle load for an individual vehicle, it
becomes quite complicated to determine the number and types of wheel/axle loads that a
particular pavement will be subject to over its design life. Furthermore, it is not the wheel load
but rather the damage to the pavement caused by the wheel load that is of primary concern. The
most common historical approach is to convert damage from wheel loads of various magnitudes
and repetitions (“mixed traffic”) to damage from an equivalent number of “standard” or
“equivalent” loads. The most commonly used equivalent load in the U.S. is the 18,000 lb (80 kN)
equivalent single axle load (normally designated ESAL). At the time of its development (early
1960s at the AASHO Road Test) it was much easier to use a single number to represent all traffic
loading in the somewhat complicated empirical equations used for predicting pavement life.

There are two standard U.S. ESAL equations (one each for flexible and rigidpavements) that are
derived from AASHO Road Test results. Both these equations involve the same basic format,
however the exponents are slightly different.
Load Equivalency Factors
The equation outputs are load equivalency factors (LEFs) or ESAL factors. This factor relates
various axle load combinations to the standard 80 kN (18,000 lbs) single axle load. It should be
noted that ESALs as calculated by the ESAL equations are dependent upon the pavement type
(flexible or rigid) and the pavement structure (structural number for flexible and slab depth for
rigid). As a rule-of-thumb, the 1993 AASHTO Design Guide, Part III, Chapter 5, Paragraph 5.2.3
recommends the use of a multiplier of 1.5 to convert flexible ESALs to rigid ESALs (or a
multiplier of 0.67 to convert rigid ESALs to flexible ESALs). Using load spectra (as proposed in
the 2002 Guide for the Design of New and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures) will eliminate the
need for flexible-rigid ESAL conversions. Table 1 shows some typical LEFs for various axle-
load combinations.

Table 1. Some Typical Load Equivalency Factors

Axle Type (lbs) Axle Load Load Equivalency Factor (from AASHTO, 1993)

(kN) (lbs) Flexible Rigid

Single axle 8.9 2,000 0.0003 0.0002

44.5 10,000 0.118 0.082
62.3 14,000 0.399 0.341
80.0 18,000 1.000 1.000
89.0 20,000 1.4 1.57
133.4 30,000 7.9 8.28

Tandem axle 8.9 2,000 0.0001 0.0001

44.5 10,000 0.011 0.013
62.3 14,000 0.042 0.048
80.0 18,000 0.109 0.133
89.0 20,000 0.162 0.206
133.4 30,000 0.703 1.14
151.2 34,000 1.11 1.92
177.9 40,000 2.06 3.74
222.4 50,000 5.03 9.07
Assumptions

 Terminal serviceability index (pt) = 2.5

 Pavement structural number (SN) = 3.0 for flexible pavements
 Slab depth (D) = 9.0 inches for rigid pavements

Generalized Fourth Power Law

The AASHTO load equivalency equation is quite cumbersome and certainly not easy to
remember. Therefore, as a rule-of-thumb, the damage caused by a particular load is roughly
related to the load by a power of four (for reasonably strong pavement surfaces). For example,
given a flexible pavement with SN = 3.0 and pt = 2.5:

1. A 18,000 lb (80 kN) single axle, LEF =1.0

2. A 30,000 lb (133 kN) single axle, LEF = 7.9
3. Comparing the two, the ratio is: 7.9/1.0 = 7.9
4. Using the fourth power rule-of-thumb:

Thus, the two estimates are approximately equal.

LEF Example
Assume a logging truck has three axles:

 Truck tractor
o Steering axle (single axle) = 14,000 lb (62.2 kN)
o Drive axle (tandem axle) = 34,000 lb (151.1 kN)
 Trailer
o Pole trailer axle (tandem axle) = 30,000 lb (133.3 kN)

The total equivalent damage by this truck is (pt = 3.0, SN = 3):

Steering axle @ 14,000 lb equals 0.47 ESAL

Drive axle @ 34,000 lb equals 1.15 ESAL

Pole axle @ 30,000 lb equals 0.79 ESAL

Total equals 2.41 ESAL

If a pavement is subjected to 100 of these trucks each day (in one direction) for 20 years (5 days
per week), the total ESAL for this truck would be:

(5 day/7 day)(365 days/year)(20 years)(100 trucks/day)(2.41 ESAL/truck) = 1,256,643 ESAL

General Observations Based On Load Equivalency Factors

1. The relationship between axle weight and inflicted pavement damage is not linear but
exponential. For instance, a 44.4 kN (10,000 lbs) single axle needs to be applied to a pavement
structure more than 12 timesto inflict the same damage caused by one repetition of an 80 kN
(18,000 lbs) single axle. Similarly, a 97.8 kN (22,000 lbs) single axle needs to be repeated less
than half the number of times of an 80 kN (18,000 lbs) single axle to have an equivalent effect.
o An 80 kN (18,000 lbs) single axle does over 3,000 times more damage to a pavement
than an 8.9 kN (2,000 lbs) single axle (1.000/0.0003 ˜ 3,333).
o A 133.3 kN (30,000 lbs) single axle does about 67 times more damage than a 44.4 kN
(10,000 lbs) single axle (7.9/0.118 ˜ 67).
o A 133.3 kN (30,000 lb) single axle does about 11 times more damage than a 133.3 kN
(30,000 lb) tandem axle (7.9/0.703 ˜ 11).
o Heavy trucks and buses are responsible for a majority of pavement damage. Considering
that a typical automobile weighs between 2,000 and 7,000 lbs (curb weight), even a fully
loaded large passenger van will only generate about 0.003 ESALs while a fully loaded
tractor-semi trailer can generate up to about 3 ESALs (depending upon pavement type,
structure and terminal serviceability).
2. Determining the LEF for each axle load combination on a particular roadway is possible through
the use of weigh-in-motion equipment. However, typically this type of detailed information is not
available for design. Therefore, many agencies average their LEFs over the whole state or over
different regions within the state. They then use a standard “truck factor” for design which is
simply the average number of ESALs per truck. Thus, an ESAL determination would involved
counting the number of trucks and multiplying by the truck factor.
 o This method allows for ESAL estimations without detailed traffic measurements, which
is often appropriate for low volume roads and frequently must be used for lack of a better
alternative for high volume roads.
o When using this method, there is no guarantee that the assumed truck factor is an
accurate representation of the trucks encountered on the particular roadway in question.

Estimating ESALs
A basic element in pavement design is estimating the ESALs a specific pavement will encounter
over its design life. This helps determine the pavement structural design (as well as
the HMA mix design in the case of Superpave). This is done by forecasting the traffic the
pavement will be subjected to over its design life then converting the traffic to a specific number
of ESALs based on its makeup. A typical ESAL estimate consists of:

1. Traffic count. A traffic count is used as a starting point for ESAL estimation. Most urban areas
have some amount of historical traffic count records. If not, simple traffic tube counts are
relatively inexpensive and quick. In some cases, designers may have to use extremely
approximate estimates if no count data can be obtained.
2. A count or estimate of the number of heavy vehicles. This usually requires some sort of
vehicle classification within the traffic count. The simplest classifications divide vehicles into two
categories: (1) heavy trucks and (2) others. Other, more elaborate schemes can also be used such
as the FHWA’s vehicle classification.
3. An estimated traffic (and heavy vehicle) growth rate over the design life of the pavement. A
growth rate estimate is required to convert a single year traffic count into the total traffic
experienced over the pavement design life. Typically, multiplying the original traffic count by the
pavement design life (in years) will grossly underestimate total ESALs. For example, Interstate 5
at mile post 176.35 (near Shoreline, Washington) has experienced a growth from about 200,000
ESALs per year in 1965 (original construction) to about 1,000,000 ESALs per year in 1994.
Thus, over a 30 year period, the ESALs per year have increased by a factor of five or an annual
growth rate of about six percent.
4. Select appropriate LEFs to convert truck traffic to ESALs. Different regions may experience
different types of loads. For instance, a particular area may experience a high number of trucks
but they may be mostly empty thus lowering their LEF. For instance, the statewide LEF for
Washington State is about 1.028 ESALs/truck. However, this may be drastically different from
local LEFs.
5. An ESAL estimate. An ESAL estimate can be made based on the preceding steps. Depending
upon circumstances these estimates may vary widely. Figure 1 shows an example of a pavement
that was built for an estimated ESAL loading but is experiencing a much higher loading due to a
marked increase in bus traffic.
Figure 1. Resulting damage from a marked Figure 2. Likely cause of increased ESALs:
increase in ESALs. increased bus traffic.

Flexible Pavement ESAL Equation

At first glance, this equation looks quite complex – it is.

Where: W equals axle applications inverse of equivalency factors (where W18 = number of
18,000 lb (80 kN) single axle loads)

Lx equals axle load being evaluated (kips)

 L18 equals 18 (standard axle load in kips)

L2 equals code for axle configuration

1 = single axle
2 = tandem axle
3 = triple axle (added in the 1986 AASHTO Guide)
x = axle load equivalency factor being evaluated
s = code for standard axle = 1 (single axle)

G equals

a function of the ratio of loss in serviceability at time, t, to

the potential loss taken at a point where pt = 1.5

Pt equals

"terminal" serviceability index (point at

which the pavement is considered to be at the end of its useful life)

b equals function which determines the relationship between serviceability and axle
load applications

SN equals structural number

Example Calculation for a Single Axle

 Assumptions: Single axle, 30,000 lb (133 kN), SN = 3, pt = 2.5

 Answer: (Table D.4, p. D-6, 1993 AASHTO Guide) = 7.9
 Calculations
where : W18 equals predicted number of 18,000 lb (80 kN) single axle load applications

W30 equals predicted number of 30,000 lb (133 kN) single axle load applications

Lx equals L30 = 30

L2x equals 1 (single axle)

G equals serviceability loss factor

equals

b30 equals curve slope factor

equals

and G/b30 equals -0.2009/4.388 = -0.04578

b18 equals

G/b18 equals -0.2009/1.2204 = -0.1646

Thus

and

Finally LEF equals

(same as contained in 1993 AASHTO Guide,

Appendix D)

Example Calculation for a Tandem Axle

 Assumptions: Tandem axle, 40,000 lb (133 kN), SN = 5, pt = 2.5

 Answer: (Table D.5, p. D-7, 1993 AASHTO Guide) = 2.08
 Calculations

where : L40 equals 40 (tandem axle)

L18 equals 18 (single axle)

L2x equals 2 (tandem axle)

L2s equals 1 (single axle)

G equals serviceability loss factor

 equals

b40 equals curve slope factor

equals

and G/b40 equals -0.2009/0.53824 = -0.37325

b18 equals

G/b18 equals -0.2009/0.50006 = -0.40175

Thus

Finally LEF equals

(same as contained in 1993 AASHTO Guide

nbsp;Appendix D)

Modulus of Subgrade Reaction

The modulus of subgrade reaction (k) is used as a primary input for rigid pavement design. It
estimates the support of the layers below a rigid pavement surface course (the PCC slab). The k-
value can be determined by field tests or by correlation with other tests. There is no direct
laboratory procedure for determining k-value.
The modulus of subgrade reaction came about because work done by Westergaard during the
1920s developed the k-value as a spring constant to model the support beneath the slab (Figure
1).

Figure 1. Modulus
of subgrade reaction (k).

The reactive pressure to resist a load is thus proportional to the spring deflection (which is a
representation of slab deflection) and k (Figure 2):

Figure 2. Relation of load,

deflection and modulus of subgrade reaction (k).
The value of k is in terms of MPa/m (pounds per square inch per inch of deflection, or pounds
per cubic inch – pci) and ranges from about 13.5 MPa/m (50 pci) for weak support, to over 270
MPa/m (1000 pci) for strong support. Typically, the modulus of subgrade reaction is estimated
from other strength/stiffness tests, however, in situ values can be measured using the plate
bearing test.

Stefan Formula
Some of the first studies of freeze/thaw depth were made by Josef Stefan in 1889, in connection
with ice formation and melting in the Polar oceans (Paynter, not date given). In this formula it is
assumed that the latent heat of soil moisture is the only heat that must be removed when freezing
the soil. Thus, thermal energy stored as volumetric heat and released as soil-temperatures drop to
and below freezing is not considered. Because volumetric heat is neglected, the Stefan Formula
tends to overestimate frost depth in temperate zones (Paynter, no date given). The latent heat
supplied by the soil moisture as it freezes a depth dx in time dt = rate at which heat is conducted
to the ground surface. This is illustrated in the sketch below:

Figure 1: Stefan
Formula Diagram

Heat removal process can be represented by

(heat released by freezing a layer of soil dx thick in time dt)

(heat conducted through frozen layer)

and Q1 = Q2 so

by integrating and solving for x,

is in units of °F • hr and is called surface freezing index. The freezing index is normally
expressed as °F • days. Thus, rewrite the equation and add an “n” factor which results in the
Stefan formula:

Studded Tire Information

Tire studs are small metal protrusions inserted into winter tires to improve tire-road friction in
snow or ice conditions. In addition to this friction improvement studded tires also have an
unwanted and detrimental side effect: increased pavement wear.

History
Studded tires have been around in one form or another since about 1890. Modern studded tires
first took off in popularity in the 1950s in Scandinavia where they were used to increase traction
on icy roads. Studded tires then took hold in the U.S. in the 1960s and enjoyed growing
popularity into the 1970s. The 1970s saw the first significant research efforts aimed at assessing
their safety and pavement wear effects. The late 1970s through the 1990s produced technical
improvements in studded tires as well as widespread governmental restrictions on their use in an
effort to limit pavement wear.

Description
The typical studded tire (see Figure 1) is a winter tire with between 60 and 120 inserted small
metal studs. These studs are usually made of tungsten carbide (an extremely hard metal), weigh
1.7 – 1.9 grams each and protrude about 1.2 – 1.5 mm from the tire surface. Studs are made by
embedding a small metal “jacket” into the tire then inserting a tungsten carbide pin into the
jacket (see Figure 2). This pin is tapered so that it will move back into the jacket when the
dynamic forces acting on it reach a certain critical level. If this subtle stud movement is properly
calibrated the result is a tire stud that maintains a near-constant protrusion length even as the rest
of the tire wears down. This type of stud is called a controlled protrusion (CP) stud.

Figure 1: Studded tire.

Figure 2: Tire stud schematic.

Problems with Studded Tires

Although studded tires increase traction on icy surfaces, in the early 1970s various studies
throughout the U.S. and internationally began to identify significant problems with studded tires:

 Studded tires may not offer any safety advantages in comparison to modern radial winter tires in
non-icy road conditions. In fact, studs may decrease tire-road friction in these situations. For
more information see:
Scheible, R. (October 2002). An Overview of Studded and Studless Tire Traction and
Safety. WSDOT Research Report WA-RD 551.1. Washington State Transportation
Center (TRAC), Washington State Department of Transportation.

 Studded tires have been shown to cause significant damage to both flexible and rigid
pavements. Specifically, they:
o Create ruts which fill with ice and water creating spray and hydroplaning.
o May polish some aggregates, which reduces skid resistance and creates a more slippery
driving surface.
o Remove pavement markings.

Figure 3. Studded tire damage on I-90 in Idaho. Figure 4. Studded tire damage on I-90 in Idaho.

Figure 5. Studded tire damage on I-80 in California Figure 6. Studded tire damage on I-80 in California
over Donner Pass. over Donner Pass.
Figure 7. Two cores taken from the same pavement.
The core on the left was taken from the wheelpath
and subjected to heavy studded tire wear. The core on
the right was not from the wheelpath and was thus
not subjected to much studded tire wear. The
difference in height between the two cores is due
almost entirely to studded tire wear.

Pavement Damage
Studded tires cause significant pavement damage. When they strike the pavement surface, each
small tungsten carbide pin causes a small amount of pavement material to dislodge from the
overall pavement structure. This pavement damage is influenced by the following five factors:

1. Stud protrusion length. The greater the protrusion, the greater the pavement wear.
2. Stud weight. The heavier the stud, the greater the pavement wear.
3. Number of studs per tire. The more studs per tire, the greater the pavement wear per tire.
4. Vehicle speed. The greater the speed the greater the pavement wear.
5. Type of pavement surface course. Open-graded HMA tends to wear more quickly than dense-
graded HMA or SMA. PCC pavement is also subject to studded tire wear (see Figures 5 and 6).

Many studies have been done to quantify studded tire pavement wear and they have given widely
varying results. Based on data summarized by Angerinos et al. (1999[1]), a rough rule-of-thumb
would be that studded tire wear causes about 0.1 inches of wheelpath wear per million studded
tire passes. This may not seem significant, however many major urban U.S. highways experience
a directional traffic volume in excess of 100,000 vehicles per day, of which anywhere from about
zero to 60 percent of the automobiles within this traffic are equipped with studded tires in the
U.S. In Finland, studded tire use is estimated at above 90 percent for automobiles.

Studded tire pavement damage has resulted in the following:

  Some countries (e.g., Japan, Germany, Holland, Belgium) and U.S. States (e.g., Minnesota,
Illinois, Maryland) have banned the use of studded tires.
 States that allow studded tire use usually only allow it during the winter season. Typically,
studded tires are allowed from the beginning of October or November through the end of March
or April.
 For those states that allow studded tire use, the estimated annual expenditures of extra road
maintenance resulting from pavement damage caused by studded tire use tend to be in excess of
$10 million.
 Open-graded wearing courses are highly susceptible to studded tire wear. Thus, many states that
allow studded tires do not use open-graded wearing courses.

In sum, studded tires do increase tire-pavement friction on icy roads but they also may reduce
tire-pavement friction on non-icy roads and they definitely do increase pavement wear. A typical
passenger car produces negligible pavement damage (typically < 0.0001 ESALs per car) and can
thus be ignored in pavement structural design. However, the same typical passenger car equipped
with studded tires becomes a significant pavement damage concern (in the form of studded tire
ruts) and must be accounted for through use restrictions, maintenance costs and mix design.

Footnotes (↵ returns to text)

1. A Synthesis on Studded Tires. Washington State Department of Transportation Research Report

WA-RD 471.1. Washington State Department of Transportation. Olympia, WA.↵

Temperature Variations
Extreme temperature variations can causes severe pavement damage due to expansion,
contraction and (in the case of rigid pavements) slab curling. Additionally, asphalt binder
rheology varies with temperature. Therefore, estimated temperature extremes and their effects
are a primary consideration. For flexible pavements, older asphalt binder grading systems did not
directly account for temperature effects and thus various empirical systems and thumb-rules were
developed. The Superpave PG binder grading system corrects this deficiency by
grading asphalt binder based on its performance in relation to temperature.

Expansion and Contraction

Pavements, like all other materials, will expand as they rise in temperature and contract as they
fall in temperature. Small amounts of expansion and contraction are typically accommodated
without excessive damage, however extreme temperature variations can lead to catastrophic
failures. Flexible and rigid pavements can suffer large transverse cracks as a result of excessive
contraction in cold weather. Rigid pavements are also prone to slab buckling as a result of
excessive expansion in hot weather (Figures 1 and 2).
 Figure 2. Thermal crack.
Figure
1. PCC pavement blowup.

Slab Curling (Rigid Pavements)

Differences in temperature between the top and bottom surfaces of a PCC slab will cause the slab
to curl. The weight of the slab and its contact with the subbase restrict its movement, thus,
stresses are created.

In 1935, measurements reported by Teller and Southerland of the Bureau of Public Roads
showed that the maximum temperature differential (hence, maximum warping) is much larger
during the day than during the night. Further, during the day, the upper surface of the slab is at a
higher temperature than the bottom resulting in tensile stresses at the bottom of the slab.

Temperature Variations
Extreme temperature variations can causes severe pavement damage due to expansion,
contraction and (in the case of rigid pavements) slab curling. Additionally, asphalt binder
rheology varies with temperature. Therefore, estimated temperature extremes and their effects
are a primary consideration. For flexible pavements, older asphalt binder grading systems did not
directly account for temperature effects and thus various empirical systems and thumb-rules were
developed. The Superpave PG binder grading system corrects this deficiency by
grading asphalt binder based on its performance in relation to temperature.

Expansion and Contraction

Pavements, like all other materials, will expand as they rise in temperature and contract as they
fall in temperature. Small amounts of expansion and contraction are typically accommodated
without excessive damage, however extreme temperature variations can lead to catastrophic
failures. Flexible and rigid pavements can suffer large transverse cracks as a result of excessive
contraction in cold weather. Rigid pavements are also prone to slab buckling as a result of
excessive expansion in hot weather (Figures 1 and 2).

Figure 2. Thermal crack.

Figure
1. PCC pavement blowup.

Slab Curling (Rigid Pavements)

Differences in temperature between the top and bottom surfaces of a PCC slab will cause the slab
to curl. The weight of the slab and its contact with the subbase restrict its movement, thus,
stresses are created.

In 1935, measurements reported by Teller and Southerland of the Bureau of Public Roads
showed that the maximum temperature differential (hence, maximum warping) is much larger
during the day than during the night. Further, during the day, the upper surface of the slab is at a
higher temperature than the bottom resulting in tensile stresses at the bottom of the slab.

Weigh-in-Motion
Weigh-in-motion (WIM) devices are designed to capture and record truck axle weights and gross
vehicle weights as they drive over a sensor. Unlike older static weigh stations, current WIM
systems do not require the subject trucks to stop making them much more efficient. Gross
vehicle and axle weight monitoring is useful in an array of applications including:

 Pavement design, monitoring, and research

 Bridge design, monitoring, and research
 Size and weight enforcement
  Legislation and regulation
 Administration and planning

Figure 1. Weight-
In-Motion Graphical Output Example

This example shows 2002 data from the WIM station on Interstate 5 north of Seattle, WA, near
185th Street. The data show gross vehicle weight for 5 axle semi tractor-trailer vehicles
(FHWA Class 9 vehicles). The two frequency peaks near 36,000 lbs and 80,000 lbs correspond
to empty and full trucks, respectively.

Strengths of WIM
1. Processing Rate. Trucks can be weighed as they as they travel at highway speeds, resulting in a
significantly greater number of counted vehicles in a short period of time compared to static
weight stations.
2. Safety. The minimization of static weighing will significantly decrease vehicle accumulation at
highway lanes leading to weight stations.
3. Continuous data processing. WIM can be performed continuously rather than static weighing,
which uses traffic streams samples. This can eliminate any inherent data bias in static weighing.
4. Increased coverage and lower cost. More sites may be monitored with WIM at the same cost.
5. Minimized scale avoidance. WIM can monitor truck traffic without alerting truck drivers. This
results in more truthful data as overweight trucks are less likely to avoid weighing stations.
6. Dynamic loading data. Unlike static weight stations, WIM can record dynamic axle load
information, which can be significantly greater than static load information.
Shortcomings of WIM
1. Less accurate. WIM systems are less accurate than static scales. According to the National
Bureau of Standards, wheel load scales are required to have an accuracy of ±1% when tested for
certification and must be maintained thereafter at ±2%. The best accuracy obtained with the most
expensive commonly used WIM devices is 6% of actual vehicle weights for 95% of measured
trucks.
2. Reduced information. Truck information that is easily collected at static weight stations such as
fuel type, state of registry, year model, loaded or unloaded status, origin, and destination cannot
be obtained with typical WIM systems.
3. Susceptibility to damage from electromagnetic transients. WIM systems are sensitive to
electromagnetic disturbances caused mostly by lightning strikes in the vicinity of the equipment.

Contemporary WIM Technology

The most widely accepted and utilized WIM devices in North America are:

 Piezoelectric Sensor. The most common WIM device. The sensor is embedded in the pavement
and produces a charge that is equivalent to the deformation induced by the tire loads on the
pavement’s surface. It is common to install two inductive loops and two piezoelectric sensors in
each monitored lane. A properly installed and calibrated Piezoelectric WIM system can provide
gross vehicle weights that are within 15% of the actual vehicle weight for 95% of the measured
trucks.
 Bending Plate. The bending scale consists of two steel platforms that are 0.6 x 2 m (2 ft. x 6 ft.),
adjacently placed to cover a 3.65 m (12 ft.) lane. The plates are instrumented with strain gages,
which measures tire load induced plate strains. The measured strains are then analyzed to
determine the tire load. A properly installed and calibrated bending plate WIM system can
provide gross vehicle weights that are within 10% of the actual vehicle weight for 95% of the
measured trucks.
 Single Load Cell. This device consists of two 3 x 3 m (6 ft. x 6 ft.) platforms placed adjacently
to cover the 3.65 m (12 ft.) monitored lane. A single hydraulic load cell is installed at the center
of each platform to measure the tire load induced forces that are then transformed into tire
loads. A properly installed and calibrated single load cell WIM system can provide gross vehicle
weights that are within 6% of the actual vehicle weight for 95% of the measured trucks.