A taxonomy of
graph types
ROBERT RANKIN
A classification of the graph types
used throughout many scientific
fields is presented in order to
show the range of possible meth­
ods of graphically representing
mathematical formulae and data.
The classification is presented in
such a way that inter-relationships
between the various graphic
forms is clearly demonstrated.
It is anticipated that such a taxon­
omy will assist in the graphic
presentation of information by
providing a designer or author
with a wide range of options.
Information Design Journal 6:2 (1990), 147–159. DOI 10.1075/idj.6.2.03ran
ISSN 0142–5471 / E-ISSN 1569–979X © John Benjamins Publishing Company
INTRODUCTION
Classifications have a long history in scientific
endeavours. Often simply serving to neatly
store myriad characteristics of the subject be-
ing studied, they may also be applied in a more
active role. A carefully designed classification
can serve to show not only the full range of
available possibilities but also the relation-
ships between these, and in so doing acts more
as an instrument rather than simply as a 'filing
cabinet'.
In the field of graphic communication, the
criteria used to sort illustrations are quite di-
verse and relationships between classifications
are difficult to find and often only tenuously
evident. Different researchers have used dif-
ferent criteria to organize pictures, and these
criteria not only arrange pictures into different
groups, but actually suggest different ways of
looking at the same pictures. Classifications
aim to be exhaustive by attempting to encom-
pass all possibilities, and in so doing serve as a
valuable resource for intending authors, as well
as a basis for further research into communica-
tion using visual materials.
For some time, classifications of graphic
forms have been proposed to serve a variety of
functions, with each case attempting to cate-
gorise the full known range of visual structures
under one all-encompassing criteria. Very
broadly speaking, these taxonomies have either
been functionally or structurally based.
FUNCTIONAL AND STRUCTURAL
CLASSIFICATIONS Author's address
Rankin Publishers
PO Box 406
Functional analyses of pictures in general tend Toowong
to focus on the intended use and purpose of the Queensland 4066 Australia
graphic material. Examples of classifications in © Robert Rankin 1990
this category include Fleming (1967),
MacDonald-Ross (1977a, 1977b), Duchastel
147
 ROBERT RANKIN ■ A TAXONOMY OF GRAPH TYPES

(1978), Duchastel and Waller (1979), Waller As well, it is important that the two dimen-
(1979), and Tufte (1983). By their very nature, sions of the matrix be independent.
these classifications tend to use very broad
categories, each including a range of pictorial
forms. Their categories bear no unique rela- THE PROPOSED CLASSIFICATION
tion to the physical structure of the picture.
In contrast, a classification by Knowlton (1966)
The proposed classification discussed here
tends to include both functional and structural
belongs to the structural class and utilizes the
criteria.
two dimensional approach previously men-
Pure structural analyses focus on the type
tioned. Its scope is more narrow than those
or form of picture irrespective of how it will
already discussed in that it attempts to focus
be used. Two such classifications have been
only on those graphic forms which utilize a
proposed: by Doblin (1979) and Twyman (1979,
co-ordinate space. That is, the dimensions of
1982). In both, a two dimensional matrix net-
the picture are explicitly stated and numeric-
work has been developed as a rigorous method
ally scaled. The simplest example is the well
for generating categories of structural form.
known rectilinear cartesian co-ordinate graph,
Both taxonomies attempt to cover all presenta-
utilizing orthogonal X and Y axes, on which
tion methods of information for the visual
data is plotted or a line drawn to show visually
channel, and thereby include verbal, numer-
some trend or relationship between the X and
ical and pictorial material. Differences occur
Y parameters. In all the taxonomies previously
because of the parameters chosen for each
discussed, this type of graph and its relatives
dimension of the matrix. Twyman has used
have received little attention. In the case of the
method of configuration (7 categories relating
structural analyses, this has been because the
to the physical arrangement of the visual ele-
dimensions chosen for the matrices have not
ments) and mode of symbolization (verbal,
allowed enough resolution in this category of
numerical, pictorial, schematic) to produce a
picture to fully explore the vast range graphs
matrix with 28 categories. Doblin has produced
available.
a matrix by assuming his parameters of infor-
mation content and form of presentation (ver- In many scientific, engineering, medical and
bal, numerical and visual) are independent. commercial fields of communication, it is this
graphical category which receives major use.
Generally speaking, if the dimensions of the
What is proposed here is a comprehensive
matrix and the divisions within each of these
scheme depicting the various forms of graph
dimensions are well chosen, the resulting com-
and their relationships to one another. As a
bination can produce a fairly exhaustive set of
source, it draws upon the range of graphical
possible graphic forms. Biasing can, unfortu-
forms listed in a scientific illustration survey
nately, manifest itself in two contrasting ways:
conducted by Rankin (1986). The classification
1. All categories are given the same weight becomes, as discussed earlier, not only a conve-
irrespective of whether or not visual forms nient taxonomy but also an instrument. Pro-
in a category actually exist. spective authors have the opportunity to use
2. Some categories may not have enough reso- it to choose the most appropriate method to
lution. Many diverse forms may be classified present their data. Used in conjunction with
into one element of the matrix when it may a designing model, such as that described by
well be useful to sub-divide it.

INF. DES. J. 6/2 (1990) 147-59

148
 ROBERT RANKIN ■ A TAXONOMY OF GRAPH TYPES
Rankin (1989), an author's task of producing
an effective document is greatly facilitated.
To clarify the terminology used in the fol-
lowing discussion, it will be necessary to
define three terms. 'Figure' refers to the large
arrays (of which there are four presented here -
Figures 1 to 4), 'illustration' refers to one divi-
sion within the matrix of the figure (In Figure
1, there are 16 illustrations), and 'prime ele-
ment' is a graphic element within one of these
illustrations. Mostly, a prime element will
mean one set of x, y, z axes, of which there may
be several making up an illustration. For exam-
ple, the top left hand illustration in Figure 1
has two prime elements. Explicitly, the prime
element is defined as the most fundamental
graphic form appearing in the illustration
which could stand alone and still be classed as
a co-ordinate graph.
The basis of the classification centres on the
two variables used to produce the arrays of
illustrations in the four figures. The vertical
axis of each of the four figures depicts the num-
ber of variables of the mathematical function
described in each illustration. In Figure 1, the
number of variables ranges from 5 in the top
row to 2 in the bottom row.
The horizontal axis of each figure generally
describes the number of dimensions represent-
ed in the prime element of each illustration.
Looking at the top row of Figure 1, the first
illustration has prime elements of three dimen-
sions (X, Y, Z), while the second illustration
has prime elements of only two dimensions (X,
Y).
Using this scheme, the most complex math-
ematical functions (those with the most vari-
ables) occupy the top row of each figure and the
least complex the bottom row. The illustra-
tions occupying each horizontal row describe
the same mathematical function by using a
slightly different illustrating method in each
division. Generally, progressing from left to
INF. DES. J. 6/2 (1990) 147-59
149
right, the number of dimensions used in the
prime element is reduced by one per column.
The system can best be explained with refer-
ence again to Figure 1. Here, mathematical
functions with up to five variables are dis-
played graphically. The number of variables
in the function is listed in the left-hand margin
of the figure. In mathematical terms, the math-
ematical functions for the top row can be gen-
erally written as
v = f(t,x,y,z),
meaning v is a function of t, x, y and z. That is,
the value of the dependent variable v depends
on the respective values of the independent
variables t, x, y and z. Continuing down
through the illustration, subsequent rows
illustrate the following simpler mathematical
functions:
t = f(x,y,z)
z = f(x,y)
y-f(x).
The basic trend, therefore, in each figure, is
for the same amount of information to be rep-
resented across the figure, while down the fig-
ure, the information is becoming less by one
variable per row.
Many of the illustrations generated by this
method are used frequently in published docu-
ments and have received common names
which are accepted throughout the scientific
community. These names are listed in their
appropriate position within the array. Other
illustrations or parts of them have no particu-
lar established names. The term cylinder-like
has been used to describe graphical surfaces
which are similar to this familiar shape but
may not necessarily be perfectly symmetrical.
For the sake of simplicity and clarity, where
these surfaces appear in the illustrations, they
have been drawn as perfect cylinders. The
same is true for the two-dimensional polar
graphs where the radial parameter has been
described using the special case of a perfect
 ROBERT RANKIN • A TAXONOMY OF GRAPH TYPES

circle rather than some more complex or gener-
alised curve.
D I S C U S S I O N OF THE FIGURES
Figure 1
As already mentioned, Figure 1 lists the scope
of rectilinear cartesian co-ordinate graphs,
showing how they relate to each other for
mathematical functions of various complexi-
ties, and how the same information may be dis-
played using illustrations of different forms.
Row 1
Taking the top row as an example, a five
vari-able function can be displayed graphically
by producing a linear array (along one variable,
T) of three-dimensional graphs (of three vari-
ables, X, Y and Z) each incorporating a set of
trend surfaces that describe the trends of the
fifth variable (V). Each individual trend surface
represents a single value of V.
A reader of such a graph would be able to ob-
serve changes in the dependent variable V with
changes in the other variables. After selecting
firstly, say, a value for T, then X, Y and finally
Z, a value for V can be read from the graph. A
practical example of this would be the mea-
surement of, say, pollution levels (V) at a cer-
tain position (X, Y) within a lake at a certain
depth (Z) for varying amounts (T) of a pollutant
being added from an outfall.
In practical terms, however, it is unlikely
that this complex graph would be used for ac-
curate data extraction. It is more likely to be
used qualitatively to show only rough trends
in the relationships between the variables. As
well, both the variables T and V are not contin-
uously represented. Only several discrete val-
ues of each are incorporated in the illustration,
each discrete value of T represented by each
prime element, and each discrete value of V
represented by each trend surface within a
prime element.
Moving one position to the right in the fig-
ure, the same information can be described
using prime elements of only two dimensions
(X, Y) by creating a two-dimensional space (Z,
T) of these elements. The fifth variable (V) is
described by a set of contour lines within each
prime element. With the mathematical func-
tion described in this form, data extraction is
straightforward and accurate. As a means for
displaying the qualitative trends, however, it
is much more limited than the previous case,
as the mathematical function now tends to
be too dissected.
In the third column, the prime element is
reduced to only two-dimensional single line
graphs (X, Y). To accommodate the same
amount of information as the preceding case,
the array must become three-dimensional (T,
Z, V). Being difficult to draw, and perhaps of
dubious use, this example is not displayed
here, but simply described verbally. It is antici-
pated that such a graphic would be of little use
both quantitatively or qualitatively. It could,
however, be envisaged being spread over sever-
al pages of a book, with the dimensions of each
page adopting the parameters T and Z and each
page representing a value of V. The thickness of
the book actually represents the V parameter.
Such an elaborate illustration would have uses
in organizing large amounts of inter-related
data. The final illustration of the row requires
the impossible situation of representing trend
surfaces of the variable Y in four-dimensional
space (T, Z, V, X).
Rows 2-4
Subsequent rows in the figure are derived in
a similar manner, albeit with mathematical
functions of diminishing complexity. An inter-
esting feature develops in the second row as

INF. DES. J. 6/2 (1990) 147-59

150
 ROBERT RANKIN ■ A TAXONOMY OF GRAPH TYPES

| NUMBER OF | 1
VARIABLES
GENERAL CASE 1-D REDUCTION 2-D REDUCTION 3-D REDUCTION Rectilinear
AND IN PRIME ELEMENT IN PRIME ELEMENT IN PRIME ELEMENT
FUNCTION Cartesian
coordinate
graphs

INF. DES. J. 6/2 (1990) 147-59

151
 ROBERT RANKIN • A TAXONOMY OF GRAPH TYPES

2
Polar NUMBER OF
coordinate VARIABLES GENERAL CASE GENERAL CASE 1-D REDUCTION
graphs AND
FUNCTION (2 CYCLIC VARIABLES) (1 CYCLIC VARIABLE) IN PRIME ELEMENT

INF. DES. J. 6/2 (1990) 146-59

152
 ROBERT RANKIN • A TAXONOMY OF GRAPH TYPES

the prime elements are reduced in dimensions.

2-D REDUCTION
IN PRIME ELEMENT
THREE-DIMENSIONAL ARRAY (T,Z,V)
OF POLAR GRAPHS (0,R)
3-D REDUCTION
IN PRIME ELEMENT
THE IMPOSSIBLE SITUATION
OF A 5-D TREND SURFACE GRAPH
In the final illustration, the prime element has
been reduced to a single point value in a three-
dimensional space, and hence has reverted to
the same trend surface graph form as in the
original illustration of the first column.
The bottom row of the figure is fairly sparse
but is included here to complete the picture. As
discussed previously, the fact that some cate-
gories in the overall matrix are poorly repre-
sented or even meaningless is an artifact of the
matrix system for generating categories.
Clearly, using this system it is possible to
generate illustrations which describe even
more variables than the maximum number of
five described here in the top row of the figure.
The top left-hand illustration uses only a linear
array of prime elements. It would be possible to
extend this to a three-dimensional array and
hence incorporate more variables, but for prac-
tical reasons such an illustration would be
difficult to construct and read.

Figure 2
The illustrations of Figure 2 are similar to
those of Figure 1 except that they describe
mathematical functions which incorporate
some cyclic variables. As examples, these
could include such parameters as compass
bearing (0 to 360 degrees), time of day or season
of the year. The distinguishing feature of these
variables is that their range of values is finite
(for example, 0 to 24 hours) and cyclic,
although it is possible for their values to con-
tinually increase if each completed cycle is
added to the next.
Because of this repetitive characteristic, it is
often desirable to plot data relating to this type
of parameter on a circular graph. These graphs
are said to utilize polar co-ordinates since the
values of the variables are measured with
respect to a central pole. The position of a point
on the graph is determined by the length of the
INF. DES. J. 6/2 (1990) 147-59

153
 ROBERT RANKIN ■ A TAXONOMY OF GRAPH TYPES
radius vector from the pole and the angle this
vector makes with a fixed line through the
pole.
Again, functions with a maximum of five
variables (up to two of which are cyclic) are
represented. It is possible to conceptualize the
display of functions with a greater number of
variables, but in practical terms these serve
little use. They are too complex to reproduce
on the flat page, hence of limited use in most
communication modes. An example of a five
variable function with two parameters cyclic
would be the measurement of the temperature
(V) at a certain depth (R) at a certain position
along a river (Z) at a certain time of day (0) at
a certain time of the year ( ) .
.Row 1
The top row displays five-variable functions in
which one or two variables are cyclic. In the
first illustration, the first cyclic variable (<>
| ) is
measured as the angle with the horizontal
made by the position on the circular array of
prime elements. Similarly, the second cyclic
variable (0) defines the angular position within
each prime element, while the variable R mea-
sures the distance out from the centre of the
prime element in the direction of (0). The vari-
able Z indicates the position along the Z-axis,
while the variable V is represented by concen-
tric cylinder-like trend surfaces. V, together
with the cyclic variable (), are not represented
continuously. Only discrete values are repre-
sented, one for each prime element in the case
of ( ) and one for each trend surface in the case
of V.
With the reduction of one cyclic variable,
the circular array (parameter ) of the first il-
lustration is reduced to a linear array (T param-
eter) in the second illustration. This does not
necessarily imply that the variable T cannot
be cyclic. In some circumstances it may be
desirable to present a cyclic variable in a linear
fashion.
INF. DES. J. 6/2 (1990) 147-59
154
The final three illustrations describe the sit-
uation for one cyclic variable where the dimen-
sions of the prime element are reduced by one,
two and three dimensions respectively. These
illustrations could describe the two cyclic vari-
able case if either T, V or Z was assumed to be
cyclic. However, this cyclic property would not
be visually evident as the cyclic variable would
be plotted along a linear axis. Quantitatively
little is lost in doing this, but qualitatively, it
could be anticipated the cyclic trends may be
more difficult to comprehend.
The third illustration is formed by simply
removing the Z variable from the prime ele-
ment and incorporating it as one of the major
illustration dimensions. The fourth illustra-
tion is derived in a similar way by removing
the V variable from the prime element and cre-
ating a three dimensional main illustration
composed of an array of two dimensional polar
graphs. This would be a complex and confusing
illustration and no attempt has been made to
represent it here. The final illustration requires
the impossible situation of representing trend
surfaces of the variable (0) in a four-dimension-
al space (T, Z, V, R).
Rows 2-4
Subsequent rows in Figure 2 are derived in a
similar manner to those of the first row with
mathematical functions of diminishing com-
plexity. An interesting situation develops in
the second row as the number of variables rep-
resented in the prime element are reduced to
one. Here the prime element collapses to a
point representing one value of the fourth
parameter in the three-dimensional space of
the illustration created by the remaining three
parameters. In actual fact, the illustration has
reverted to that shown in the second column
without the cyclic parameter being represented
as such.
 ROBERT RANKIN ■ A TAXONOMY OF GRAPH TYPES
Figure 3
The illustrations of the top three rows of Figure
3 relate directly to those of Figure 1 except that
it is assumed the data plotted is not a continu-
ous mathematical function but simply a num-
ber of data points.
Row 1
For presentation purposes, it makes sense to
describe a maximum of four variables in the
one illustration with a prime element of three
dimensions. This is shown in the first illustra-
tion of the top row. These conditions relate to
the first illustration of the second row of Figure
1, although in this earlier case, the variation
with the variable T is compressed onto a single
prime element by superimposing trend sur-
faces. In Figure 3, one trend surface is described
in each prime element, but since we are dealing
with discrete data, bars are drawn instead of
the surface. In actual fact, these bars are simply
the 'posts' which would hold up the trend sur-
face which could be draped over them, interpo-
lating the mathematical function in the spaces
between them.
The third column shows the result of reduc-
ing the prime element dimensions by one. An
array of two dimensional bar graphs results
which gives direct access to quantitative infor-
mation displayed in it.
The fourth column describes the data using
one dimension in each prime element that is
not spatially related. This dimension is simply
a list of values of the fourth variable laid out in
the space created by the two remaining dimen-
sions of the prime element. For the extraction
of actual data, this design is accurate, but quali-
tatively only poorly displays the trends in the
mathematical function.
Rows 2 and 3
Rows 2 and 3 show the illustration of functions
with less variables, namely 3 and 2 respectively.
INF. DES. J. 6/2 (1990) 147-59
155
.Rows 4 and 5
The lower section of Figure 3 (Rows 4 and 5)
describes similar quantitative information for
cases where the mathematical function
includes some cyclic variables. The treatment
is similar to Rows 3 and 4 in Figure 2.
Figure 4
The illustrations in Figure 4 are produced by
matrixing the number of variables and number
of independent variables of the mathematical
function (vertical dimension) with an assort-
ment of conditions (horizontal dimension).
The first and second columns incorporate illus-
trations using prime elements of three and two
dimensions respectively, while the third col-
umn lists special cases where some of the
parameters are constrained by special condi-
tions, namely a constant summation.
There is overlap between some illustrations
in Figures 1 and 4. This is desirable as it shows
where one system of classification deviates
from another due to differing horizontal
dimensions in each figure. A top row for cases
of four variables with three independent vari-
ables is not included as it is represented in
Figure 1 and presents nothing new here.
Row 1
The first row introduces two new types of
illustration. The transformation grid or two-
dimensional conversion scale converts two
independent variables into two others. The tri-
linear chart presents a method of representing
four parameters where three sum to a constant,
which is the case when dealing with, for exam-
ple, mixtures of three substances in varying
proportions. These proportions influence the
value of the fourth parameter which, if quanti-
tative, can be plotted as a trend surface on a
three-dimensional graph, or as contours on
(or more simply, as areas within) a two-
 ROBERT RANKIN ■ A TAXONOMY OF GRAPH TYPES

3
Cartesian and
polar graphs
for discrete
data

INF. DES. J. 6/2 (1990) 147-59

156
 ROBERT RANKIN ■ A TAXONOMY OF GRAPH TYPES

4
NUMBER OF
Graphs for VARIABLES
special cases AND 3-D GENERAL CASE 2-D GENERAL CASE 1,2 or 3-D SPECIAL CASE
and conditions FUNCTION

(INDEP=
independent
variable)

INF. DES. J. 6/2 (1990) 147-59

157
 ROBERT RANKIN ■ A TAXONOMY OF GRAPH TYPES
dimensional graph. This latter approach is
often used if the fourth parameter can only
be measured qualitatively.
Rows 2 and 3
The first illustrations of both the first and
second rows show the case where a trend sur-
face is reduced to a line when the indepen-
dence conditions become more restricted. In
the third row an alignment nomogram is repre-
sented. Not strictly a spatial presentation of
information, the nomogram is more a compu-
tational tool for calculating the values of inter-
related variables.
Rows 4 and 5
Finally, the third column of the last two rows
represent functions of three and two variables
with the special additive condition. In the
three parameter case, the trilinear chart has
collapsed to an inverted conversion scale repre-
senting one axis of a two dimensional line
graph displaying the third parameter. In the
two dimensional case, only the inverted con-
version scale remains.
CONCLUSIONS
The four figures bring together a wide range of
commonly used types of graph by using a rea-
sonably exhaustive matrix method. As such,
they maybe useful as a resource for intending
graph users. As well, they demonstrate the
inter-relationships among the graphic forms.
Generally, within one figure, the proximity of
one graphic form to another is a measure of
their similarity. Horizontally, across one row
within a figure, the matrices generally display
alternative methods for presenting the same
mathematical function. Vertically, the
columns display similar graphic forms for
INF. DES. J. 6/2 (1990) 147-59
158
mathematical functions of varying complexity
or number of parameters.
Some of the graphs displayed here are visu-
ally quite complex and may not necessarily
lend themselves to useful presentation or con-
struction on the printed page or static video
screen. However, with the availability of
sophisticated computer graphics, these com-
plex illustrations may be better utilized within
the computer environment.
The figures would be of great use during the
design stage of a scientific document. An
author, having data or a mathematical concept
to illustrate, can choose what he or she consid-
ers to be the most appropriate graphic form
from those available in the four figures. The
choice will depend on the intended use of the
illustration, be it for efficient access to data, to
describe a mathematical concept, or one of
many other graphical functions.
What the classification does not do, of
course, is provide guidelines for this choice,
especially from a communication viewpoint.
In the communication environment, there
needs to be a balance between the most appro-
priate illustration to accommodate the data,
and the most appropriate illustration to convey
the intended message to the anticipated audi-
ence. Decisions such as these lie in the domain
of the skilled communication practitioner who
is relying on experience, or guidance from com-
munication models for choosing the most suit-
able illustration.

REFERENCES
Doblin J (1979)
A structure for non-textual
communications. In Kolers P
Wrolstad M and Bourna H
(eds) Processing of visible
language Vol 2
New York: Plenum Press
Duchastel P C (1978)
Illustrating instructional
texts Educational Technology
November: 36-39
Duchastel P and Waller R
(1979)
Pictorial illustration in
instructional texts,
Educational Technology 19
(11): 20-25
Fleming M (1967)
Classification and analysis
of instructional illustration,
AV Communication Review
15 (3): 246-256
Knowlton J Q (1966)
On the definition of picture
AV Communication Review
14: 157-183
MacDonald-Ross M (1977a)
Graphics in text Review of
Research in Education
5: 49-85
MacDonald-Ross M (1977b)
How numbers are shown
AV Communication Review
25: 359-409
Rankin R (1986)
Communicating scientific
concepts through the use of
graphs and diagrams
Unpublished doctoral thesis,
Griffith University, Brisbane
ROBERT RANKIN • A TAXONOMY OF GRAPH TYPES
Rankin R (1989)
The development of an
illustration design model
Educational Technology
Research and Development
37 (2): 25-46
Tufte E R (1983)
The visual display of
quantitative information
Cheshire, Connecticut:
Graphics Press
Twyman M (1979)
A schema for the study of
graphic language. In Kolers
P Wrolstad M and Bourna H
(eds) Processing of visible
language Vol 1 New York:
Plenum Press
Twyman M (1982)
The graphic presentation of
language Information Design
Journal 3 (1): 2-22
Waller R (1979)
Four aspects of graphic
communication: an
introduction to the issue. In
Jonassen D (ed.) The
technology of text
New Jersey: Educational
Technology Publications
INF. DES. J. 6/2 (1990) 147-59
159